Q:What is inrush current?

A:Inrush current is the current drawn by a piece of electrically operated equipment when power is
first applied. It can occur with AC or DC powered equipment, and can happen even with low
supply voltages.

Q:In a Tap changing transformer where is the tap connected, is it connected in the primary side or
secondary side?
A:Tapings are connected to high voltage winding side, because of low current. If we connect
tapings to low voltage side, sparks will produce while tap changing operation due to high current.

Q:Why transformer ratings are in kva? 

A: Since the power factor of transformer is dependent on load we only define VA rating and does
not include power factor .In case of motors, power factor depend on construction and hence
rating of motors is in KWatts and include power factor.

Q: What is difference between fuse and breaker?

A: Fuses are burned at the time of over current flows in the circuit but breakers are just open(not
burn) at the time of over current flow. Fuses are used in only one time but breakers are used by
multiple number of times.
Q:What is the difference between delta­delta, delta­star transformer?
A:Delta­delta transformer is used at generating station or a receiving station for Change of
Voltage (i,e) generally it is used where the Voltage is high & Current is low.Delta­star is a
distribution kind of transformer where from secondary star neutral is taken as a return path and
this configuration is used for Step down voltage phenomena.

Q: Capacitor is load free component but why ampere meter shows current when capacitor bank
breaker close?
A: As we know that Electrical is having two type of load, Active and Reactive .Capacitor is a
reactive load which is not considering as a load,& its factor is Isin@ .Meter is design based on
Current RMS value because of it meter is showing the current RMS value.

Q:How to determine alternating current frequency?

A:Zero crossings of the sine wave to trigger a monostable (pulse generator) is a way to determine
alternating current frequency. A fixed width pulse is generated for each cycle. Thus there are "n"
pulses per second, each with with a constant energy. The more pulses there are per second, the
more the energy. The pulses are integrated (filtered or averaged) to get a steady DC voltage which
is proportional to frequency. This voltage can then be displayed on an analogue or digital
voltmeter, indicating frequency. This method is more suitable than a direct counter, as it can get
good accuracy in a second or so.
 
Q:Why electricity in India is in the multiples of 11 like 11kv, 22kv, 33kv  ?
A:Transformer Induced voltage equation contains 4.44 factor.
E=4.44*f*T*phi 
E ­Induced emf per phase 
T ­number of turns 
f ­frequency 
 ­maximum flux per pole 

From the equation we see that E is proportional to 4.4 and

it is in turn multiple of 11.So always transmission voltage is multiple of 11 

Q: Why we use ac system in India why not dc ? 

A:Firstly, the output of power stations comes from a rotary turbine, which by it's nature is AC and
therefore requires no power electronics to convert to DC. Secondly it is much easier to change the
voltage of AC electricity for transmission and distribution. thirdly the cost of plant associated with
AC transmission (circuit breakers, transformers etc) is much lower than the equivilant of DC
transmission AC transmission provides a number of technical advantages. When a fault on the
network occurs, a large fault current  occurs. In an AC system this becomes much easier to
interupt, as the sine wave current will naturally tend to zero at some point making the current
easier to interrupt.

Q: Which type of motor is used in trains, what is the rating of supply used explain Working
principal?
A: Dc series is in the trains to get high starting torque while starting of the trains and operating
voltage is 1500v dc.

Q: Battery banks are in connected in series or parallel and why?

A: Battery banks are always connected in series in order to get a multiplied voltage where the
AHor current capacity remaining same. Ex : 24 nos. 2V,200Ah batteries connected in series will
give 48V,200Ah output (AH = Ampere hours)

Query: Difference between megger test equipment and contact resistance meter test instruments?
Resolution: Megger test equipment used to measure cable electric resistance, conductor continuity, phase
identification where as contact resistance meter test instruments used to measure low resistance like relays
,contactors.

Query: When we connect the large capacitor bank in series ?

Resolution :we connect large capacitor bank in series to improve the voltage power supply at the load end
in balanced transmission line when there is considerable voltage drop along the balanced transmission line
due to high impedance of the line.So in order to bring the voltage at the load terminals within its limits (i.e (+
or ­ %6 )of the rated high terminal voltage ) large capacitor bank is used in series.

Query: What is electrical diversity factor in electrical installations?

Resolution :Electrical diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the
various subdivisions of a system, or part of a system, to the maximum demand of the whole system, or part
of the system, under consideration. Electrical diversity factor is usually more than one.

Query: Why field rheostat is kept in minimum position while armature rheostat at maximum position?
Resolution : In motors at the time of starting the armature resistance is introduced to reduce the high
starting current and the field resistance is kept minimum to have high starting
torque.

Query: Why computer humming sound occurred in HT transmission line?

Resolution : This computer humming sound is coming due to ionization (breakdown of air into charged
particles) of air around transmission conductor. This effect is called as Corona effect, and it is considered
as power loss.

Query: What is rated speed?

Resolution :At the time of motor taking normal current (rated current)the speed of the motor is called rated
speed. It is a speed at which any system take small current and give maximum efficiency.

Query: What is different between resistance grounding system and resistance earthing system?
Resolution :Resistance grounding system means connecting the neutral point of the load to the ground to
carry the residual current in case of unbalanced conditions through the neutral to the ground whereas
resistance earthing system is done in an electric equipment in order to protect he equipment in occurrence
of fault in the system.

Query: Why should be the frequency 50 Hz 60Hz only why not others like 45, 95 56 or anything , why
should we maintain the frequency constant if so why it is only 50 Hz 60Hz?
Resolution :We can have the frequency at any frequency you like, but than you must also make your own
motors,high voltage transformers or any other equipment you want to use. We maintain the frequency at
50hz or 60hz because the world maintains a standard at 50 /60hz and the equipments are are made to
operate at these frequency.

Query: Use of switch mode power converter in real­time basis?

Resolution: Switch mode power converter can be used in the following 5 different ways
1) step down an unregulated dc input voltage to produce a regulated dc output voltage using a
circuit known as Buck Converter or Step­Down SMPS,
2)step up an unregulated dc input voltage to produce a regulated dc output voltage using a circuit
known as Boost Converter or Step­Up SMPS,
3)step up or step down an unregulated dc input voltage to produce a regulated dc output voltage,
4)invert the input dc voltage using usually a circuit such as the Cuk converter, and
5)produce multiple dc outputs using a circuit such as the fly­back converter.

Query: Which type of oil is used as a transformer oil?

Resolution: Transformer oil, or insulating oil, is usually a highly­refined mineral oil that is stable at
high temperatures and has excellent electrical insulating properties. It is used in oil filled
transformers, some types of high voltage capacitors, fluorescent lamp ballasts, and some types of
high voltage switches and circuit breakers. Its functions are to insulate, suppress corona and
arcing, and to serve as a coolant.

Well into the 1970s, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBS)s were often used as a dielectric fluid since
they are not flammable. They are toxic, and under incomplete combustion, can form highly toxic
products such as furan. Starting in the early 1970s, concerns about the toxicity of PCBs have led
to their banning in many countries. Today, non­toxic, stable silicon­based or fluoridated
hydrocarbons are used, where the added expense of a fire­resistant liquid offsets additional
building cost for a transformer vault. Combustion­resistant vegetable oil­based dielectric coolants
and synthetic pentaerythritol tetra fatty acid (C7, C8) esters are also becoming increasingly
common as alternatives to naphthenic mineral oil. Esters are non­toxic to aquatic life, readily
biodegradable, and have a lower volatility and higher flash points than mineral oil.
Query: If we give 2334 A, 540V on Primary side of 1.125 MVA step up transformer, then what will
be the Secondary Current, If Secondary Voltage=11 KV?
Resolution: As we know the Voltage & current relation for transformer­V1/V2 = I2/I1
We Know, VI= 540 V; V2=11KV or 11000 V; I1= 2334 Amps.
By putting these value on Relation­
540/11000= I2/2334
So,I2 = 114.5 Amps
Query: what are the points to be consider for MCB(miniature circuit breaker selection?
Resolution: I(L)*1.25=I(MAX) maximum current. Mcb specification are done on maximum current
flow in circuit.

Query: what is the full form of KVAR? 

Resolution: We know there are three types of power in Electrical as Active, apparent & reactive. So
KVAR is stand for ``Kilo Volt Amps with Reactive component.

Query: What is excitation?

Resolution: Excitation is applying an external voltage to DC shunt coil
in DC motors.

Query: In three pin plug 6 Amp. 220v AC rating. why earth pin diameter is higher than other two
pin? what its purpose ? 
Resolution: Because Current flow in the conductor is inversely proportional to the conductor
diameter. So if any short circuits occur in the system first high currents bypassed in the Earthling
terminal.( R=Pl/a area of the conductor increases resistance
value decreases) 

Query: What is the function of interposing current transformer? 

Resolution: The main function of an interposing current transformer is to balance the currents
supplied to the relay where there would otherwise be an imbalance due to the ratios of the main
current transformers.  Interposing current transformer are equipped with a wide range of taps that
can be selected by the user to achieve the balance required.

Query:What are Motor Generator Sets and explain the different ways the motor generator set
can be used ? 
Resolution:Motor Generator Sets are a combination of an electrical generator and an engine
mounted together to form a single piece of equipment. Motor generator set is also referred to as a
genset, or more commonly, a generatorThe motor generator set can used in the following different
ways: 
1.Alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC)
2.DC to AC
3.DC at one voltage to DC at another voltage
4.AC at one frequency to AC at another harmonically­related frequency

Query:What is power quality meter ?

Resolution:Power Quality meters are common in many industrial environment. Small units are now
available for home use as well. They give operators the ability to monitor the both perturbations on
the power supply, as well as power used within a building, or by a single machine or appliance. In
some situations, equipment function and operation is monitored and controlled from a remote
location where communication is via modem, or high­speed communication lines.So we can
understand the importance of power measurement through power quality meters.

Query:What is the different between digital phase coverter and ordinary phase converter?
Resolution:Digital phase converter are a recent development in phase converter technology that
utilizes proprietary software in a powerful microprocessor to control solid state power switching
components. This microprocessor, called a digital signal processor (DSP), monitors the phase
conversion process, continually adjusting the input and output modules of the converter to
maintain perfectly balanced three­phase power under all load conditions.

Query: Explain the operation of variable frequency transformer?

Resolution: A variable frequency transformer is used to transmit electricity between two
asynchronous alternating current domains. A variable frequency transformer is a doubly­fed
electric machine resembling a vertical shaft hydroelectric generator with a three­phase wound
rotor, connected by slip rings to one external ac power circuit. A direct­current torque motor is
mounted on the same shaft. Changing the direction of torque applied to the shaft changes the
direction of power flow; with no applied torque, the shaft rotates due to the difference in frequency
between the networks connected to the rotor and stator.The variable frequency transformer
behaves as a continuously adjustable phase­shifting transformer. It allows control of the power
flow between two networks .

Query: What is the main use of rotary phase converter ?

