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LECTURE NOTES

UNIT 1
Meaning Definitions of HRD:
1. According to South Pacific Commission ‘human resource development is equipping people
with relevant skills to have a healthy and satisfying life’.
‘Human resource development is fostering long-term work related learning capacity at
individual, group and organizational level’.
‘Human resource development is the process of increasing the capacity of the human resource
through development. It is thus the process of adding value to individuals, teams or an
organization as a human system’.
Features of HRD:
1. Systematic approach
2. Continuous process
3. Multi-disciplinary subject
4. All-pervasive
5. Techniques
Scope of HRD:
1. Recruitment and selection of employees for meeting the present and future requirements of an
organization.
2. Performance appraisal of the employees in order to understand their capabilities and
improving them through additional training.
3. Offering the employees’ performance counselling and performance interviews from the
superiors.
4. Career planning and development programmes for the employees.
5. Development of employees through succession planning.
6. Workers’ participation and formation of quality circles.
7. Employee learning through group dynamics and empowerment.
8. Learning through job rotation and job enrichment.
9. Learning through social and religious interactions and programmes.
10. Development of employees through managerial and behavioural skills.
Objectives of HRD:
The prime objective of human resource development is to facilitate an organizational
environment in which the people come first. The other objectives of HRD are as follows:
1. Equity:
HRD must ensure that the organization creates a culture and provides equal opportunities to all
employees in matters of career planning, promotion, quality of work life, training and
development.
2. Employability:
HRD should aim at improving the skills of employees in order to motivate them to work with
effectiveness.
3. Adaptability:
Continuous training that develops the professional skills of employees plays an important role in
HRD. This can help the employees to adapt themselves to organizational change that takes place
on a continuous basis.
HRD Functions:
1. Employee training and development,
2. Career planning and development,
3. Succession planning,
4. Performance appraisal,
5. Employee’s participation in management,
6. Quality circles,
7. Organization change and organization development.
Personnel management
"Personnel management is that part of management function which is primarily concerned with
the human relationship within the organization. Its objective is the maintenance of those
relationships on a basis which by consideration of the well-being of the individual, enables all
those engaged in the undertaking to make their maximum contribution to the effective working
of that undertaking."
The features of personnel management
(1) Specialized branch of general management
(2) Management of human resources
(3) A pervasive function
(4) Management of employees as an
individual and as a group
(5) Development of employees
(6) A technique of thinking
(7) Based on principles
(8) A never ending process.
Difference between traditional personnel management and HRD

Role analysis
Role analysis is designed to determine what behaviors are needed to carry out a particular role
successfully, in a quick and effective way. The process is simple and the result is a clear job
profile. It is designed to provide an intuitive way of thinking about the behavior and the
motivation necessary to successfully fill a specific job.
Methods of role analysis
1. Focal Person’s Perception of his Role
2. Role Sent and Received
3. Focal Person’s Perception of his Role as Perceived by Role Sender
4. Actual Role Perception
Key Performance Area
KPA is Key Performance Area. KPA is the overall scope of activities that an individual has to
perform. It is the main achievement space for the job role (Achievement being the operative
word.).

Key Performance Area


Key = crucial/main
Performance = Achievement/Attainment
Area = space/range/field of operation
KEY PERFORMANCE AREA = Main achievement space
-KPA is the overall scope of activities that an individual on a job role has to perform.
-KPA is not always result focused.
-KPA’s can be inclusive of KRA’s
In organizations, each role or job has a “Job Description (JD)” which consist of all the
responsibilities the person on job has to perform. All the activities listed in JD falls in two
categories:
Key Performance Areas
 Maintaining good working condition in plant.
 Optimum Resource Utilization.
 Process Improvement.
 Safety and Prevention planning and control.
 Working within the company’s SLA(Service Level Agreement),
GRC(Governance, Risk Management and Compliance) policies
UNIT 2
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
Performance Appraisal is the systematic evaluation of the performance of employees and to
understand the abilities of a person for further growth and development. Performance appraisal is
generally done in systematic ways which are as follows:
 The supervisors measure the pay of employees and compare it with targets and
plans.
 The supervisor analyses the factors behind work performances of employees.
 The employers are in position to guide the employees for a better performance.
Objectives of Performance Appraisal
Performance Appraisal can be done with following objectives in mind:
 To maintain records in order to determine compensation packages, wage
structure, salaries raises, etc.
 To identify the strengths and weaknesses of employees to place right men on right
job.
 To maintain and assess the potential present in a person for further growth and
development.
 To provide a feedback to employees regarding their performance and related
status.
 To provide a feedback to employees regarding their performance and related
status.
 It serves as a basis for influencing working habits of the employees.
 To review and retain the promotional and other training programmes.
Features of Performance Appraisal:
1. Systematic process of evaluation of an employee.
2. Analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of an employee.
3. To find out how well an employee is performing the job.
4. Appraisal is done periodically.
5. It is based on a definite plan.
6. Performance appraisal is different from job evaluation
Steps Involved in Process of Performance Appraisal
The six steps involved in process of performance appraisal are as follows: 1. Establish
Performance Standards 2. Communicate Performance Expectation to Employee 3. Measure
Actual Performance 4. Compare Actual Performance with Standards 5. Discuss the Appraisal
with the Employee 6. Initiate Corrective Actions.

