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What is motivation ?
For psychologists and teachers alike 'motivation' has been one of the key concepts used to
explain different levels of performance. It purports to explain differences in the amount of effort
applied to learning tasks and is thus expected to be strongly related to differences in levels of
performance. At its simplest, motivation has been related to the amount of intellectual energy
typically used in learning activities, and this led to a belief that motivation could been seen as a
stable characteristic of the individual, on a par with personality.
Today we are more likely to stress the importance of two-way interactions between
individual differences, such as motivation, and the learning environment. We have to be cautious
in looking for simple causal explanations of differences in academic performance, yet the use of
the concept of motivation seems to carry with it an implication of unidirectional causality. In
reality, motivation is affected by experiences of learning, as well as itself influencing the quantity
and the quality of what is learned. In discussing motivation, we shall also have to beware of the
mechanistic and moralistic overtones often associated with its use as an explanation of success or
failure. Mechanistic models lead to simplistic and misleading explanations, while seeing
motivation as akin to personality may lead us to believe that differences in effort stem entirely
from the nature, or the moral rectitude, of the individual. Some pupils are 'motivated', others are
'lazy'. This may be part of the explanation, but it all too conveniently lays the blame for poor
performance soley on the learner. And we would still have to explain, and change, that 'laziness'.
It will be important to remember that our real focus of interest is not on motivation itself,
rather it is on the amount of effort pupils put into their work. Motivation contains implications
about the origins of effort, but if we accept that it is not a fixed quality of the individual, then we
shall have to widen our search for explanations of effort. Time and again we shall find that
behind both motivation and effort lie reward and punishment. And associated with those are
strong emotional reactions to perceived success and failure. Motivation may seem to explain
hard work, but striving ceases if rewards are removed, prove unobtainable, or cease to be valued.
Moreover, if feelings of failure predominate, incentives may fail altogether to produce effort. It
seems, therefore, that we shall find the roots of motivation in the availability and use of rewards,
and in how those rewards are perceived and interpreted by the pupils .
The main focus of this paper will be on recent developments in research on motivation and
learning strategies, but they need to be put in the context of earlier resaerch which developed
along two main fronts. One followed the precepts of behaviourist theories, while the other
looked for evidence of individual traits describing different forms of motivation.
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Reinforcement and Drive Reduction
The early behaviourists saw motivation in terms of the motive power which could explain the
effort applied to learning tasks. They used an analogy from mechanics to suggest that actions
were dependent on the combined effects of various forces acting on the individual. These forces
could be external or internal. Externally, behaviour could be manipulated by rewarding or
reinforcing the desired behaviours, while the reduction in the level of internal drive states could
also be used for reinforcement. In animals, hunger and fear were used as internal drives towards
required behaviour. It was seen that such drives might also explain human behaviour. The
amount of effort put into a task depended on the level of drive, and what was learned could be
explained in terms of the combined effects of external rewards or correctives and internal drives
rooted ultimately in physiological needs.
Even in these early days, it was recognised by Abraham Maslow, among others, that humans
had both psychological and physiological needs, and that those needs could be presented as a
hierarchy, implying that lower order needs had to be satisfied before higher order ones could be
addressed. Thus children who were hungry or felt rejected or ineffective could not be expected
to respond to the higher-order needs for knowledge, intellectual understanding, or aesthetic
appreciation. These ideas remain true and important today, but for many years mainstream
psychological research persisted along a track which remained mechanistic and deterministic.
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step in relating motives to rewards. He then went on to subdivide each of these three broad
motivational domains, into three more narrowly defined motives.
The first domain describes emotional and social forms of reinforcement. The relationship
with the parents establishes one strong and continuing motive. Pleasing parents provides as its
reward the expression of warmth through caring and loving sentiments. Identification , with
parents and later with teachers, becomes for the child one sure way of ensuring adult approval by
modelling their own behaviour. It thus becomes a strong secondary form of reinforcement. As
the child's social network extends, approval from peers or sociability becomes increasingly
important with its rewards in acceptance by friends. These first three motives were clearly
recognisable in interviews at all ages, and represent the affective domain of motivation rarely
found in previous descriptions of school motivation, yet it is of fundamental importance for
teachers both in understanding pupils' behaviour and in planning effective methods of education.