Resolution: Rotary phase converter will be converting single phase power into true balanced 3
phase power,so it is often called as single phase to three phase converter .Often the advantages
of 3 phase motors, and other 3 phase equipment, make it worthwhile to convert single phase to 3
phase so that small and large consumers need not want to pay for the extra cost of a 3 phase
service but may still wish to use 3 phase equipment.
Query: How to determine capacitor tolerance codes?
Resolution: In electronic circuits, the capacitor tolerance can be determined by a code that
appears on the casing. The code is a letter that often follows a three­digit number (such as
130Z).The first two are the 1st and 2nd significant digits and the third is a multiplier code. Most of
the time the last digit tells you how many zeros to write after the first two digits and these are read
as Pico­Farads.

Query: Why most of analog o/p devices having o/p range 4 to 20 mA and not 0 to 20 mA?
Resolution: 4­20 mA is a standard range used to indicate measured values for any process. The
reason that 4ma is chosen instead of 0 mA is for fail safe operation .For example­ a pressure
instrument gives output 4mA to indicate 0 psi, up to 20 mA to indicate 100 psi, or full scale. Due to
any problem in instrument (i.e) broken wire
, its output reduces to 0 mA. So if range is 0­20 mA then we can differentiate whether it is due to
broken wire or due to 0 psi.

Query: Two bulbs of 100w and 40w respectively connected in series across a 230v supply which
bulb will glow bright and why?
Resolution: Since two bulbs are in series they will get equal amount of  electrical current but as the
supply voltage is constant across the bulb(P=V^2/R).So the resistance of 40W bulb is greater and
voltage across 40W is more (V=IR) so 40W bulb will glow brighter.

Query: What is meant by knee point voltage?

Resolution: Knee point voltage is calculated for electrical Current transformers and is very
important factor to choose a CT. It is the voltage at which a CT gets saturated.(CT­current
transformer).

 Query: What is reverse power relay?

Resolution: Reverse Power flow relay are used in generating stations's protection. A generating
stations is supposed to fed power to the grid and in case generating units are off, there is no
generation in the plant then plant may take power from grid. To stop the flow of power from grid to
generator we use reverse power relay.

Query: What will happen if DC supply is given on the primary of a transformer?

Resolution: Mainly transformer has high inductance and low resistance. In case of DC supply there
is no inductance , only resistance will act in the electrical circuit. So high  electrical current will flow
through primary side of the transformer. So for this reason coil and insulation will burn out.

Query: What is the difference between isolators and  electrical circuit breakers? What is bus­bar?
Resolution: Isolators are mainly for switching purpose under normal conditions but they cannot
operate in fault conditions .Actually they used for isolating the CBs for maintenance. Whereas CB
gets activated under fault conditions according to the fault detected.Bus bar is nothing but a
junction where the power is getting distributed for independent loads.

Query: What are the advantage of free wheeling diode in a Full Wave rectifier?
Resolution: It reduces the harmonics and it also reduces sparking and arching across the
mechanical switch so that it reduces the voltage spike seen in a inductive load

Q: How do you select a cable size (Cu & Al) for a particular load?
A:At first calculate the electrical current of the load, after that derate the electrical current
considering derating factor(depending on site condition and laying of cable) after choose the cable
size from cable catalog considering derating electrical current. After that measure the length of
cable required from supply point of load to load point. Calculate the voltage drop which will max
3% (resistance and reactance of cable found from cable catalog of selecting cable) if voltage
drop>3%
then choose next higher size of cable.

Q: What are HRC fuses and where it is used?

A: HRC stand for "high rupturing capacity" fuse and it is used in distribution system for electrical
transformers.

Q: Which power plant has high load factor?

A: All base load power plants have a high load factor. If we use high efficiency power plants to
supply the base load, we can reduce the cost of generation. Hydel power plants have a higher
efficiency than thermal & nuclear power plants.

Q: Mention the methods for starting an induction motor?

A: The different methods of starting an induction motor
DOL: direct online starter Star delta starter
Auto transformer starter
Resistance starter
Series reactor starter

Q: What is the difference between earth resistance and earth electrode resistance?
A: Only one of the terminals is evident in the earth resistance. In order to find the second terminal
we should recourse to its definition: Earth Resistance is the resistance existing between the
electrically accessible part of a buried electrode and another point of the earth, which is far away.
The resistance of the electrode has the following components: the resistance of the metal and that
of the connection to it.
(B) the contact resistance of the surrounding earth to the electrode.

Q: What is use of lockout relay in ht voltage?

A: A lock­out relay is generally placed in line before or after the e­stop switch so the power can be
shut off at one central location. This relay is powered by the same electrical source as the control
power and is operated by a key lock switch. The relay itself may have up to 24 contact points
within the unit itself. This allows the control power for multiple machines to be locked out by the
turn of a single key switch.

Q: What is the power factor of an alternator at no load?

A: At no load Synchronous Impedance of the alternator is responsible for creating angle difference.
So it should be zero lagging like inductor

Q: How electrical power is generated by an A.C Generator? 

A: For the generation of elect power we need a prime mover which supplies mechanical power
input to the alternator, can be steam turbines, or hydro turbines .When poles of the rotor moves
under the armature conductors which are placed on the stator ,field flux cut the armature
conductor ,therefore voltage is generated and is of sinusoidal in nature...due to polarity change of
rotor poles(i,e) N­S­N­S.

Q: Why an ac solenoid valve attract the plunger even though we interchanges the terminal? Will
the poles changes?
A: Yes because the poles changes for every half­cycle of ac voltage so the polarity of AC voltage
is continuously changing for every half cycle. so, interchanging of terminals in ac system does not
show any difference. That's why the ac solenoid attract the plunger even though it's terminals are
interchanged. 

Q: What is derating?, why it is necessary, it is same for all means for drives, motors,and cables. 
A: The current currying of cables will change depending upon the site temperature (location of site),
type of run (it will run through duct, trench, buried etc.), number of tray, depth of trench, distance
between cables. Considering this condition actual current currying capacity of cable reduce than
current currying capacity (which given to cable Catalogue) this is called derating.

Q: Why temperature rise is conducted in bus bars and isolators? 

A: Bus bars and isolators are rated for continuous power flow, that means they carry heavy
currents which rises their temperature. so it is necessary to test this devices for temperature rise.

Q: When voltage increases then current also increases then what is the need of over voltage relay
and over current relay? Can we measure over voltage and over current by measuring current only?
A: No. We can't sense the over voltage by just measuring the current only because the current
increases not only for over voltages but also for under voltage (As most of the loads are non­linear
in nature). So, the over voltage protection & over current protection are completely different. Over
voltage relay meant for sensing over voltages & protect the system from insulation break down and
firing. Over current relay meant for sensing any internal short circuit, over load condition , earth
fault thereby reducing the system failure & risk of fire. So, for a better protection of the system. It
should have both over voltage & over current relay.

Q: If one lamp connects between two phases it will glow or not?

A: If the voltage between the two phase is equal to the lamp voltage then the lamp will glow. When
the voltage difference is big it will damage the lamp and when the difference is smaller the lamp
will glow depending on the type of lamp.

Query: What is the count of hvdc transmission lines in India?

Resolution: At present there are three hvdc transmission lines in india
1)chandrapur to padghe(mumbai)­­(1500 MW at ±500 kV DC)
2)rehand to delhi (1500 MW at ±500 kV DC)
3)talchal to kolar (2500 MW)

Query: What is meant by regenerative braking?

Resolution: When the supply is cutt off for a running motor, it still continue running due to inertia.
In order to stop it quickly we place a load (resitor) across the armature winding and the motor
should have maintained continuous field supply. so that back e.m.f voltage is made to apply
across the resistor and due to load the motor stops quickly. This type of breaking is called as
"Regenerative Breaking".

Query: Why is the starting current high in a DC motor?

Resolution: In DC motors, Voltage equation is V=Eb­IaRa (V = Terminal voltage,Eb = Back emf in
Motor,Ia = Armature current,Ra =Aramture resistance).At starting, Eb is zero. Therefore, V=IaRa, Ia
= V/Ra ,where Ra is very less like 0.01ohm.i.e, Ia will become enormously increased.

Query: What are the advantages of star­delta starter with induction motor?
Resolution: (1). The main advantage of using the star delta starter is reduction of current during the
starting of the motor.Starting current is reduced to 3­4 times Of current of Direct online starting.(2).
Hence the starting current is reduced , the voltage drops during the starting of motor in systems
are reduced.
Query: Why Delta Star Transformers are used for LightingLoads?
Resolution: For lighting loads, neutral conductor is must and hence the secondary must be star
winding. and this lighting load is always unbalanced in all three phases. To minimize the current
unbalance in the primary we use delta winding in the primary. So delta / star transformer is used
for lighting loads.

Query: Why in a three pin plug the earth pin is thicker and longer than the other pins?
Resolution: It depends upon R=rho l/a where area(a) is inversely proportional to resistance (R), so
if (a) increases, R decreases & if R is less the leakage current will take low resistance path so the
earth pin should be thicker. It is longer because the The First to make the connection and Last to
disconnnect should be earth Pin. This assures Safety for the person who uses the electrical
instrument.

Query: Why series motor cannot be started on no­load?

Resolution: Series motor cannot be started without load because of high starting torque. Series
motor are used in Trains, Crane etc.

Query:Why ELCB can't work if N input of ELCB do not connect to ground?

Resolution:ELCB is used to detect earth leakage fault. Once the phase and neutral are connected
in an ELCB, the current will flow through phase and that much current will have to return neutral so
resultant current is zero. Once there is a ground fault in the load side, current from phase will
directly pass through earth and it will not return through neutral through ELCB. That means once
side current is going and not returning and hence because of this difference in current ELCB wil
trip and it will safe guard the other circuits from faulty loads. If the neutral is not grounded, fault
current will definitely high and that full fault current will come back through ELCB, and there will be
no difference in current.

Q: Why we do 2 types of earthing on transformer (ie:) body earthing & neutral earthing , what is
function. i am going to install a 5oo kva transformer & 380 kva DG set what should the earthing
value?
A:The two types of earthing are Familiar as Equipment earthing and system earthing. In Equipment
earthing: body ( non conducting part)of the equipment should be earthed to safeguard the human
beings. system Earthing : In this neutral of the supply source ( Transformer or Generator) should be
grounded. With this, in case of unbalanced loading neutral will not be shifted. so that unbalanced
voltages will not arise. We can protect the equipment also. With size of the equipment
( transformer or alternator) and selection of relying system earthing will be further classified into
directly earthed, Impedance earthing, resistive (NGRs) earthing.

Q: What is the difference between MCB & MCCB, Where it can be used?
A: MCB is miniature circuit breaker which is thermal operated and use for short circuit protection
in small current rating circuit. MCCB moulded case circuit breaker and is thermal operated for over
load current and magnetic operation for instant trip in short circuit condition.under voltage and
under frequency may be inbuilt. Normally it is used where normal current is more than 100A.
Q: Where should the lighting arrestor be placed in distribution lines?
A:Near distribution transformers and out going feeders of 11kv and incomming feeder of 33kv and
near power transformers in sub­stations.
Q: Define IDMT relay?
A: It is an inverse definite minimum time relay. In IDMT relay its operating is inversely proportional
and also a characteristic of minimum time after which this relay operates. It is inverse in the sense
,the tripping time will decrease as the magnitude of fault current increase.