Performance Appraisal Process


1. Objectives definition of appraisal
2. Job expectations establishment
3. Design an appraisal program
4. Appraise the performance
5. Performance Interviews
6. Use data for appropriate purposes
7. Identify opportunities variables
8. Using social processes, physical processes, human and computer assistance
METHODS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS
Numerous methods have been devised to measure the quantity and quality of performance
appraisals. Each of the methods is effective for some purposes for some organizations only.
None should be dismissed or accepted as appropriate except as they relate to the particular needs
of the organization or an employee.
Broadly all methods of appraisals can be divided into two different categories.
 Past Oriented Methods
 Future Oriented Methods
Past Oriented Methods
1. Rating Scales: Rating scales consists of several numerical scales representing job related
performance criterions such as dependability, initiative, output, attendance, attitude etc. Each
scales ranges from excellent to poor. The total numerical scores are computed and final
conclusions are derived. Advantages – Adaptability, easy to use, low cost, every type of job can
be evaluated, large number of employees covered, no formal training required. Disadvantages –
Rater’s biases
2. Checklist: Under this method, checklist of statements of traits of employee in the form of Yes
or No based questions is prepared. Here the rater only does the reporting or checking and HR
department does the actual evaluation. Advantages – economy, ease of administration, limited
training required, standardization. Disadvantages – Raters biases, use of improper weighs by HR,
does not allow rater to give relative ratings
3. Forced Choice Method: The series of statements arranged in the blocks of two or more are
given and the rater indicates which statement is true or false. The rater is forced to make a
choice. HR department does actual assessment. Advantages – Absence of personal biases
because of forced choice. Disadvantages – Statements may be wrongly framed.
4. Forced Distribution Method: here employees are clustered around a high point on a rating
scale. Rater is compelled to distribute the employees on all points on the scale. It is assumed that
the performance is conformed to normal distribution. Advantages – Eliminates Disadvantages –
Assumption of normal distribution, unrealistic, errors of central tendency.
5. Critical Incidents Method: The approach is focused on certain critical behaviors of employee
that makes all the difference in the performance. Supervisors as and when they occur record such
incidents. Advantages – Evaluations are based on actual job behaviors, ratings are supported by
descriptions, feedback is easy, reduces recency biases, chances of subordinate improvement are
high. Disadvantages – Negative incidents can be prioritized, forgetting incidents, overly close
supervision; feedback may be too much and may appear to be punishment.
6. Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales: statements of effective and ineffective behaviors
determine the points. They are said to be behaviorally anchored. The rater is supposed to say,
which behavior describes the employee performance. Advantages – helps overcome rating
errors. Disadvantages – Suffers from distortions inherent in most rating techniques.
7. Field Review Method: This is an appraisal done by someone outside employees’ own
department usually from corporate or HR department. Advantages – Useful for managerial level
promotions, when comparable information is needed, Disadvantages – Outsider is generally not
familiar with employees work environment, Observation of actual behaviors not possible.
8. Performance Tests & Observations: This is based on the test of knowledge or skills. The
tests may be written or an actual presentation of skills. Tests must be reliable and validated to be
useful. Advantage – Tests may be apt to measure potential more than actual performance.
Disadvantages – Tests may suffer if costs of test development or administration are high.
9. Confidential Records: Mostly used by government departments, however its application in
industry is not ruled out. Here the report is given in the form of Annual Confidentiality Report
(ACR) and may record ratings with respect to following items; attendance, self expression, team
work, leadership, initiative, technical ability, reasoning ability, originality and resourcefulness
etc. The system is highly secretive and confidential. Feedback to the assessee is given only in
case of an adverse entry. Disadvantage is that it is highly subjective and ratings can be
manipulated because the evaluations are linked to HR actions like promotions etc.
10. Essay Method: In this method the rater writes down the employee description in detail
within a number of broad categories like, overall impression of performance, promote ability of
employee, existing capabilities and qualifications of performing jobs, strengths and weaknesses
and training needs of the employee. Advantage – It is extremely useful in filing information gaps
about the employees that often occur in a better-structured checklist. Disadvantages – It its
highly dependent upon the writing skills of rater and most of them are not good writers. They
may get confused success depends on the memory power of raters.
11. Cost Accounting Method: Here performance is evaluated from the monetary returns yields
to his or her organization. Cost to keep employee, and benefit the organization derives is
ascertained. Hence it is more dependent upon cost and benefit analysis.
12. Comparative Evaluation Method (Ranking & Paired Comparisons): These are collection
of different methods that compare performance with that of other co-workers. The usual
techniques used may be ranking methods and paired comparison method.
 Ranking Methods: Superior ranks his worker based on merit, from best to worst.
However how best and why best are not elaborated in this method. It is easy to
administer and explanation.
 Paired Comparison Methods: In this method each employee is rated with another
employee in the form of pairs. The number of comparisons may be calculated
with the help of a formula as under.
N x (N-1) / 2
Future Oriented Methods
1. Management By Objectives: It means management by objectives and the performance is
rated against the achievement of objectives stated by the management. MBO process goes as
under.
 Establish goals and desired outcomes for each subordinate
 Setting performance standards
1. Comparison of actual goals with goals attained by the employee
 Establish new goals and new strategies for goals not achieved in previous year.
Advantage – It is more useful for managerial positions.
Disadvantages – Not applicable to all jobs, allocation of merit pay may result in setting short-
term goals rather than important and long-term goals etc.
2. Psychological Appraisals: These appraisals are more directed to assess employees potential
for future performance rather than the past one. It is done in the form of in-depth interviews,
psychological tests, and discussion with supervisors and review of other evaluations. It is more
focused on employees emotional, intellectual, and motivational and other personal characteristics
affecting his performance. This approach is slow and costly and may be useful for bright young
members who may have considerable potential. However quality of these appraisals largely
depend upon the skills of psychologists who perform the evaluation.
3. Assessment Centers: This technique was first developed in USA and UK in 1943. An
assessment center is a central location where managers may come together to have their
participation in job related exercises evaluated by trained observers. It is more focused on
observation of behaviors across a series of select exercises or work samples. Assessees are
requested to participate in in-basket exercises, work groups, computer simulations, role playing
and other similar activities which require same attributes for successful performance in actual
job. The characteristics assessed in assessment center can be assertiveness, persuasive ability,
communicating ability, planning and organizational ability, self confidence, resistance to stress,
energy level, decision making, sensitivity to feelings, administrative ability, creativity and
mental alertness etc. Disadvantages – Costs of employees traveling and lodging, psychologists,
ratings strongly influenced by assessee’s inter-personal skills. Solid performers may feel
suffocated in simulated situations. Those who are not selected for this also may get affected.
Advantages – well-conducted assessment center can achieve better forecasts of future
performance and progress than other methods of appraisals. Also reliability, content validity and
predictive ability are said to be high in assessment centers. The tests also make sure that the
wrong people are not hired or promoted. Finally it clearly defines the criteria for selection and
promotion.
4. 360-Degree Feedback: It is a technique which is systematic collection of performance data on
an individual group, derived from a number of stakeholders like immediate supervisors, team
members, customers, peers and self. In fact anyone who has useful information on how an
employee does a job may be one of the appraisers. This technique is highly useful in terms of
broader perspective, greater self-development and multi-source feedback is useful. 360-degree
appraisals are useful to measure inter-personal skills, customer satisfaction and team building
skills. However on the negative side, receiving feedback from multiple sources can be
intimidating, threatening etc. Multiple raters may be less adept at providing balanced and
objective feedback.
1. Performance Feedback
Most employees are very interested in knowing how well they are doing at present and how they
can do better in a future. They want this information to improve their performance in order to get
promotions and merit pay. Proper performance feedback can improve the employee's future
performance. It also gives him satisfaction and motivation.