Reinforcement within the second domain of motivation comes from cognitive and practical
accomplishments. As children develop, the strong bond with parents is challenged by an
increasing demand for autonomy and independence. The sense of freedom, of achieving
something in their own way, becomes increasingly important for adolescents, but was also
identified in younger pupils. Children seek to extend their mastery over the environment through
acquiring knowledge and skills - a feeling of competence which has its own strong reinforcing
quality. Interest , and the rewards of self-expression, represent the last cognitive dimension
which could be delineated from the interview data.
Finally, there are rewards deriving from personal and social responsiveness - the moral
domain. It describes the attempts to integrate and control the various sources of pleasure and
pain, and to reach personal decisions on what types of action are right or wrong, or potentially
rewarding or punishing, according to both personal and social values. Feeling that you are living
up to the trust of others develops self-esteem, and can be seen as a form of control internalised in
the conscience from previous actions of parents, teachers and friends. The next motive,
compliance, reflects the controlling influence of accepted social norms, higher-order moral
values, or religious beliefs and the feeling that you are following these codes of behaviour can be
satisfying. Finally, pupils develop, and enjoy, personal responsibility , judging their behaviour in
terms of their own internalised standards of what is acceptable.
These nine motives were established from interviews, but they have since been identified
from a series of inventories designed to assess the relative strength of these motives in pupils of
ages between 8 and 18. The factor structure has repeated shown the existence of three domains
generally with two distinguishable motives in each, but across different samples eight of the nine
hypothesized motives have appeared as factors (Kozeki and Entwistle, 1984).
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The second main distinction was between need for achievement and fear of failure. Need
for achievement can be seen as a search for success intended to boost, or at least maintain, self-
esteem. Fear of failure is its obverse - an anticipated threat to self-esteem rooted in pessimism
about the outcomes of learning. When these concepts were first introduced it was expected that
academic success would be driven solely by need for achievement (Atkinson & Feather,1966).
Fear of failure, in contrast, would lead to failure. However, it subsequently appeared that the
relationships were less clear-cut. In competitive situations and under time pressure, the expected
relationships were found, but under more collaborative, relaxed and informal learning conditions,
fear of failure was no disadvantage (Birney, Burdick & Teevan,1969).
In more recent research, the distinction between need for achievement and fear of failure
was seen very clearly in interviews carried out at Lancaster University, when students with high
scores on one or other of these traits were asked about their reactions to situations they had met
(Entwistle, Thompson & Wilson,1974). The most striking difference was found in their
comments about examinations. Students motivated by need for achievement welcomed the
challenge as an opportunity to prove their worth.
I enjoy doing exams. I think it's the challenge. You've got three or four hours and, somehow or other, you've
got to get out of yourself enough of a pattern to knit something up, to knit three or four different garments
out of a tangle of wool. It's fun - when you know enough to make it fun.
In contrast, students dominated by fear of failure expressed feelings of depression or panic.
I was hysterical at 'O' Levels, 'A' Levels too. I don't know what's going to happen this summer...As soon as I
look at the paper I panic and think I can't do anything. Eventually, I get my nerve back and regain control.
(Even so) perhaps two or three times throughout the exam, I go all hot and think I've got it all wrong. And
one bad question really mucks me up.
Even though the pessimism is clear in these comments, many of these anxious students had done
quite well. But in spite of repeated evidence of their academic competence, they still anticipated
future academic disaster. The analyses of the interviews suggested strongly that these
contrasting motivations were rooted in very different personalities. And it seemed that
students of differing personality and motivational types not only tackle their academic work in different ways
but,from descriptions of their university experience, they evidently perceive themselves to be in
differing environments.
The interviews highlighted how different were students' subjective perceptions of what
were, objectively, comparable sets of experiences. Moreover, their feelings about their
achievements and their explanations of their past successes and failures were in total contrast.
Thus, to some extent at least, it makes sense to talk about motivation as a characteristic of the
individual which colours the experiences of learning. And it is also important to recognise that
students see their experiences of success and failure in very different ways, and this influences
their investment of effort.
Approaches to Learning
Nisbet and Shucksmith (1986) highlight the importance of metacognitive awareness through an
analogy of soccer training. It is not sufficient to teach the skills of ball control, passing or
shooting. Pupils need to know when to pass, where to run, when to slow the game down. The
orchestration of skills into strategies is a necessary part of being an effective player. There is
more to it than that, though. There has to be an overall game plan so that the players have a
sense of what the strategies are intended to achieve. In relation to studying, the term approach to
learning has come to describe this broadest level which controls the strategies.