Q: What are the transformer losses?

A: TRANSFORMER LOSSES ­ Transformer losses have two sources­copper loss and magnetic
loss. Copper losses are caused by the resistance of the wire (I2R). Magnetic losses are caused by
eddy currents and hysteresis in the core. Copper loss is a constant after the coil has been wound
and therefore a measurable loss. Hysteresis loss is constant for a particular voltage and current.
Eddy­current loss, however, is different for each frequency passed through the transformer.

Q: What is the difference between Isolator and Circuit Breaker?

A: Isolator is a off load device which is used for isolating the downstream circuits from upstream
circuits for the reason of any maintenance on downstream circuits. it is manually operated and
does not contain any solenoid unlike circuit breaker. it should not be operated while it is having
load. first the load on it must be made zero and then it can safely operated. its specification only
rated current is given.But circuit breaker is onload automatic device used for breaking the circuit in
case of abnormal conditions like short circuit, overload etc., it is having three specification 1 is
rated current and 2 is short circuit breaking capacity and 3 is instantaneous tripping current.

Q: what is boucholz relay and the significance of it in to the transformer?

A: Boucholz relay is a device which is used for the protection of transformer from its internal faults,
it is a gas based relay. whenever any internal fault occurs in a transformer, the boucholz relay at
once gives a horn for some time, if the transformer is isolated from the circuit then it stop its sound
itself other wise it trips the circuit by its

:What is SF6 Circuit Breaker?

A:SF6 is Sulpher hexa Flouride gas.. if this gas is used as arc quenching medium in a
Circuitbreaker means SF6 CB.

Q:what is ferrantic effect?

A:Output voltage is greater than the input voltage or receiving end voltage is greater than the
sending end voltage.

Q: what is meant by insulation voltage in cables? explain it?

A:It is the property of a cable by virtue of it can withstand the applied voltage without rupturing it is
known as insulation level of the cable.

Q:How to calculate capacitor bank value to maintain unity power factor with some suitable
example?
A:KVAR= KW(TAN(COS(­1)#e)­ TAN(COS(­1)#d) #e= EXISTING P.F.#d= DESIRED P.F.

Q: Tell me in detail about c.t. and p.t. ?

A: The term C.T means current transformer,and the term P.T means potential transformer.In circuit
where measurements of high voltage and high current is involved they are used there.Particularly
when a measuring device like voltmeter or ammeter is not able to measure such high value of
quantity because of large value of torque due to such high value it can damage the measuring
device.so, CT and PT are introduced in the circuits. They work on the same principle of
transformer, which is based on linkage of electromagnetic flux produced by primary with
secondary. They work on the ratio to they are designed. E.g if CTis of ratio 5000\5A and it has to
measure secondary current of 8000A.then ANS=8000*5\5000=8A and this result will be given to
ammeter .and after measuring 8A we can calculate the primary current.same is the operation of PT
but measuring voltage.

Q:There are a Transformer and an induction machine. Those two have the same supply. For which
device the load current will be maximum? And why?
A:The motor has max load current compare to that of transformer because the motor consumes
real power.. and the transformer is only producing the working flux and its not consuming.. hence
the load current in the transformer is because of core loss so it is minimum.

Q:what is power factor? whether it should be high or low? Why

A:Power factor should be high in order to get smooth operation of the system.Low power factor
means losses will be more.it is the ratio of true power to apperent power. it has to be ideally 1. if it
is too low then cable over heating & equipment overloading will occur. if it is greater han 1 then
load will act as capacitor and starts feeding the source and will cause tripping.(if pf is poor ex: 0.17
to meet actual power load has to draw more current(V constant),result in more lossesif pf is good
ex: 0.95 to meet actual power load has to draw less current(V constant),result in less losses).

Q:What happens if i connect a capacitor to a generator load?

A:Connecting a capacitor across a generator always improves powerfactor, but it will help
depends up on the engine capacity of the alternator, other wise the alternator will be over loaded
due to the extra watts consumed due to the improvement on pf. Secondly, don't connect a
capacitor across an alternator while it is picking up or without any other load.

Q:Why the capacitors works on ac only?

A:Generally capacitor gives infinite resistance to dc components (i.e., block the dc components). it
allows the ac components to pass through.

Q:Explain the working principal of the circuit breaker?

A:Circuit Breaker is one which makes or breaks the circuit.It has two contacts namely fixed
contact & moving contact.under normal condition the moving contact comes in contact with fixed
contact thereby forming the closed contact for the flow of current. During abnormal & faulty
conditions(when current exceeds the rated value) an arc is produced between the fixed & moving
contacts & thereby it forms the open circuitArc is extinguished by the Arc Quenching media like air,
oil, vaccum etc.

:How many types of colling system it transformers?

A:1. ONAN (oil natural,air natural)
2. ONAF (oil natural,air forced)
3. OFAF (oil forced,air forced)
 4.ODWF (oil direct,water forced)
5. OFAN (oil forced,air forced)

Q:What is the function of anti­pumping in circuit breaker?

A:when breaker is close at one time by close push button,the anti pumping contactor prevent re
close the breaker by close push button after if it already close.

Q:what is stepper motor. what is its uses?

A:Stepper motor is the electrical machine which act upon input pulse applied to it. it is one type of
synchronous motor which runs in steps in either direction instead of running in complete cycle.so,
in automation parts it is used.

Q: What is Automatic Voltage regulator(AVR)?

A: AVR is an abbreviation for Automatic Voltage Regulator. It is important part in Synchronous
Generators, it controls the output voltage of the generator by controlling its excitation current.
Thus it can control the output Reactive Power of the Generator.

Q:What is an exciter and how does it work?

A:There are two types of exciters, static exciter and rotory exciter. purpose of excitor is to supply
the excitation dc voltage to the fixed poles of generator.Rotory excitor is an additional small
generator mounted on the shaft of main generator. if it is dc generator, it will supply dc to the
rotory poles through slip ring and brushes( conventional alternator). if it is an ac excitor, out put of
ac excitor is rectified by rotating diodes and supply dc to main fixed poles.ac excitor is the ac
generator whose field winding are stationary and armature rotates. initial voltage is built up by
residual magnetism.It gives the starting torque to the generator.

 : Difference between a four point starter and three point starter?

A:The shunt connection in four point stater is provided separately form the line where as in three
point stater it is connected with line which is the drawback in three point stater

Q:Why use the VCB at High Transmission System ? Why can't use ACB?
A:Actually the thing is vacuum has high arc queching property compare to air because in VCB ,the
die electric strengths equal to 8 times of air . That y always vaccum used as inHT breaker and air
used as in LT .

Q:What is the difference between surge arrestor and lightning arrestor?

A:LA is installed outside and the effect of lightning is grounded, where as surge arrestor installed
inside panels comprising of resistors which consumes the energy and nullify the effect of surge.

Q:Why syn. generators r used for the production of electricity?

A: synchronous machines have capability to work on different power factor(or say different
imaginary power varying the field emf. Hence syn. generators r used for the production of
electricity.

Q: What is the difference between synchronous generator & asynchronous generator?

A:In simple, synchronous generator supply's both active and reactive power but asynchronous
generator (induction generator) supply's only active power and observe reactive power for
magnetizing. This type of generators are used in windmills.

Q:1 ton is equal to how many watts?

A:1 ton = 12000 BTU/hr and to convert BTU/hr to horsepower,12,000 * 0.0003929 = 4.715 hp
therefore 1 ton = 4.715*.746 = 3.5 KW.

Q: why syn. generators r used for the production of electricity?

A:synchronous machines have capability to work on different power factor (or say different
imaginary power varying the field emf. Hence syn. generators r used for the production of
electricity.

Q: Enlist types of dc generator?

A: D.C.Generators are classified into two types 1)separatly exicted d.c.generator 2)self exicted
d.c.generator, which is further classified into;1)series 2)shunt and3)compound(which is further
classified into cumulative and differential).

Q: Give two basic speed control scheme of DC shunt motor?

A:1. By using flux control method: in this method a rheostat is connected across the field winding
to control the field current. so by changing the current the flux produced by the field winding can
be changed, and since speed is inversely proportional to flux speed can be controlled 2.armature
control method: in this method a rheostat is connected across armature winding by varying the
resistance the value of resistive drop(IaRa)can be varied,and since speed is directly proportional to
Eb­IaRa the speed can be controlled.

Q: what is the principle of motor?

A: Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in an magnetic field it produce turning or
twisting movement is called as torque.

Q: what is meant by armature reaction?

A:The effect of armature flux to main flux is called armature reaction. The armature flux may
support main flux or opposes main flux.

Give two basic speed control scheme of DC shunt motor?

A:1. By using flux control method:in this method a rheostat is connected across the field winding
to control the field current.so by changing the current the flux produced by the field winding can
be changed, and since speed is inversely proportional to flux speed can be controlled 2.armature
control method:in this method a rheostat is connected across armature wdg.by varying the
resistance the value of resistive drop(IaRa)can be varied,and since speed is directly proportional to
Eb­IaRa the speed can be controlled.

Q:what is the difference between synchronous generator & asynchronous generator?

A:In simple, synchronous generator supply's both active and reactive power but asynchronous
generator(induction generator) supply's only active power and observe reactive power for
magnetizing.This type of generators are used in windmills.
Q:What is the Polarization index value ? (pi value)and simple definition of polarization index ?
A:Its ratio between insulation resistance(IR) i.e meggar value for 10min to insulation resistance for
1 min. It ranges from 5­7 for new motors & normally for motor to be in good condition it should be
Greater than 2.5

Q: What will happen when power factor is leading in distribution of power?

A: If their is high power factor, i.e if the power factor is close to one:1.losses in form of heat will be
reduced 2.cable becomes less bulky and easy to carry, and very cheap to afford, & 3. it also
reduces over heating of tranformers.

Q:what the one main difference between UPS & inverter ? And electrical engineering & electronics
engineering ?
A:uninterrupt power supply is mainly use for short time . means according to ups VA it gives
backup. ups is also two types : on line and offline . online ups having high volt and amp for long
time backup with high dc voltage. but ups start with 12v dc with 7 amp. but inverter is start with
12v,24,dc to 36v dc and 120amp to 180amp battery with long time backup.

:What is 2 phase motor?

A:A two phase motor is a motor with the the starting winding and the running winding have a
phase split. e.g;ac servo motor. where the auxiliary winding and the control winding have a phase
split of 90 degree

Q: Advantages of vvvf drives over non vvvf drives for EOT cranes?
A: 1.smooth start and stop 2.no jerking of load.3.exact posiitoning4.better protection for
motor.5.high/low speed selection.6.reliability of break shoe.7.programmable break control.8.easy
circutry9.reduction in controls10.increases motor life

Q: What is the significance of vector grouping in Power Transformers?

A:Every power transformer has a vector group listed by its manufacturer. Fundamentally it tells you
the information about how the windings are connected (delta or wye) and the phace difference
betweent the current and voltage. EG. DYN11 means Delta primary, Wye Secondry and the current
is at 11 o clock reffered to the voltage.