2. Employee Training and Development Decisions


Performance Appraisal information is used to find out whether an employee requires additional
training and development. Deficiencies in performance may be due to inadequate knowledge or
skills. For e.g. A professor may improve his efficiency by attending workshops or seminars
about his subject. Performance appraisal helps a manager to find out whether he needs additional
training for improving his current job performance. Similarly, if the performance appraisal
results show that he can perform well in a higher position, then he is given training for the higher
level position.

3. Validation of Selection Process


Performance appraisal is a means of validating both internal (promotions and transfers) and
external (hiring new employees from outside) sources. Organisations spend a lot of time and
money for recruiting and selecting employees. Various tools used in the selection process are
application blanks, interviews, psychological tests, etc. These tools are used to predict (guess)
the candidate's performance on the job. A proper performance appraisal finds out the validity of
the various selection tools and so the company can follow suitable steps for selecting employees
in future.

4. Promotions
Performance appraisal is a way of finding out which employee should be given a promotion. Past
appraisals, together with other background data, will enable management to select proper persons
for promotion.

5. Transfers
Performance appraisal is also useful for taking transfer decisions. Transfers often involve
changes in job responsibilities, and it is important to find out the employees who can take these
responsibilities. Such identification of employees who can be transferred is possible through the
performance appraisal.
6. Layoff Decisions
Performance appraisal is a good way of taking layoff decisions. Employees may be asked to lay
off, if the need arises. The weakest performers are the first to be laid off. If there is no
performance appraisal, then there are chances that the best men in the department may be laid
off.

7. Compensation Decisions
Performance appraisal can be used to compensate the employees by increasing their pay and
other incentives. This is truer in the case of managerial jobs and also in the case of employees in
non-unionized organisations. The better performances are rewarded with merit pay.

8. Human Resource Planning (HRP)


The appraisal process helps in human resource planning (HRP). Accurate and current appraisal
data regarding certain employees helps the management in talking decisions for future
employment. Without the knowledge of who is capable of being promoted, demoted, transferred,
laid off or terminated, management cannot make employment plans for the future.

9. Career Development
Performance appraisal also enables managers to coach and counsel employees in their career
development.