It was Ference Marton and his colleagues at Gothenburg who introduced the concept of
approach to learning with its two main categories of deep and surface (Marton & Saljo,1984).
The main defining feature of each of these categories is the contrasting intention shown by
students. Thus a deep approach involves an intention to reach a personal understanding of the
material presented, and this necessitates a lively interaction with the content, relating it to
previous knowledge and experience, as well as examining the evidence and evaluating the logical
steps by which the conclusions are reached. In contrast the surface approach involves an
intention merely to satisfy task or course requirements, which are seen as external impositions,
largely unconnected with personal interests. The surface approach can still be active, but it
relies on identifying the elements within the task most likely to be assessed, and then memorizing
those details. The main defining features of these two approaches will be found in Table 2.
( Table 2 about here)
Subsequently a third category of approach has been identified (Ramsden, 1981). In this
strategic approach there is also a distinctive intention - to obtain the highest possible grades.
This approach involves using both deep and surface approaches as appropriate to maximise
attainment. It also involves being alert to cues from lecturers as to what is likely to be examined
and what criteria are used in marking. Analyses of both interview transcripts and inventory
scores have suggested that the strategic approach also involves well-organised study methods
and careful time management . But above all there is an alertness to assessment rules and
pressures, the strength of which cannot be stressed too much. Their influence on learning can be
seen right through from primary school to higher education. For example one student
commented.
I play the examination game. The examiners play it, so we play it too...The technique involves knowing
what's going to be in the exam and how it's going to be marked. You can acquire these techniques from
sittingin a lecturer's class, getting ideas from his point of view, the form of his notes, and the books he has
written - and this is separate to picking up the actual work content (Miller & Parlett, 1974).
While such a conscious recognition of two separate foci of attention in learning is not common,
the phenomenon is implicit in many students' comments and can be seen also in the distinction
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between deep and surface approaches (Entwistle, 1987). How is motivation related to these
different approaches to learning? In experiments, perceived interest and relevance have been
shown to be related to the deep approach, while feelings of anxiety apparently push students
towards a surface approach (Fransson, 1977). In interviews, science students saw 'prior
knowledge' as an important influence on their approaches to learning, while arts students
emphasized 'interest' (Entwistle & Ramsden, 1983). From inventories, clear patterns of
relationships have been established. The deep approach is closely related to intrinsic motivation,
but also to need for achievement. The surface approach is linked with fear of failure, supported
by extrinsic or vocational motivation. The strategic approach is associated mainly with the need
for achievement, but also with vocational motivation (Entwistle, in press).
With this series of studies, there is still the danger of ascribing the outcomes of learning
entirely to the effort and strategies of the individual pupil. But research on study strategies
reminds us that they can be taught. Similarly, the balance between extrinsic and intrinsic
motivation, or between external and internal attributions, can be changed through the
professional skill of the teacher.
References
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Table 1 Pupils' learning strategies
(Adapted from Nisbet & Shucksmith,1986)
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Table 2 Defining Features of Approaches to Learning
(From Entwistle,1987a)
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Deep Approach
Intention to understand
Vigorous interaction with content
Relate new ideas to previous knowledge
Relate concepts to everyday experience
Relate evidence to conclusions
Examine the logic of the argument
Surface Approach
Intention to complete task requirements
Memorise information needed for assessments
Treat task as an external imposition
Unreflectiveness about purpose or strategies
Focus on discrete elements without integration
Failure to distinguish principles from examples
Strategic Approach
Intention to obtain highest possible grades
Gear work to perceived preferences of teacher
Awareness of marking schemes and criteria
Systematic use of previous exam papers in revision
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Table 3 Teachers' strategies for motivating
(Adapted from Brophy, in press)
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General strategies
1. Stress value and relevance of school work to everyday life
2. Show that you expect pupils to enjoy learning
3. Treat tests as ways of checking personal progress
Specific strategies
4. Explain why you find a topic or idea interesting
5. Introduce topics or tasks in ways which arouse interest
6. Create suspense or stimulate curiosity
7. Make abstract content more personal, concrete or familiar
8. Present paradoxes or incongruities for discussion
9. Encourage pupils to relate topics to their own interests
10. Explain course aims and help pupils set their own goals and targets
11. Provide full and informative feedback on performance
12. Teach problem-solving by personal example
13. Encourage metacognitive awareness of learning processes
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Figure 1
A model relating sources of motives to motivational styles
(From Kozeki,1985)
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Figure 2
A map of concepts describing motivation and learning strategies
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