Q: Which type of A.C motor is used in the fan (ceiling fan, exhaust fan, padestal fan, bracket fan
etc) which are find in the houses ?
A: Its Single Phase induction motor which mostly squirrel cage rotor and are capacitor start
capacitor run

Q: Why, when birds sit on transmission lines or current wires doesn't get shock?
A:Its true that if birds touch the single one line (phase or neutral) they don't get electrical shock... if
birds touch 2 lines than the circuit is closed and they get electrical shock.. so if a human touch
single one line(phase) then he doesn't get shock if he is in the air (not touching ­ standing on the
ground if he is standing on the ground then touching the line (phase) he will get a shock because
the ground on what we standing is like line (ground bed ­ like neutral)। and in the most of electric
lines the neutral is grounded..so that means that human who touch the line closes the circuit
between phase and neutral.
Q:what is meant by armature reaction?
A:The effect of armature flu to main flux is called armature reaction. The armature flux may support
main flux or opposes main flux.

Q:what happen if we give 220 volts dc supply to d bulb r tube light?

A:Bulbs [devices] for AC are designed to operate such that it offers high impedance to AC supply.
Normally they have low resistance. When DC supply is applied, due to low resistance, the current
through lamp would be so high that it may damage the bulb element.

Q:Which motor has high Starting Torque and Staring current DC motor, Induction motor or
Synchronous motor?
A:DC Series motor has high starting torque. We can not start the Induction motor and
Synchronous motors on load, but can not start the DC series motor without load.

Q:what is ACSR cable and where we use it?

A:ACSR means Aluminium conductor steel reinforced, this conductor is used in transmission &
distribution.
 
Q:What is vaccum circuit breaker. define with cause and where be use it Device?
A:A breaker is normally used to break a ciruit. while breaking the circuit, the contact terminals will
be separated. At the time of seperation an air gap is formed in between the terminals. Due to
existing current flow the air in the gap is ionised and results in the arc. various mediums are used
to quench this arc in respective CB's. but in VCB the medium is vaccum gas. since the air in the
CB is having vaccum pressure the arc formation is interrupted. VCB's can be used upto 11kv.

:How tube light circuit is connected and how it works?

A:A choke is connected in one end of the tube light and a starter is in series with the circuit. When
supply is provided ,the starter will interrupt the supply cycle of AC. Due to the sudden change of
supply the chock will generate around 1000volts . This volt will capable of to break the electrons
inside the tube to make electron flow. once the current passes through the tube the starter circuit
will be out of part. now there is no change of supply causes choke voltage normalized and act as
minimize the current.

Q: whats is MARX CIRCUIT?

A:I t is used with generators for charging a number of capacitor in parallel and discharging them in
series. It is used when voltage required for testing is higher than the available.

:What is encoder, how it function?

A:An encoder is a device used to change a signal (such as a bitstream) or data into a code. The
code may serve any of a number of purposes such as compressing information for transmission or
storage, encrypting or adding redundancies to the input code, or translating from one code to
another. This is usually done by means of a programmed algorithm,especially if any part is digital,
while most analog encoding is done with analog circuitry.

Q:What are the advantages of speed control using thyristor?

A:Advantages :1. Fast Switching Characterstics than Mosfet, BJT, IGBT
2. Low cost 3. Higher Accurate.

:Why Human body feel Electric shock ?? n in an Electric train during running , We did nt feel any
Shock ? why?
A:Unfortunately our body is a pretty good conductor of electricity, The golden rule is Current takes
the lowest resistant path if you have insulation to our feet as the circuit is not complete (wearing
rubber footwear which doing some repairs is advisable as our footwear is a high resistance path
not much current flows through our body).The electric train is well insulated from its electrical
system.

Q:what is the principle of motor?

A:Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in an magnetic field it produce turning or
twisting movemnt is called as torque.

Q:What is electric traction?

A:Electric traction means using the electric power for traction system (i.e. for railways,trams,
trolleys etc). Electric traction means use of the electricity for all the above machines. Now a days,
magnetic traction is also used for bullet trains.and basically dc motors are used for electric traction
systems.

Q:How can you start­up the 40w tube lite with 230v AC/DC without using any choke/Coil?
A:It's possible by means of Electronic chokes, otherwise it's not possible to ionize the particles in
tube light with normal voltage.

Q:What is "pu" in electrical engineering?

A:Pu stands for per unit and this will be used in single line diagram of power distribution and it is
like a huge electrical circuit with no of components (generators, transformers, loads) with different
ratings (in MVA and KV). To bring all the ratings into common platform we use pu concept in which,
in general largest MVA and KV ratings of the component is considered as base values, then all
other component ratings will get back into this basis.Those values are called as pu values.
(p.u=actual value/base value).

Q:Operation carried out in Thermal power stations?

A:The water is obtained in the boiler and the coal is burnt so that steam is obtained this steam is
allowed to hit the turbine , the turbine which is coupled with the generator generates the electricity.

Q:Why link is provided in neutral of an ac circuit and fuse in phase of ac circuit?

A:Link is provided at a Neutral common point in the circuit from which various connection are
taken for the individual control circuit and so it is given in a link form to withstand high Amps. But
in the case of Fuse in the Phase of AC circuit it is designed such that the fuse rating is calculated
for the particular circuit (i.e load) only. So if any malfunction happen the fuse connected in the
particular control circuit alone will blow off.

Q: What is the difference between electronic regulator and ordinary electrical rheostat  regulator

for fans?
A:The difference between the electronic and ordinary electrical  regulator is that in electronic
regulator power losses are less because as we decrease the speed the electronic regulator gives
the power needed for that particular speed but in case of ordinary rheostat type regulator, the
power wastage is same for every speed and no power is saved. In electronic regulator, triac is
employed for speed control by varying the firing angle speed and it is controlled but in rheostatic
,control resistance is decreased by steps to achieve speed control.
1. Both CGS n MKS are measuring standards. In CGS system, length is measured in Centimeter, weight in
Grams and time in Second.
In MKS, length is in Meter, Weight is in Kilogram, and time is in Second.

2. we r connecting capacitors bank in series with circuit to

a) To remove the low frequency noise signal,
b) To decrease the capacitive impedance.

3. earthing means providing low impedance path to the circuit. And earthing wire is always ends in earth
surface. Grounding means proving a Zero reference level to whole circuit or system. With reference to
ground level, voltage at other nodes is measured.

2. Bipolar Stepper Motor Drivers

3. Stepper motor drivers are brushless DC motor
drivers that can be used for both positioning and velocity
control applications without the need for external position
feedback.  Typical stepper motors consist of a rotating
permanent magnet (rotor) surrounded by electromagnets
(stator). When the electromagnets are supplied current in
the correct polarity and sequence a torque is created that
moves the rotor in steps. These steps can be sequenced
together to move the rotor at various speeds
corresponding to the sequence rate. Positioning can be
accomplished by controlling the number of sequenced
steps.  By precisely controlling the current in each motor
phase you can divide a motor’s fundamental step angle
into smaller microsteps.  Microstepping results in better
positional resolution, less resonance issues and lower
audible noise.    Allegro offers a complete lineup of
stepper motor drivers for office automation, industrial,
and automotive applications. Depending on the needs of
a given application,  Allegro IC solutions can include
features such as:

• PWM current control

 Microstepping
 Parallel, Serial and Step/Direction interfaces
 Slow, Fast and Mixed current decay mode control

 Protection features – Under­voltage lockout, thermal shutdown, shoot through,

 overvoltage, over current  protection
 Package options include exposed pad QFN, TSSOP, SOIC and DIP packages all lead
(Pb) free

 Internal DMOS outputs or gate controllers to drive external MOSFETs

 Synchronous rectification
 Diagnostic outputs
 Stall detect assistance

What is a stepper motor?
A Stepper Motor or a step motor is a brushless, synchronous motor which
divides a full rotation into a number of steps. Unlike a brushless DC motor which
rotates continuously when a fixed DC voltage is applied to it, a step motor
rotates in discrete step angles. The Stepper Motors therefore are manufactured
with steps per revolution of 12, 24, 72, 144, 180, and 200, resulting in stepping
angles of 30, 15, 5, 2.5, 2, and 1.8 degrees per step. The stepper motor can be
controlled with or without feedback.

A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless DC electric motor that divides a full
rotation into a number of equal steps. The motor's position can then be commanded to
move and hold at one of these steps without any feedback sensor (an open­loop
controller), as long as the motor is carefully sized to the application.

Switched reluctance motors are very large stepping motors with a reduced pole count,
and generally are closed­loop commutated.

DC brush motors rotate coninuously when voltage is applied to their terminals. Stepper
motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets
arranged around a central gear­shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are
energized by an external control circuit, such as a microcontroller. To make the motor
shaft turn, first, one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear's teeth
magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are aligned
to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So
when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates
slightly to align with the next one, and from there the process is repeated. Each of
those slight rotations is called a "step", with an integer number of steps making a full
rotation. In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise angle.

Stepper motor characteristics

 Stepper motors are constant power devices.

 As motor speed increases, torque decreases. Most motors exhibit maximum torque
when stationary, however the torque of a motor when stationary (holding torque)
defines the ability of the motor to maintain a desired position while under external load.
The torque curve may be extended by using current limiting drivers and increasing the
driving voltage (sometimes referred to as a 'chopper' circuit; there are several off the
shelf driver chips capable of doing this in a simple manner).

 Steppers exhibit more vibration than other motor types, as the discrete step tends to
snap the rotor from one position to another (called a detent). The vibration makes
stepper motors noisier than DC motors. This vibration can become very bad at some
speeds and can cause the motor to lose torque or lose direction. This is because the
rotor is being held in a magnetic field which behaves like a spring. On each step the
rotor overshoots and bounces back and forth, "ringing" at its resonant frequency. If the
stepping frequency matches the resonant frequency then the ringing increases and the
motor loses synchronism, resulting in positional error or a change in direction. At worst
there is a total loss of control and holding torque so the motor is easily overcome by the
load and spins almost freely. The effect can be mitigated by accelerating quickly
through the problem speeds range, physically damping (frictional damping) the system,
or using a micro­stepping driver. Motors with a greater number of phases also exhibit
smoother operation than those with fewer phases (this can also be achieved through
the use of a micro­stepping driver).

 Stepper motors with higher inductance coils provide greater torque at low speeds and
lower torque at high speeds compared to stepper motors with lower inductance coils.

pen­loop versus closed­loop commutation

Steppers are generally commutated (electrically switched) using "open loop"
electronics, i.e. the driver has no feedback on where the rotor actually is. Stepper
motor systems must thus generally be over engineered, especially if the load inertia is
high, or there is widely varying load, so that there is no possibility that the motor will
lose steps. This has often caused the system designer to consider the trade­offs
between a closely sized but expensive servomechanism system and an oversized but
relatively cheap stepper.
A new development in stepper control is to incorporate a rotor position feedback (e.g.
a rotary encoder or resolver), so that the commutation can be made optimal for torque
generation according to actual rotor position. This turns the stepper motor into a high
pole count brushless servo motor, with exceptional low speed torque and position
resolution. An advance on this technique is to normally run the motor in open loop
mode, and only enter closed loop mode if the rotor position error becomes too large —
this will allow the system to avoid hunting or oscillating, a common servo problem.