Basic consideration in performance appraisal


 Timetable. Most employers have a fixed schedule for employee performance
evaluations. Usually, everyone is evaluated at the same time annually, or each
employee is evaluated on the anniversary of his or her start date. Find out when
your performance evaluation has been promised, and make sure your supervisor
sticks to that timetable.
 Purpose. The performance evaluation process should have a stated purpose. If the
documents you receive do not contain a stated purpose, ask your supervisor to
discuss this issue with you at the start of the evaluation process.
 Anti-discrimination laws. Like every other aspect of your job, the performance
evaluation process must comply with federal and state anti-discrimination laws. If
you suspect noncompliance, you should document your concerns and bring them
to your supervisor's attention immediately.
 Privacy. You have a right to confidentiality of your performance evaluation. In
most cases, only you and your supervisor will be involved in the evaluation
process. Some companies may include a representative from the human resources
department. Others take a team approach. If you suspect a breach of
confidentiality, you should document your concern and take it to your supervisor
immediately.
 Focus. Obviously, your workplace performance evaluation evaluates how well
you are doing your job. You have a right not to be evaluated on factors unrelated
to how well you do your job. For example, it is legal for your employer to assess
your loyalty to the company, but it would be illegal to evaluate you based on your
religious affiliation.
 Compensation. Is the performance evaluation process tied directly to a
compensation increase? If so, what factors determine whether employees get a
raise? Find out whether raises are based on merit, cost of living, or some other
factor.
 Objective versus subjective criteria. Objective evaluation criteria include test
results and other measurable goals, such as number of sales calls made. Subjective
criteria, on the other hand, are those measured by the evaluator's personal
assessment of the employee's performance, such as evaluating tasks on a scale
from "extremely satisfactory" to "satisfactory" to "average," etc. A good
performance appraisal form includes objective criteria for evaluation as well as
subjective criteria for evaluating the employee's performance. If your evaluation
form does not include some objective criteria, investigate whether you could
suggest some objective criteria to add to the form.
 Negative appraisal. As a general matter, your performance evaluation should be
specific, and this is especially important when you've been evaluated negatively.
If your performance evaluation contains criticism, ask your supervisor to provide
very specific examples to support the evaluation, and request specific suggestions
for improvements.
 Evaluate the evaluator. Although it is rare, some courts have recognized an
employee's cause of action against an employer for negligent performance of
performance evaluations. In other words, your employer may owe you a duty to
act in a reasonable manner in evaluating your performance. Thus, if you feel that
the person in charge of evaluating your performance has not acted competently,
you may wish to discuss it with human resources personnel, your union
representative, or an employment law attorney.
 Retain records. Be sure to keep a copy of every performance evaluation, as well
as informal assessments of your job performance, such as an e-mail message that
commends you for a job well done. These records may be your insurance against
arbitrary termination or demotion. Some courts have even ruled that performance
appraisals create an implied contract of employment.

factors that affect employee performance appraisal.


 Performance : Performance of an employee by default affects his appraisal. Every
organization would want to make better profits. If certain employees perform
above their caliber to help company achieve better results, the organization
would appreciate their efforts by giving them a raise in their compensation. It is a
motivating factor as well for employees who continue to contribute efficiently to
the organization.
 Attendance : A very essential part of employment is to be present at the
workstation and other team and company activities. Taking a day off once in a
while is okay, but frequent absenteeism will no doubt weigh down your
appraisals. Employees who have lesser absenteeism and are punctual can expect
good appraisals.
 Being motivated: A manager would love to see his employees work with
excitement and energy. Employees who get to work with motivation, take
initiatives and show interest to perform exceptionally are highly looked upon.
Positive employees are retained, respected and rewarded by the organization.
 Team work: Organizations like team players. Employees who gel well with the
team and help the team improve will surely be recognized and the efforts will be
honored. This would be one of the reasons why employees with still performance
will manage to get a healthier raise in their appraisals. Employees who spread
negativity among the team might have to face a tough time during their appraisals.
 Service to the customers: Employees who deal with customers of the organization
should make sure that they fulfill the required complainants. This is essential as
‘employee client relations’ will be responsible for bringing revenue to the
organization. Employees who do a good job here will definitely receive a bonus.
 Product knowledge: Employees should know in and out about the product or
service that they deal with. Product knowledge or process knowledge is an
attribute by which the employee is measured. Limited knowledge about the
product or service restricts customer experience, and also it is difficult to
convince the customers about the benefits of the product/service. This in turn
shows your inefficiency which leads to poor appraisal.

Advantages of performance appraisals:


 They provide a document of employee performance over a specific period of
time.
 They provide a structure where a manager can meet and discuss performance with
an employee.
 They allow a manager the opportunity to provide the employee with feedback
about their performance and discuss how well the employee goals were
accomplished.
 They provide a structured process for an employee to clarify expectations and
discuss issues with their manager.
 They provide a structure for thinking through and planning the upcoming year and
developing employee goals.
 They can motivate employees if supported by a good merit increase and
compensation system.

Disadvantages of performance appraisals:


 If not done right, they can create a negative experience.
 Performance appraisals are very time consuming and can be overwhelming to
managers with many employees.
 They are based on human assessment and are subject to rater errors and biases.
 Can be a waste of time if not done appropriately.
 They can create a very stressful environment for everyone involved.
INTERPERSONAL FEEDBACK
Feedback may be defined as a response or reaction providing useful information or guidelines for
further action or development. Carl Rogers listed five types of behaviour associated with
interpersonal feedback as they occur in every day conversation i.e.