Types
There are four main types of stepper motors:[1]

1. Permanent magnet stepper (can be subdivided in to 'tin­can' and 'hybrid', tin­can being
a cheaper product, and hybrid with higher quality bearings, smaller step angle, higher
power density)
2. Hybrid synchronous stepper
3. Variable reluctance stepper
4. Lavet type stepping motor

Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in the rotor and operate on
the attraction or repulsion between the rotor PM and the stator electromagnets.
Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a plain iron rotor and operate based on the
principle that minimum reluctance occurs with minimum gap, hence the rotor points
are attracted toward the stator magnet poles. Hybrid stepper motors are named
because they use a combination of PM and VR techniques to achieve maximum

ower in a small package size.

Two­phase stepper motors

There are two basic winding arrangements for the electromagnetic coils in a two phase
stepper motor: bipolar and unipolar.

Unipolar motors

A unipolar stepper motor has one winding with center tap per phase. Each section of
windings is switched on for each direction of magnetic field. Since in this arrangement
a magnetic pole can be reversed without switching the direction of current, the
commutation circuit can be made very simple (e.g. a single transistor) for each winding.
Typically, given a phase, the center tap of each winding is made common: giving three
leads per phase and six leads for a typical two phase motor. Often, these two phase
commons are internally joined, so the motor has only five leads.

A microcontroller or stepper motor controller can be used to activate the drive

transistors in the right order, and this ease of operation makes unipolar motors popular
with hobbyists; they are probably the cheapest way to get precise angular movements.

Unipolar stepper motor coils

(For the experimenter, the windings can be identified by touching the terminal wires
together in PM motors. If the terminals of a coil are connected, the shaft becomes
harder to turn. one way to distinguish the center tap (common wire) from a coil­end
wire is by measuring the resistance. Resistance between common wire and coil­end
wire is always half of what it is between coil­end and coil­end wires. This is because
there is twice the length of coil between the ends and only half from center (common
wire) to the end.) A quick way to determine if the stepper motor is working is to short
circuit every two pairs and try turning the shaft, whenever a higher than normal
resistance is felt, it indicates that the circuit to the particular winding is closed and that
the phase is working.

Bipolar motor

Bipolar motors have a single winding per phase. The current in a winding needs to be
reversed in order to reverse a magnetic pole, so the driving circuit must be more
complicated, typically with an H­bridge arrangement (however there are several off the
shelf driver chips available to make this a simple affair). There are two leads per phase,
none are common.

Static friction effects using an H­bridge have been observed with certain drive
topologies.[2]

Dithering the stepper signal at a higher frequency than the motor can respond to will
reduce this "static friction" effect.

Because windings are better utilized, they are more powerful than a unipolar motor of
the same weight. This is due to the physical space occupied by the windings. A
unipolar motor has twice the amount of wire in the same space, but only half used at
any point in time, hence is 50% efficient (or approximately 70% of the torque output
available). Though bipolar is more complicated to drive, the abundance of driver chips
means this is much less difficult to achieve.

An 8­lead stepper is wound like a unipolar stepper, but the leads are not joined to
common internally to the motor. This kind of motor can be wired in several
configurations:

 Unipolar.
 Bipolar with series windings. This gives higher inductance but lower current per winding.
 Bipolar with parallel windings. This requires higher current but can perform better as the
winding inductance is reduced.
 Bipolar with a single winding per phase. This method will run the motor on only half the
available windings, which will reduce the available low speed torque but require less
current.

Higher­phase count stepper motors

Multi­phase stepper motors with many phases tend to have much lower levels of
vibration,[3] although the cost of manufacture is higher. These motors tend to be called
'hybrid' and have more expensive machined parts, but also higher quality bearings.
Though they are more expensive, they do have a higher power density and with the
appropriate drive electronics are actually better suited to the application[citation needed],
however price is always an important factor. Computer printers may use hybrid
designs.

Stepper motor drive circuits

Stepper motor with drive circuit

Stepper motor performance is strongly dependent on the drive circuit. Torque curves
may be extended to greater speeds if the stator poles can be reversed more quickly,
the limiting factor being the winding inductance. To overcome the inductance and
switch the windings quickly, one must increase the drive voltage. This leads further to
the necessity of limiting the current that these high voltages may otherwise induce.

L/R drive circuits

L/R drive circuits are also referred to as constant voltage drives because a constant
positive or negative voltage is applied to each winding to set the step positions.
However, it is winding current, not voltage that applies torque to the stepper motor
shaft. The current I in each winding is related to the applied voltage V by the winding
inductance L and the winding resistance R. The resistance R determines the maximum
current according to Ohm's law I=V/R. The inductance L determines the maximum rate
of change of the current in the winding according to the formula for an Inductor dI/dt =
V/L. Thus when controlled by an L/R drive, the maximum speed of a stepper motor is
limited by its inductance since at some speed, the voltage U will be changing faster
than the current I can keep up. In simple terms the rate of change of current is L / R
(e.g. a 10mH inductance with 2 ohms resistance will take 5 ms to reach approx 2/3 of
maximum torque or around 24 msec to reach 99% of max torque). To obtain high
torque at high speeds requires a large drive voltage with a low resistance and low
inductance. With an L/R drive it is possible to control a low voltage resistive motor with
a higher voltage drive simply by adding an external resistor in series with each winding.
This will waste power in the resistors, and generate heat. It is therefore considered a
low performing option, albeit simple and cheap.

Chopper drive circuits

chopper drive circuits are also referred to as constant current drives because they
generate a somewhat constant current in each winding rather than applying a constant
voltage. On each new step, a very high voltage is applied to the winding initially. This
causes the current in the winding to rise quickly since dI/dt = V/L where V is very large.
The current in each winding is monitored by the controller, usually by measuring the
voltage across a small sense resistor in series with each winding. When the current
exceeds a specified current limit, the voltage is turned off or "chopped", typically using
power transistors. When the winding current drops below the specified limit, the
voltage is turned on again. In this way, the current is held relatively constant for a
particular step position. This requires additional electronics to sense winding currents,
and control the switching, but it allows stepper motors to be driven with higher torque
at higher speeds than L/R drives. Integrated electronics for this purpose are widely
available.

Phase current waveforms

A stepper motor is a polyphase AC synchronous motor (see Theory below), and it is
ideally driven by sinusoidal current. A full step waveform is a gross approximation of a
sinusoid, and is the reason why the motor exhibits so much vibration. Various drive
techniques have been developed to better approximate a sinusoidal drive waveform:
these are half stepping and microstepping.
Different drive modes showing coil current on a 4­phase unipolar stepper motor

Wave drive

In this drive method only a single phase is activated at a time. It has the same number
of steps as the full step drive, but the motor will have significantly less than rated
torque. It is rarely used.

Full step drive (two phases on)

This is the usual method for full step driving the motor. Two phases are always on. The
motor will have full rated torque.

Half stepping

When half stepping, the drive alternates between two phases on and a single phase on.
This increases the angular resolution, but the motor also has less torque (approx 70%)
at the half step position (where only a single phase is on). This may be mitigated by
increasing the current in the active winding to compensate. The advantage of half
stepping is that the drive electronics need not change to support it.

Microstepping

What is commonly referred to as microstepping is often "sine cosine microstepping" in

which the winding current approximates a sinusoidal AC waveform. Sine cosine
microstepping is the most common form, but other waveforms can be used [2].
Regardless of the waveform used, as the microsteps become smaller, motor operation
becomes more smooth, thereby greatly reducing resonance in any parts the motor
may be connected to, as well as the motor itself. Resolution will be limited by the
mechanical stiction, backlash, and other sources of error between the motor and the
end device. Gear reducers may be used to increase resolution of positioning.Step size
repeatability is an important step motor feature and a fundamental reason for their use
in positioning.

Example: many modern hybrid step motors are rated such that the travel of every full
step (example 1.8 Degrees per full step or 200 full steps per revolution) will be within
3% or 5% of the travel of every other full step; as long as the motor is operated within
its specified operating ranges. Several manufacturers show that their motors can easily
maintain the 3% or 5% equality of step travel size as step size is reduced from full
stepping down to 1/10 stepping. Then, as the microstepping divisor number grows,
step size repeatability degrades. At large step size reductions it is possible to issue
many microstep commands before any motion occurs at all and then the motion can
be a "jump" to a new position.

Theory
A step motor can be viewed as a synchronous AC motor with the number of poles (on
both rotor and stator) increased, taking care that they have no common denominator.
Additionally, soft magnetic material with many teeth on the rotor and stator cheaply
multiplies the number of poles (reluctance motor). Modern steppers are of hybrid
design, having both permanent magnets and soft iron cores.

To achieve full rated torque, the coils in a stepper motor must reach their full rated
current during each step. Winding inductance and reverse EMF generated by a moving
rotor tend to resist changes in drive current, so that as the motor speeds up, less and
less time is spent at full current — thus reducing motor torque. As speeds further
increase, the current will not reach the rated value, and eventually the motor will cease
to produce torque.

Pull­in torque

This is the measure of the torque produced by a stepper motor when it is operated
without an acceleration state. At low speeds the stepper motor can synchronise itself
with an applied step frequency, and this pull­in torque must overcome friction and
inertia. It is important to make sure that the load on the motor is frictional rather than
inertial as the friction reduces any unwanted oscillations.

Pull­out torque

The stepper motor pull­out torque is measured by accelerating the motor to the
desired speed and then increasing the torque loading until the motor stalls or misses
steps. This measurement is taken across a wide range of speeds and the results are
used to generate the stepper motor's dynamic performance curve. As noted below this
curve is affected by drive voltage, drive current and current switching techniques. A
designer may include a safety factor between the rated torque and the estimated full
load torque required for the application.

Detent torque

Synchronous electric motors using permanent magnets have a remnant position

holding torque (called detent torque or cogging, and sometimes included in the
specifications) when not driven electrically. Soft iron reluctance cores do not exhibit
this behavior.

Stepper motor ratings and specifications

Stepper motors nameplates typically give only the winding current and occasionally
the voltage and winding resistance. The rated voltage will produce the rated winding
current at DC: but this is mostly a meaningless rating, as all modern drivers are current
limiting and the drive voltages greatly exceed the motor rated voltage.

A stepper's low speed torque will vary directly with current. How quickly the torque
falls off at faster speeds depends on the winding inductance and the drive circuitry it is
attached to, especially the driving voltage.

Steppers should be sized according to published torque curve, which is specified by

the manufacturer at particular drive voltages or using their own drive circuitry.

Applications
Computer­controlled stepper motors are a type of motion­control positioning system.
They are typically digitally controlled as part of an open loop system for use in holding
or positioning applications.

In the field of lasers and optics they are frequently used in precision positioning
equipment such as linear actuators, linear stages, rotation stages, goniometers, and
mirror mounts. Other uses are in packaging machinery, and positioning of valve pilot
stages for fluid control systems.

Commercially, stepper motors are used in floppy disk drives, flatbed scanners,
computer printers, plotters, slot machines, image scanners, compact disc drives,
intelligent lighting and many more devices.

Stepper Motor System

A stepper Motor System consists of three basic elements, often combined with some
type of user interface (Host Computer, PLC or Dumb Terminal):
  Indexers ­ The Indexer (or Controller) is a microprocessor capable of generating step
pulses and direction signals for the driver. In addition, the indexer is typically required
to perform many other sophisticated command functions.

 Drivers ­ The Driver (or Amplifier) converts the indexer command signals into the power
necessary to energize the motor windings. There are numerous types of drivers, with
different current/amperage ratings and construction technology. Not all drivers are
suitable to run all motors, so when designing a Motion Control System the driver
selection process is critical.

 Stepper Motors ­ The stepper motor is an electromagnetic device that converts digital
pulses into mechanical shaft rotation. Advantages of step motors are low cost, high
reliability, high torque at low speeds and a simple, rugged construction that operates in
almost any environment. The main disadvantages in using a stepper motor is the
resonance effect often exhibited at low speeds and decreasing torque with increasing
speed.

What is a stepper motor?

First of all, a stepper motor is a motor. This means, that it converts electrical
power into mechanical power. The main difference between them and all the
other motors, is the way they revolve. Unlike other motors, stepper motors does
not continuously rotate! Instead, they rotate in steps (from which they got the
name). Each step is a fraction of a full circle. This fraction depends mostly from
the mechanical parts of the motor, and from the driving method. The stepper
motors also differs in the way they are powered. Instead of an AC or a DC
voltage, they are driven (usually) with pulses. Each pulse is translated into a
degree of rotation. For example, an 1.8o stepper motor, will revolve its shaft 1.8o
on every pulse that arrives. Often, due to this characteristic, stepper motors are
called also digital motors.

A very basic stepper motor

As all motors, the stepper motors consists of a stator an a rotor. The rotor carries a set
of permanent magnets, and the stator has the coils. The very basic design of a stepper
motor would be as follows:
There are 4 coils with 90o angle between each other fixed on the stator. The way that
the coils are interconnected, will finally characterize the type of stepper motor
connection. In the above drawing, the coils are not connected together. The above
motor has 90o rotation step. The coils are activated in a cyclic order, one by one. The
rotation direction of the shaft is determined by the order that the coils are activated.
The following animation demonstrates this motor in operation. The coils are energized
in series, with about 1sec interval. The shaft rotates 90o each time the next coil is
activated:

Driving modes

In this section, i will explain the various ways that the coils are energized, and the
results on the motors shaft.

Wave drive or Single­Coil Excitation

The first way is the one described previously. This is called Single­Coil Excitation, and
means that only one coil is energized each time. This method is rarely used, generally
when power saving is necessary. It provides less than half of the nominal torque of the
motor, therefore the motor load cannot be high.

Full step drive

The second and most often used method, is the Full step drive. According to this
method, the coils are energized in pairs. According to the connection of the coils
(series or parallel) the motor will require double the voltage or double the current to
operate that needs when driving with Single­Coil Excitation. Yet, it produces 100% the
nominal torque of the motor.

This motor will have 4 steps per full cycle, that is the nominal number of steps per
cycle. Half stepping

This is a very interesting way to achieve double the accuracy of a positioning system,
without changing anything from the hardware! According to this method, all coil pairs
can be energized simultaneously, causing the rotor to rotate half the way as a normal
step. This method can be single­coil or two­coil excitation as well. The following
animations make this clear:

Single­Coil excitation Two­Coil excitation

With this method, the same motor will have double the steps per revolutions, thus
double the accuracy in positioning systems. For example, this motor will have 8 steps
per cycle!

Microstepping

Microstepping is the most common method to control stepper motors nowadays. The
idea of microstepping, is to power the coils of the motor NOT with pulses, but with a
waveform similar to a sin waveform. This way, the positioning from one step to the
other is smoother, making the stepper motor suitable to be used for high accuracy
applications such as CNC positioning systems. Also, the stress of the parts connected
on the motor, as well as the stress on the motor itself is significantly decreased. With
microstepping, a stepper motor can rotate almost continuous, like simple DC motors.

The waveform that the coils are powered with, is similar to an AC waveform. Digital
waveforms can also be used. here are some examples:
 Powering with sine wave Powering with digital signal Powering with high
resolution digital signal

The microstepping method is actually a power supply method, rather than coil driving
method. Therefore, the microstepping can be applied with single­coil excitation and full
step drive. The following animation demonstrated this method:

Although it seems that the microstepping increases the steps even further, usually this
does not happen. In high accuracy applications, trapezoidal gears are used to increase
the accuracy. This method is used to ensure smooth motion.

Introduction to Servo Motors

Overview

A servo motor is a dc, ac, or brushless dc motor combined with a position sensing
device(e.g. a digital decoder). In this section, our discussion will be focused on the
three­wire DC servo motors that are often used for controlling surfaces on model
airplanes. A three­wire DC servo motor incorporates a DC motor, a geartrain, limit
stops beyond which the shaft cannot turn, a potentiometer for position feedback, and
an integrated circuit for position control.Of the three wires protruding from the motor
casig, one is for power, one is for ground, and one is a control input where a pulse­
width signals to what position the motor should servo. As long as the coded signal
exists on the input line, the servo will maintain the angular position of the shaft. As the
coded signal changes, the angular position of the shaft changes.

Servos are extremely useful in robotics. The motors are small and are extremely
powerful for thier size. A standard servo such as the Futaba S­148 has 42 oz/inches of
torque, which is pretty strong for its size. It also draws power proportional to the
mechanical load. A lightly loaded servo, therefore, doesn't consume much energy. The
guts of a servo motor are shown in the picture below. You can see the control circuitry,
the motor, a set of gears, and the case. You can also see the 3 wires that connect to
the outside world. One is for power (+5volts), ground, and the white wire is the control
wire.

How does a servo work?

So, how does a servo work? The servo motor has some control circuits and a
potentiometer (a variable resistor, aka pot) that is connected to the output shaft. The
potentiometer allows the control circuitry to monitor the current angle of the servo
motor. If the shaft is at the correct angle, then the motor shuts off. If the circuit finds
that the angle is not correct, it will turn the motor the correct direction until the angle is
correct. The output shaft of the servo is capable of travelling somewhere around 180
degrees. Usually, its somewhere in the 210 degree range, but it varies by manufacturer.
A normal servo is used to control an angular motion of between 0 and 180 degrees. A
normal servo is mechanically not capable of turning any farther due to a mechanical
stop built on to the main output gear. The amount of power applied to the motor is
proportional to the distance it needs to travel. So, if the shaft needs to turn a large
distance, the motor will run at full speed. If it needs to turn only a small amount, the
motor will run at a slower speed. This is called proportional control. How do you
communicate the angle at which the servo should turn? The control wire is used to
communicate the angle. The angle is determined by the duration of a pulse that is
applied to the control wire. This is called Pulse Coded Modulation. The servo expects
to see a pulse every 20 milliseconds (.02 seconds). The length of the pulse will
determine how far the motor turns. A 1.5 millisecond pulse, for example, will make the
motor turn to the 90 degree position (often called the neutral position). If the pulse is
shorter than 1.5 ms, then the motor will turn the shaft to closer to 0 degress. If the
pulse is longer than 1.5ms, the shaft turns closer to 180 degrees.
As you can see in the picture, the duration of the pulse dictates the angle of the output
shaft (shown as the green circle with the arrow). Note that the times here are illustrative,
and the actual timings depend on the motor manufacturer. The principle, however, is
the same.

Modifying a Servo Motor

As mentioned in the previous section, the servo motor rotates less than 360 degrees.
They can, however, be modified into continuously revolvable DC gearhead motors to
drive robots' wheels. The changes are quite easy to do, if you follow the instructions in
this section.

The theory behind this modification is to make the servo think that the output shaft is
always at the 90 degree mark. This is done by removing the feedback sensor, and
replacing it with an equivalent circuit that creates the same readings as the sensor
being at 90 degrees. Thus, giving it the signal for degrees less than 90 degrees will
cause the motor to tuen on full speed in one direction. The signal for degrees greater
than 90 degrees will cause the motor to go the other direction. Since the feedback
from the output is disconnected, the servo will continue in he appropriate direction as
long as the signal remains.

The result of this is a really nice compact gearhead motor with built in electronics. The
interface to this motor unit is a 1 wire control line, +5 volts for pwer, and a ground. As
for the details, there are actually only two modifications to make to the servo,
1. Replace the position sensing potentiometer with an equivalent resistor network

2. Remove the mechanical stop from the output shaft

You will need a few supplies to do the modifications:

1. small philips screwdriver for opening the case

2. a soldering iron
3. a desoldering pump or solder wick for removing the poteniometer
4. a sharp knife or wire cutters for removing the mechanical stop
5. Two 2.2k resistors (actually, anything between 2.2k and 3.3k will work, as long as they are equal
values)

Here are the steps for the modifications.

1. Open the case by removing the 4 screws located at the bottom of the servo. The
bottom plate should come off easily. Remove the top of the case. You will find a set of
gears under the top case, a several blobs of white grease. Try hard to save the grease
by increasing it on the gears.

2. Be careful to note how the gears arranged, and remove them from the top of the
servo. You can place them as they are supposed to sit. The large fine tooth gear in the
middle does not need to be removed.

3. Locate and remove the two small philips head screws on the the case near one of
the shafts. These screws go through the top case and into the drive motor..

4. Next, you need to remove the circuit board carefully from the case (Beware not to
break the connecting wires when you do this). Very carefully pry ip on opposing
corners of the circuit board. (You can probably use a screwdriver to help you to do
this.) The board should slide out with the motor and potentiometer attached.

5. Now for the actual modifications. First, you will nedd to desolder the potentiometer
from the board.

6. Once the pot has been removed, you need to wire in the resistor network in its place.
To do this, place the resistors side bt side and twist one pair of leads. Solder them
together, but leave one of the leads long enough to make a 3 wire part. Then replace
the pot with this 3 wire pot.

7. Now, reassemble the circuit board into the case.

8. Before reinstalling the gears, you will need to modify the gear with the output shaft
so that the mechanical stop is removed. The mechanical stop is a small tab of plastic
on the lower gear surface. This should be cut down flush with the surface by using a
wire cutter or a sharp knife. Try to get all the tab removed.You should also remove the
little plastic ring on the motor shaft as well.
9. Replace the gears as they were when you took the motor apart, replace the top of
the case, the bottom plate, and the two screws.

The motor should now be able to turn all the way around.

Driving the Servo Motor

Driving the servo motor using a function generator

A three­wire DC has three input wires: the red wire is usually connected to the power
supply, the black wire is usually connected to the ground and the white/yellow wire is
usually connected to the controlling signal. One of the simplest way to test/drive a
servo motor is to generatea pulse using a function generator. The pulse can be be
generated using the square wave function of the function generator. For the servo
motor that we are using, Tower Hobbies STD BB TS­69., the power supply is about 4.8
volts and so we can generate a square wave using the TTL output of the function
generator. You should adjust the amplitude of the square wave such that it matches
the power supply of the servo motor.