Evaluative: This is where we judge the worth or appropriateness of the other persons statement.
We tend to judge more often than we try to describe or understand the feedback.
Interpretive: This is where we reword and reflect a summary of what has been said in order to
check our understanding of the feedback.
Supportive: This occurs when we assist or encourage the speaker.
Probing: As the name suggests this is when we seek more information, clarifying points and
continuing the discussion.
Understanding: Simply comprehending what the other person has said.
The way in which interpersonal feedback is delivered and received is important in the
development of successful working relationships and it is useful to understand and control the
process where possible, to avoid problems.

The Four Types of Feedback


Negative feedback, or corrective comments about past behavior. These are things that didn’t go
well.
Positive feedback, or affirming comments about past behavior. These are things that went well
and need to be repeated.
Negative feedforward, or corrective comments about future behavior. These are things that
don’t need to be repeated next time.
Positive feedforward, or affirming comments about future behavior. These are things that would
improve performance in the future.

Definition: Performance Counseling


Performance counseling is basically given by the manager to an employee exhibiting poor
performance. Mostly, counseling sessions take place when an employee fails to improve his
performance even after receiving an informal notification or advice about the same.
Features of Performance Counseling

(1) Conditions for effective counseling


 A climate of trust, confidence and openness is essential for effective counseling.
Counseling cannot be effective if the subordinate does not trust his boss.
 It is necessary that the subordinate should feel free to participate without fear or
inhibition as it is a dialogue between supervisor and subordinate and hence should
be a two way communication.
 The main purpose of counseling is employee development.
(2) Performance Counseling Phases
(a) Rapport Building: In the rapport building phase, a good counselor attempts to establish a
climate of acceptance, warmth, support, openness and mutuality. This phase involves generating
confidence in the employee to open up frankly, share his perceptions, problems, concerns,
feelings etc. The subordinate must be made to feel wanted and that his superior is genuinely
interested in his development.

(b) Exploration: In this phase, the counselor should attempt to help the employee understand
and appreciate his strengths and weaknesses. He should also understand his own situation,
problems and needs. Questions should be asked which help the employee focus on his problem.
For example, if an employee feels that his problem is that others do not co-operate with him, the
counselor may ask questions to narrow down the problem to the employee’s relationship with a
few individuals. Then the superior may ask questions to help the employee understand what he
does (or says) to his colleagues that is making it difficult for him to win their co-operations.
Problem identification is a critical step in planning for improvement. To help the employee make
a correct diagnosis of the problem, open-ended questions may be asked.

(c) Action Planning: Counseling interviews should end with specific plans of action for
development of the employee. The main contribution of the superior in this phase is in helping
the employee think of alternative ways of dealing with a problem. For example, in case of an
employee whose relationships with colleagues are poor, the superior may suggest “What three
things can you do in the coming week to improve your relationship with X?” After helping the
employee brainstorm, the superior may also add more alternatives to the solutions already
generated.
Finally the superior may render some assistance in helping the employee implement the agreed
upon action plan. Often good counseling sessions fail to produce effective results due to lack of
follow

Processes in Performance Counseling:-

(1) Feedback:
It is extremely important that the feedback is communicated in a manner that produces a
constructive response in the subordinate. Given below are some guidelines that could be
followed in giving feedback:
 Feedback should be descriptive and non- evaluative. Rather than putting the
employee in a defensive position by telling him” Your coming in late convinces
me that you are not serious about your work”, a manager may say, “I notice that
you have been regularly coming late and I am deeply concerned about this”.
1. It should be focused on the behavior of the person rather than on the person himself. It is
necessary to distinguish between the individual and his behavior in conveying the
negative feedback. It should be clear to the employee that what is being rejected or
criticized is some specific behavior of his. The intent is not to condemn the employee as
an individual.
 When conveying feedback, it is generally desirable to back it up with few
examples of actual events. Care must be exercised not to overdo this as the
subordinate may misinterpret it that the superior is systematically building up a
well-documented case against him.
1. Feedback should be given timely. It should be given at the first opportunity when the
employee is in the receptive mood.
 Feedback should be continuous. It should become a regular practice so that the
subordinate develops an ability to accept and act upon the feedback.
 Feedback should be checked and verified. This will ensure that the subordinate
has not misinterpreted the feedback received from his superior.
(2) Pre-Interview Preparation:
 Make sure you know what was mutually agreed in terms of job responsibilities
 Review the employee’s background, education, training and experience.
 Determine the strengths and development needs to be discussed with the
employee.
 Identify areas that need attention during the next review period.
 Make sure that the employee has sufficient advance notice for the interview so
that he has time to do his own preparation.
 It is always useful to note down the key points on a piece of paper.
(3) Interview
 Be sincere, informal and friendly. Explain the purpose of the discussion and make
it clear to the subordinate that the interview is a two way communication.
 Encourage the employee to discuss how he appraises his own performance.
 Before discussing suggestions you have for his development, encourage the
employee to tell his own plans.
 Make a record of plans you and the employee have made, points requiring follow-
up.