Once you have adjusted the amplitude of the square wave pulse, you can adjust the
width of the pulse train by adjusting the frequency of the signal. For the servo motor
that we are using, the neutral point (the pulse width at which the servo stays at 90
degrees) is about 1520 microseconds(us) or 1.52ms. Any pulse width narrower than
1.52 ms will cause the servo to move to a position less than 90 degrees and vice versa.
Note that servo only turns between 0 and 180 degrees if it is not modified. This
corresponds to about 0.8ms to 2.5ms of pulse width. Make ensure the pulse width that
you use is in within this range.

For a servo motor modified to rotate continuously, the servo will not turn at the neutral
pulse width but it will turn clockwise continuously if the pulse width is less than the
neutral pulse width and anticlockwise if the pulse width is larger than the neutral pulse
width. (the pulse width has to be within the range mentioned above).

Driving the servo motor using the Handy Board

For most applications, it is impossible to drive the servo motor using the function
generator. One of the most convenient way to drive the servo motors is to use the
Handy Board. The Interactive C has a library routine that allows control of a single
servo motor, using digital input 9, which is actually the 68HC11's Port A bit 7 (PA7), a
bidirectional control pin. This library routine can be loaded onto the Handy Board by
loading the binary file, servo.icb, first and then the file servo.c (this means the file
where you write your own C program cannot be named as servo.c!).

Here are the library functions used to control the servo motor:

void servo_on( ) : Enables PA7 servo output waveform.

void servo_off( ) : Disables PA7 servo output waveform.

int servo(int period) : Sets length of servo control pulse. Value is the time in half­
microseconds of the positive portion of a rectangular wave that is generated on the
PA7 pin for use in controlling a servo motor. Minimum allowable value is 1400(i.e.
0.7ms); maximum is 4860 (2.43ms). The return value of the the function is the actual
period set by the driver software. When the servo motor is not modified, the value of
period is about 2950 at the neutral point. When the servo motor is modified, the value
of period is about 2570 at the neutral point.

int servo_rad(float angle) : Sets servo angle in radians.

int servo_deg(float angle) : Sets servo angle in degrees.

Sample programs

The following code fragments illustrates how to use the above library functions to drive
the servo motor:

float period=70.0;
int k;
servo_on();
while(1){
k = servo_deg(period);
printf("angle is %d\n", k);
}

The above code fragment sets the servo motor into 70 degrees and display the current
position on the LCD display (in terms of microseconds of the pulse).If the servo motor
is modified to rotate continuosly, the above code fragment cause the servo to rotate in
clockwise direction continuously.

int period=1400.0;
int k; servo_on();
while(1){
k = servo(period);
printf("period is %d\n", k);
period = period + 100;
}

The above code fragment will cause an unmodified servo motor to turn in small
increments until the mechanical stop is reached. The motor should start again from the
0 degree position sometime after the maximum allowable value of the 'period' is
exceeded. The code will cause a modified motor to turn clockwise and anticlockwise
alternatively. The value of the period is less than the neutral value at first, so the motor
will turn in the clockwise direction. After the neutral value is exceeded, the motor will
turn anticlockwise. After the maximum allowable value of the period is exceeded, the
value of the period will start from 1400 again and thus it will turn clockwise once again.
This can be observed by looking at the LCD display.

 What is the working principle of AC servo motor?

A servomotor is used within a position­control or speed­control feedback

control system. Servomotors are used in applications such as machine tools,
pen plotters, and other control systems.An...

 What is Hysteresis motor working principle?

It is a special type of synchronous motor.It works on the principle of hysteresis

and the torque is produced due to hysteresis

 What is the working principle of ac motor?

Since magnetic fields have the capacity to either attract or repel other magnetic
fields depending upon polarity, they can be used to either push or pull on things,
and if you arrange them just...

 What is working principle of DC motor?

dc motor work on the principle or current carrying conductor in the magnet field

 What is the working principle of motor?

motor works on the principle of mutual induction.

Q: How can you start­up the 40w tube light with 230v AC/DC without using any choke/Coil?

Ans: It's possible by means of Electronic choke, otherwise it's not possible to ionize the
particles in tube light, with normal voltage.

Q: What is "p.u" in electrical engineering?

Ans: P.u stands for per unit and this will be used in power system single line diagram there it is
like a huge electrical circuit with no of components (generators, transformers, loads) with
different ratings (in MVA and KV). To bring all the ratings into common platform we use p.u
concept in which, in general largest MVA and KV ratings of the component is considered as
base values, then all other component ratings will get back into this basis. Those values are
called as p.u values. (p.u=actual value/base value).
Q: How the operation carried out in Thermal power station?
Ans: The water is obtained in the boiler and the coal is burnt so that steam is obtained this
steam is allowed to hit the turbine; the turbine which is coupled with the generator generates
the electricity

Q: Why link is provided in neutral of an ac circuit and fuse in phase of ac circuit?

Ans: Link is provided at a Neutral common point in the circuit from which various connection
are taken for the individual control circuit and so it is given in a link form to withstand high
Amps. But in the case of Fuse in the Phase of AC circuit it is designed such that the fuse rating
is calculated for the particular circuit (i.e load) only.So if any malfunction happen the fuse
connected in the particular control circuit alone will blow off.

Q: What is the difference between electronic regulator and ordinary rheostat regulator for fans?
Ans: The difference between the electronic and ordinary regulator is that in electronic reg.
power losses are less because as we decrease the speed the electronic reg. give the power
needed for that particular speed but in case of ordinary rheostat type reg. the power wastage
is same for every speed and no power is saved.In electronic regulator triac is employed for
speed control.by varying the firing angle speed is controlled but in rheostatic control resistance
is decreased by steps to achieve speed control.

Q: How tube light circuit is connected and how it works?

Ans: A choke is connected in one end of the tube light and a starter is in series with the circuit.
When supply is provided, the starter will interrupt the supply cycle of AC. Due to the sudden
change of supply the chock will generate around 1000volts. This volt will capable of to break
the electrons inside the tube to make electron flow. Once the current passes through the tube
the starter circuit will be out of part. now there is no change of supply causes choke voltage
normalized and act as minimize the current.

Q: What’s MARX CIRCUIT?

Ans: It is used with generators for charging a number of capacitors in parallel and discharging
them in series. It is used when voltage required for testing is higher than the available.
Q: What is encoder, how it function?
Ans: An encoder is a device used to change a signal (such as a bit stream) or data into a code.
The code may serve any of a number of purposes such as compressing information for
transmission or storage, encrypting or adding redundancies to the input code, or translating
from one code to another. This is usually done by means of a programmed algorithm,
especially if any part is digital, while most analog encoding is done with analog circuitry.

Q: What are the advantages of speed control using thyristor?

Ans: Advantages: 1. Fast Switching Characteristics than Mosfet, BJT, IGBT 2. Low cost 3.
Higher Accurate.

Q: Why Human body feels Electric shock ? and in an Electric train during running, We didn’t
feel any Shock. Why?
Ans: Unfortunately our body is a pretty good conductor of electricity, The golden rule is
Current takes the lowest resistant path if you
have insulation to our feet as the circuit is not complete (wearing rubber footwear which doing
some repairs is advisable as our footwear is a high resistance path not much current flows
through our body).The electric train is well insulated from its electrical system.

Q: What is the principle of motor?

Ans: Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in an magnetic field it produce turning or
twisting movement is called as torque.

Q: Why, when birds sit on transmission lines or current wires don't get shock?
Ans: Its true that if birds touch the single / one line (phase or neutral) they don't get electrical
shock. If birds touch 2 lines then the circuit will be closed and they get electrical shock.
Similarly, if a human touches single / one line(phase) then he doesn't get shock  provided if he
is in the air (not touching ­ standing on the ground) if he is standing on the ground then
touching the line (phase) he will get a shock because the ground on what we standing is like
line (ground bed ­ like neutral) and in the most of electric lines the neutral is grounded. So that
means that human who touches the line closes the circuit between phase and neutral.

Q: What is meant by armature reaction?

Ans: The effect of armature flu to main flux is called armature reaction. The armature flux may
support main flux or opposes main flux.

Q: What happen if we give 220 volts dc supply to d bulb r tube light?

Ans: Bulbs [devices] are designed to operate for AC such that it offers high impedance to AC
supply. Normally they have low resistance. When DC supply is applied, due to low resistance,
the current through lamp would be so high that it may damage the bulb element.
Q: Which motor has high Starting Torque and Staring current DC motor, Induction motor or
Synchronous motor?
Ans: DC Series motor has high starting torque. We can not start the Induction motor and
Synchronous motors on load, but can not start the DC series motor without load.

Q: What is ACSR cable and where we use it?

Ans: ACSR means Aluminium conductor steel reinforced, this conductor is used in
transmission & distribution.
 
Q: What is vacuum circuit breaker; define and where we use it?
Ans: A breaker is normally used to break a circuit. While breaking the circuit, the contact
terminals will be separated. At the time of separation an air gap is formed in between the
terminals. Due to existing current flow the air in the gap is ionized and results in the arc.
Various mediums are used to quench this arc in respective CB's. But in VCB the medium is
vacuum gas. Since the air in the CB is having vacuum pressure the arc formation is interrupted.
VCB's can be used up to 11kv.

Q: What will happen when power factor is leading in distribution of power?

Ans: If there is high power factor, i.e., if the power factor is close to one:
1. Losses in form of heat will be reduced,
2. Cable becomes less bulky and easy to carry, and very cheap to afford, &
3. It also reduces over heating of transformers.

Q: What is 2 phase motor?

Ans: A two phase motor is a motor with the starting winding and the running winding have a
phase split. e.g; ac servo motor. Where the auxiliary winding and the control winding have a
phase split of 90 degree.

Q: Advantages of vvvf drives over non vvvf drives for EOT cranes?
Ans: 1.smooth start and stop.
2. No jerking of load.
3. Exact positioning
4. Better protection for motor.
5. high/low speed selection.
6. Reliability of break shoe.
7. Programmable break control.
8. Easy circuitry
9. Reduction in controls
10. Increases motor life

Q: Which type of A.C motor is used in the fans (ceiling fan, exhaust fan, padestal fan, bracket
fan etc) which are used in the houses?
Ans: Its Single Phase induction motor which mostly squirrel cage rotor and are capacitor start
capacitor run.

Q: Give two basic speed control schemes of DC shunt motor?

Ans:1. By using flux control method: in this method a rheostat is connected across the field
winding to control the field current. so by changing the current the flux produced by the field
winding can be changed, and since speed is inversely proportional to flux speed can be
controlled
2. Armature control method: in this method a rheostat is connected across armature winding
by varying the resistance the value of resistive drop (IaRa) can be varied, and since speed is
directly proportional to Eb­ IaRa the speed can be controlled.
Q: What is the principle of (d.c) motor?
Ans: Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it produces a turning
or twisting movement called torque.

Q: What is meant by armature reaction?

Ans: The effect of armature flu on main flux is called armature reaction. The armature flux may
support the main flux or opposes the main flux.

Q: what is the difference between synchronous generator; asynchronous generator?

Ans: In simple, synchronous generator supplies’s both active and reactive power but
asynchronous generator (induction generator) supply’s only active power and observe reactive
power for magnetizing. These types of generators are used in windmills.