Objectives/Functions of Counselling:
Rendering advice:
It is the function of coaching by the counsellor, who may be the immediate boss or a
professional. Here the counsellor listens to the problems of the employees and then guides them
to the right direction. Reassurance it is the function of restoring the confidence of the employees,
helping them to feel courageous, to gain strength, and to develop positive thinking. In cases,
where employees are entrusted with challenging assignments, reassuring them is very important,
to help them realize that they can achieve the results.
Clarifying the thinking:
It is the function of encouragement to the employees to be rational and realistic. Employees often
lose their emotional balance in executing their assignments and jobs, and hence commit
decisional errors. Helping them to be rational by clarifying their way of thinking, puts them back
into the realities and enables them to achieve the results.
Release of emotional tension:
It is the process of relief from frustration and stress. The counsellor allows the employees to
share their grief. In the process of sharing, employees get relief from their emotional tensions.
This does not lead to a solution by itself, but it breaks the ice, allowing the counsellor to
understand the possible ways for solution.
Communication:
It is a process of sharing the information and understanding, through upward and downward
communication. Upward communication flows from the employees, who bring their feelings and
emotional problems to the notice of the management. Downward communication flows from the
counsellors, who help the employees get an insight into the activities of the organization.
Reorientation:
It is a process of encouragement to bring internal changes in goals, values, and mental models,
helping employees to leverage their strengths and guarding against their weaknesses.

Types of Counselling:
Directive counselling:
In this type of counselling, the counsellor plays the role of an empathetic listener and then takes
decisions about the right courses of action for the employees. The counsellor also motivates the
employees to follow the suggested courses of action.
Non-directive counselling:
The counsellor uses this type of counselling, not only to listen but also to provoke the employees
to explain the problems. On understanding the problems, the counsellor determines the courses
of action and then facilitates the employees to identify on their own, the possible solutions to
those problems. Since finding solutions to problems is left to the employees who are being
counselled, we also call it ‘client-centred’ counselling.
Participative or cooperative counselling:
It is in between the earlier two types of counselling. Here, both the counsellor and the counselled
develop close mental relationships, exchange ideas, feelings, knowledge, and information, to
overcome the problem of the counselee. Since the possible-solution inputs are also collected
from the counselee, we call it participative counselling.
UNIT 3
Meaning and definition of training:
 Training is a process of learning a sequence of programmed behavior.
 Training is the organized procedure by which people learn knowledge and skill
for a definite purpose.
Features:
 Training is a process with clearly defined parameters
 It is a process of empowerment of participants
 Training induce behavior changes in the area of knowledge and competency
 Training is a journey of self awareness and self discovery leading to growth and
development
 Training also assist in removing mental block dispelling those doubts or mis-
conceptions
 Training activities are planned sequence of events
 Training has intended and un-intended results
Objectives of training:
 Enhancing employee performance
 Updating employee skill
 Avoiding or delaying managerial obsolescence
 Preparing promotion and managerial succession
 Motivating and preventing employee attrition
 Gaining organizational excellence
Process of training:
Organization objectives and strategies

Assessment of training needs

Establishment of training goals

Designing training and development program

Implementation of training program

Evaluation of results
Areas of training:
The areas are classified into following categories,
 Knowledge
 Technical skill
 Social skill
 Techniques
Advantages of training:
 Reduction in cost of production-efficient workers do their works in the best
possible manner.
 Maximum utilization of materials and machines.
 Minimum possibility of accident-trained workers know the methods of doing their
jobs in required manner.
 High morele-it gives satisfaction to the workers for work.
 Improvement in quality and quantity of work.
 Minimum needs for supervision.
Disadvantages:
 Time consuming
 Increasing responsibility
 Costly affairs
 Increases competition
 Develops feeling of jealous and competition among the employees whwn an
employer praises an employee for his ggod work.
 Natural skills of an employee remain unexplored and hence some employees do
not get chance to develop their natural skills.

LEARNING
Learning is an important psychological process determining human behavior.
Learning is the process by which a person construct knowledge, skill and capabilities.

Characteristics:
 Learning is the growth to adjust himself to the change.
 Learning is adjustment
 Learning is organizing experience.
 Learning is continuous process as it affect all modes of behavior and continues
throughout life.
 Learning is transferable.

LEARNING STYLE.
 Diverger, these people able to look at thing from different perspectives.
 Assimilator, preference is for a concise, logical, approach.
 Converger, can solve the problems and will use their learning to find solutions to
practical issues.
 Accommodator, these people use other peoples analysis and prefer to take a
practical, experiential approach.

LEARNING PROCESS:
Includes nine instructional events.
 Reception(gaining attention)
 Expectancy
 Retrieval
 Perception
 Semantic encoding
 Responding
 Reinforcement
 Retrieval
 Generalization

TRAINING NEED ASSESSMENT:


Measuring and definition:
It is a tool utilized to identify what educational courses or activities should be provided to
management and employees to improve their management skills and work productivity.

Purpose of TNA:
The following are the reasons;
 To improve productivity of employees.
 To provide quality goods and services.
 To fulfill the objective and goal of the organization.
 To reduce the cost and time on training programme.
 It increases the motivation of the participants.

Levels of need assessment:


There are three levels of training,
 Strategic/organizational analysis
 Task analysis
 Individual analysis

Strategic /organizational analysis:


It focuses on strategic planning,business need and goals. It focuses on the strategies of the
organization,the resources in the organization,the allocation of these resources and also the total
internal environment.
According to Goldstein,the organizational analysis should identify,
 Organisational goals
 Organisational resources
 Organization climate
 Environmental constraints

Task analysis:
It provides data about a job or a group of jobs and the knowledge,skills,attitudea and abilities
needed to achieve optimum performance.
Techniques for conducting task analysis:
 Overall job description
 Task identification
 Describe the KSA needed to perform the task
 Identify the area that can benefit from the training programme
 Prioritize the training needs

Personal/individual analysis:
It focuses on each and every individual in the organization.
Techniques for conducting individual analysis:
2. Performance evaluation
3. Performance problems
4. Observation
5. Work samples
6. Interviews
7. Questionnaires
8. Attitude surveys
9. Checklists or training progress charts
Techniques for identifying training needs:
 Observation
 Interviews
 Questionnaires
 Job description
 Difficulty analysis
 Problem solving
 Appraisal reviews
 Drive pattern identity
 Analysis of organizational policy

Process of TNA:
2. Hold discussion with senior management
3. Establish the TNA objectives and schedule
4. Identify sources of information
5. Establish data collection methods
6. Collect the information
7. Analyse the data and identify training needs
8. Develop training objectives
9. Develop the training plan
10. Prepare the TNA report

Advantages of TNA:
To employees:
 Valuable time is not wasted for unnecessary training programmes.
 The job core and job development training required.
 TNA serves as a benchmark for determining what other knowledge,skills or
abilities are needed for various positions.
 TNA identifies training and other development needed for professional growth on
the job.
To management:
 TNA facilities focus on priority training and development needs.
 TNA provides support for management budget requests.
 TNA assists in strategic planning.
 TNA helps management programmes prioritize the allocation of resources for
continuing technical and professional training.
To HRM:
 TNA identifies core requirements for any management position that applicants
seek consideration.
 Tna provides a tool for the development of interview questions and exams.

Disadvantages of TNA:
 The only one of any significance is the need for the skilled person to be employed
and consequently the use of the persons time.
 Failure to conduct any form of TNA,in the same way as failure to validate and
evaluate the training programme.

TRAINING PROGRAMME DESIGN:


Designing training programme requires not only a thorough understanding of the training
problem. It is a detailed sketch foe what will be done,why it is being done,and the best ways
to reach the training objectives.

Planning of training policy deals with certain vital issues:


Who are the trainees?
Trainees should be selected on the basis of self nomination,recommendations of supervisors
or by the human resource department itself whatever the basis,it is advisable to have two or
more target audiences.
Who are the trainers?
Training and development programmes may be conducted by several people,including the
following:
1. Immediate supervisor
2. Co-workers,as in buddy systems
3. Members of the personnel staff
4. Specialists in other parts of the company
5. Outside consultants
6. Industry associations
7. Faculty members at universities

What should be the level of training?


There are three basic levels at which these inputs can be taught;
 At the lowest level,the employee or potential employee must acquire fundamental
knowledge.
 The goal of next level is skill development or acquiring the ability to perform is a
particular skill area.
 The highest level aims at incrrased operational proficiency.

Conduct of training:
A final consideration is where the training and development programme is to be conducted.
Actually,the decision comes down the following choices:
 At the job itself
 Onsite but not on the job
 Off the site,such as in a university or college classroom,hotel or conference
centre.

Steps in designing training programmes:


The five steps in programme design are,
Use training strategy or a combination of strategies

Break general training objectives into constituent parts

Use the specifications of different training methods

Decide on different programme packages and ask organization to select one

Merge detailed training events into the shape of total programme package

Implementing a training programme:


Steps:
Choosing delivery system

Communication training and development programmes

Implementation

Training methods:
On the job training methods/techniques:
It is very popular and used widely by majority organization.
On the job training:
An employee is placed in a new job and it is told how it is to be performed
Job instruction training:
It is known as training through step by step learning as it involves all necessary steps in the jobs.
Apprenticeship:
Major part of the training time is spent on the job productive works.Each apprentice is given a
program of assignment according to a pre determined schedule.
Coaching:
It is an activity of guiding a manager by a senior one.A senior manager must play an active role
in guiding and teaching skills.
Job rotation:
It refers to transfer of person from one job to another or from one department to another or one
section to another in planned manner.Objective is to acquire the diverse skills and knowledge
needed to perform the various jobs in the organization.
Understudy:
It is development technique to prepare a manager for taking over a charge of his senior after his
retirement,transfer,promotion or death.This technique provide an equally competent successor.
Off the job training methods/techniques:
The location of this training may be company classroom,an outside place owned by an
organization,an educational institution or an association.
These methods are as follows:
1. Simulating real life: role playing,games and in basket exercise
2. Demonstration and examples(or learning by seeing)
3. Laboratory training for personal and organization development
4. Sampling real test
5. Individualized training
6. Seminars and syndicates
7. Lecture methods
8. Training in the field

Difference between on the job and off the job training:


On the job training Off the job training
1.cheaper to carry out 1.expensive
2.very relevant,practical dealing with day-to- 2.deals with group of workers at same time.
day requirement of jobs.