Q: What is the Polarization index value ? (pi value)and simple definition of polarization index ?
Ans: It’s ratio between insulation resistance (IR) (i.e meggar value) for 10min to insulation
resistance for 1 min. It ranges from 5­7 for new motors & normally for motor to be in good
condition it should be Greater than 2.5.

Q: Why syn. generators r used for the production of electricity?

Ans: Synchronous machines have capability to work on different power factor (or say different
imaginary power varying the field and emf. Hence syn. generators are used for the production
of electricity.

Q: Enlist types of dc generator?

Ans: D.C.Generators are classified into two types 1) separately excited d.c.generator 2)self
excited d.c.generator, which is further classified into;1)series 2)shunt and 3) Compound (which
is further classified into cumulative and differential).

Q: What is Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)?

Ans: AVR is an abbreviation for Automatic Voltage Regulator. It is important part in
Synchronous Generators; it controls the output voltage of the generator by controlling its
excitation current. Thus it can control the output Reactive Power of the Generator.

Q: What is an exciter and how does it work?

Ans: There are two types of exciters, static exciter and rotary exciter. Purpose of exciter is to
supply the excitation dc voltage to the fixed poles of generator. Rotary exciter is an additional
small generator mounted on the shaft of main generator. If it is dc generator, it will supply dc to
the rotary poles through slip ring and brushes (conventional alternator). If it is an ac exciter, out
put of ac exciter is rectified by rotating diodes and supply dc to main fixed poles. Ac exciter is
the ac generator whose field winding is stationary and armature rotates. Initial voltage is built
up by residual magnetism. It gives the starting torque to the generator.
 
Q: Difference between a four point starter and three point starter?
Ans: The shunt connection in four point starter is provided separately form the line where as in
three point starter it is connected with line which is the drawback in three point starter
Q: Why do we use VCB at High Transmission System ? Why can't use ACB?
Ans: Actually the thing is vacuum has high arc quenching property compare to air because in
VCB, the die electric strengths equal to 8 times of air. That y always vacuum used as in HT
breaker and air used as in LT.

Q: What is the difference between surge arrestor and Lightning Arrestor?

Ans: LA is installed outside and the effect of lightning is grounded, where as surge arrestor
installed inside panels comprising of resistors which consumes the energy and nullify the effect
of surge.

Q: What happens if we connect a capacitor to a generator load?

Ans: Connecting a capacitor across a generator always improves power factor, but it will help
depends up on the engine capacity of the alternator, other wise the alternator will be over
loaded due to the extra watts consumed due to the improvement on pf. Secondly, don't
connect a capacitor across an alternator while it is picking up or without any other load.

Q: Explain the working principal of the circuit breaker?

Ans: Circuit Breaker is one which makes or breaks the circuit. It has two contacts namely fixed
contact & moving contact. Under normal condition the moving contact comes in contact
with fixed contact thereby forming the closed contact for the flow of current. During abnormal
& faulty conditions (when current exceeds the rated value) an arc is produced between
the fixed & moving contacts & thereby it forms the open circuit Arc is extinguished
by the Arc Quenching media like air, oil, vacuum etc.

Q: How many types of cooling systems are there for transformers?

Ans:1. ONAN (oil natural, air natural)
2. ONAF (oil natural, air forced)
3. OFAF (oil forced, air forced)
4. ODWF (oil direct, water forced)
5. OFAN (oil forced, air forced)

Q: What is stepper motor? What are its uses?

Ans: Stepper motor is the electrical machine which acts upon input pulse applied to it. It is one
type of synchronous motor which runs in steps in either direction instead of running in
complete cycle. so, in automation parts it is used.

Q: Tell me in detail about C.T. and P.T ?

Ans: The term C.T means current transformer, and the term P.T means potential transformer.
In circuit where measurements of high voltage and high current is involved they are used there.
Particularly when a measuring device like voltmeter or ammeter is not able to measure such
high value of quantity because of large value of torque due to such high value it can damage
the measuring device. so, CT and PT are introduced in the circuits. They work on the same
principle of transformer, which is based on linkage of electromagnetic flux produced by
primary with secondary. They work on the ratio to they are designed. e.g if C.T is of ratio
5/5000A and it has to measure secondary current of 8000A.then Ans=8000*5\5000=8Aand this
result will be given to ammeter .and after measuring 8A we can calculate the primary current.
Same is the operation of PT but measuring voltage.

Q: There are a Transformer and an induction machine. Those two have the same supply. For
which device the load current will be maximum? And why?
Ans: The motor has max load current compare to that of transformer because the motor
consumes real power. And the transformer is only producing the working flux and its not
consuming.. hence the load current in the transformer is because of core loss so it is minimum.

Q: What is the difference between Isolator and Circuit Breaker?

Ans: Isolator is an off load device which is used for isolating the downstream circuits from
upstream circuits for the reason of any maintenance on downstream circuits. It is manually
operated and does not contain any solenoid unlike circuit breaker. it should not be operated
while it is having load. First the load on it must be made zero and then it can safely operated.
its specification only rated current is given. But circuit breaker is on load automatic device
used for breaking the circuit in case of abnormal conditions like short circuit, overload etc., it is
having three specification 1 is rated current and 2 is short circuit breaking capacity and 3 is
instantaneous tripping current.
Q: What is boucholz relay and the significance of it in to the transformer?
Ans: Boucholz relay is a device which is used for the protection of transformer from its internal
faults; it is a gas based relay. whenever any internal fault occurs in a transformer, the boucholz
relay at once gives a horn for some time, if the transformer is isolated from the circuit then it
stop its sound itself other wise it trips the circuit by its own tripping mechanism.

Q: What is SF6 Circuit Breaker?

Ans: SF6 is Sulpher hexa Flouride gas. If this gas is used as arc quenching medium in a Circuit
breaker means SF6 CB.

Q: What is Ferranti effect?

Ans: Output voltage is greater than the input voltage or receiving end voltage is greater than
the sending end voltage.

Q: What is meant by insulation voltage in cables? Explain it?

Ans: It is the property of a cable by virtue of it can withstand the applied voltage without
rupturing it is known as insulation level of the cable.
1. Tips to answer job interview questions
• Identify key duties, tasks, job specs, job standards of Electrical engineering technician
positions then ask question: How to do, how to become, how to measure performance, how to
monitor, how to control…

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questions before answering.

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your division structure, product/service list, competitive advantages and disadvantages..

• Always ask by yourself: What are proofs that are needed for this interview questions/this job?

2. Interview questions samples of Electrical engineering technician

You can use free interview questions samples of Electrical engineering technician as below:

• Please tell me a little about yourself?

• What have you learned from your past jobs that related to Electrical engineering technician?

• Why did you leave your last job?

• Tell me about your last position and what you did?

• Where would you like to be in 3 years? 5 years?

• What made you choose to apply to Electrical engineering technician?

• What are key tasks for Electrical engineering technician?

• How to do each lawyer position task/function?

• How to control each task/function of lawyer? Etc

• What are your strengths and weaknesses?

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• What do you know about this company?

• What do you know about the position of your lawyer position?

• Describe two or three major trends in your did you choose this profession/field?

• What tertiary qualifications have you attained that related to Electrical engineering technician?

• What is the most recent skill you have learned that related to Electrical engineering
technician?

• What tertiary qualifications have you attained that related to your lawyer position?

• What is the most recent skill you have learned that related to your lawyer position? Q:
Describe yourself.
Q: Tell me about your educational background?
Q: What do you know about the organization?
Q: How would you do justice to the job?
Q: What are your weaknesses?
Q: What are your salary expectations for this job?
Q: What are the projects you have ever undertaken?
Q: What do you do in leisure?
Q: Do you want to ask anything from us?
Q: What are your hobbies?
Q: Why do you want to go into this field?
Q: Describe one of the technical problems you had to solve.
Q: How would you develop yourself in this type of Structural Engineer role?
Q: Do you have any experience in developing technical specifications?
Q: What are the differences between vector and array?
Q: What experience have you had in writing technical materials?
Q: What is the thing you dislike the most in the world? Why?
Q: What does success mean to you?
Q: How do you define failure?
Q: How do you define arrogance? Are you arrogant?
Q: What role are you ready to take in a group?
Q: Who has been an inspiration for you?
Q: What is more important to you, money or success?
Q: What were some of your most important engineering achievements?
Q: Can you name some engineers that you knew or worked with?
Q: Can you describe how engineering generally has changed during your lifetime?
Q: Why do you want this job?
Q: Why do you want to work with this organization?
Q: Where do you see yourself five years down the line?
Q: What are your strengths?
Q: How do you pursue your hobbies?
Q: What has been your greatest achievement?Q: What has been your greatest failure?
Q: How do you take challenges?
Q: Are you willing to work in shifts?
Q: What is the thing you like the most in the world? Why?
Q: What kind of person are you?
Q: Rate yourself on a scale of 10.
Q: Why did you choose _________ as your major/subjects?
Q: Are you willing to travel?
Q: Why are you leaving the organization you work for?
Q: How much time do you need to join the organization?
Q: Are you aggressive?
Q: What makes you a good manager?
Q: What motivates you the most?
Q: What skills and abilities do you have?
Q: Is there anything you want to ask?
Q: Design a four­input NAND gate using only two­input NAND gates.
Q: What experience have you had in working with field forces?
Q: Tell us about your experience with computer­aided design software.
Q: Where were your early contributions in your engineering work.

Induction furnace

An induction furnace is an electrical furnace in which the heat is applied by induction

heating of metal. The advantage of the induction furnace is a clean, energy­efficient
and well­controllable melting process compared to most other means of metal melting.
Most modern foundries use this type of furnace and now also more iron foundries are
replacing cupolas with induction furnaces to melt cast iron, as the former emit lots of
dust and other pollutants.[1] Induction furnace capacities range from less than one
kilogram to one hundred tonnes capacity and are used to melt iron and steel, copper,
aluminium and precious metals. Since no arc or combustion is used, the temperature
of the material is no higher than required to melt it; this can prevent loss of valuable
alloying elements.[2] The one major drawback to induction furnace usage in a foundry is
the lack of refining capacity; charge materials must be clean of oxidation products and
of a known composition and some alloying elements may be lost due to oxidation (and
must be re­added to the melt).

Operating frequencies range from utility frequency (50 or 60 Hz) to 400 kHz or higher,
usually depending on the material being melted, the capacity (volume) of the furnace
and the melting speed required. Generally, the smaller the volume of the melts, the
higher the frequency of the furnace used; this is due to the skin depth which is a
measure of the distance an alternating current can penetrate beneath the surface of a
conductor. For the same conductivity, the higher frequencies have a shallow skin
depth—that is less penetration into the melt. Lower frequencies can generate stirring
or turbulence in the metal.

A preheated, one­tonne furnace melting iron can melt cold charge to tapping readiness
within an hour. Power supplies range from 10 kW to 15 MW, with melt sizes of 20 kg to
30 tonnes of metal respectively.

An operating induction furnace usually emits a hum or whine (due to fluctuating

magnetic forces and magnetostriction), the pitch of which can be used by operators to
identify whether the furnace is operating correctly or at what power level.