3.workers not taken away from the job 3.workers are easily changeable
4.supervisor directly observe the working skill 4.trainees learn from the specialist
of the training
5.coaching,job rotation,apprentice 5.role play,seminars,lecture

Selection criteria for training methods:


 Nature of the problem
 Level of trainees in the organizations hierarchy
 Method’s ability to hold and arose the I nterest of trainees during trainees period
 Availability of competent trainers
 Availability of finance
 Availability of time
Evaluation of training method:
It can be defined as an analytical process involves the collection and reduction of data of all
phases of the instructional process and culminating in the synthesis of a report containing
recommendations about the instructional program being evaluated.
Purpose of evaluation:
 To determine success in accomplishing program objectives
 Identifying strength and weakness in the training processor
 To compare the cost to the benefits of the training program
 To decide who should participate in future program
 To test the clarity and validity of the test,cases and exercise
 To identify which participants were more successful with programs
 To gather data to assist in marketing future programs
 To determine if the program was the appropriate solution for the specific need
 To establish database that can assist managers in the decision making

CIRO method:
Context evaluation:
It involves collecting information about deficiency,assessing the informations to establish traing
needs.
Input evaluation:
Obtaining and using information about possible training resources to choose between alternative
inputs to training.
Reaction evaluation:
Obtaining and using information about participants reaction to improve the hrd process.
Outcome evaluation:
Obtaining and using information about outcome of training.
Cost benefit analysis:
It involves determination of cost and benefits of training and development of making comparison
between the two.
Break-even analysis:
It shows the relationship between training and development cost and its operational
outcome,both measured in the monitory terms for trained employees per annum.
UNIT5:

ORGANISATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS

Organizational effectiveness is defined as an extent to which an organization achieves its


predetermined objectives with the given amount of resources and means without placing undue
strain on its members.
Sometimes efficiency and effectiveness are used as synonyms. However, there exists a
difference between the two concepts. Therefore, it is important to explain the difference between
the concepts of effectiveness and efficiency to understand why organizations may be effective
but not efficient, or efficient but not effective. Effectiveness is a broad concept and takes into
account a collection of factors both inside and outside an organization. It is commonly referred to
as the degree to which predetermined goals are achieved. On the other hand, efficiency is a
limited concept that pertains to the internal working of an organization. It refers to an amount of
resources used to produce a particular unit of output. It is generally measured as the ratio of
inputs to outputs. Further, effectiveness concentrates more on human side of organizational
values and activities whereas efficiency concentrates on the technological side of an
organization.
Approaches to Organizational Effectiveness
However the concept of organizational effectiveness is not simple because there are many
approaches in conceptualizing this term. Such approaches can be grouped into following
three approaches:
1. Goal Approach
Goal attainment is the most widely used criterion of organizational effectiveness. In goal
approach, effectiveness refers to maximization of profits by providing an efficient service
that leads to high productivity and good employee morale. Several variables such as
quality, productivity, efficiency, profit, turnover, accidents, morale, motivation and
satisfaction, which help in measuring organizational effectiveness. However, none of the
single variable has proved to be entirely satisfactory.
The main limitation of this approaches the problem of identifying the real goals rather than
the ideal goals.
2. Functional Approach
This approach solves the problem of identification of organizational goals. Parson states
that since it has been assumed that an organization is identified in terms of its goal, focus
towards attainment of these goals should also aim at serving the society. Thus, the vital
question in determining effectiveness is how well an organization is doing for the super-
ordinate system.
The limitation of this approach is that when organizations have autonomy to follow its
independent courses of action, it is difficult to accept that ultimate goal of organization will
be to serve society. As such, it cannot be applied for measuring organizational effectiveness
in terms of its contributions to social system.
Both the goal and functional approach do not give adequate consideration to the
conceptual problem of the relations between the organization and its environment.
3. System Resource Approach
System-resource approach of organizational effectiveness emphasizes on inter-
dependency of processes that relate the organization to its environment. The
interdependence takes the form of input-output transactions and includes scarce and
valued resources such as physical, economic and human for which every organization
competes.
The limitation of this model is that an acquisition of resources from environment is again
related to the goal of an organization. Therefore, this model is not different from the goal
model.
Thus, discussion of organizational effectiveness leads to the conclusion that there is no
single indicator of effectiveness. Instead, the approach should focus on operative goals that
would serve as a basis for assessment of effectiveness.
Managerial effectiveness is a causal variable in organizational effectiveness. It has been
defined in terms of organizational goal-achieving behavior, i.e., the manager’s own
behavior contributes to achievement of organizational goals.
Factors Affecting Organizational Effectiveness
Likert has classified the factors affecting organizational effectiveness into following three
variables:
1. Causal Variables: Causal variables are those independent variables that determine
the course of developments within an organization and the objectives achieved by an
organization. These causal variables include only those independent variables,
which can be altered by organization and its management. Causal variables include
organization and management’s policies, decisions, business and leadership
strategies, skills and behavior.
2. Intervening Variables: Intervening variables according to Likert are those variables
that reflect the internal state and health of an organization. For example, loyalties,
attitudes, motivations, performance goals and perceptions of all the members and
their collective capacity for effective interaction, communication and decision-
making.
3. End-Result Variables: End-Result variables are the dependent variables that reflect
achievements of an organization such as its productivity, costs, loss and earnings.
Inter-Relationship of Variables

The three variables such as causal, intervening and end-result ore interrelated. The inter-
relationship may be visualized as psychological process where stimuli or causal variables acting
upon the organism or intervening variables and creating certain responses or end-result variables.
The causal, intervening and end-result variables comprise a complex network with many
interdependent relationships. The causal variables are the key to organizational effectiveness.
Hence, to make organization effective, attempt should be made to improve the causal variables,
while other variables will be corrected or improved automatically because of causal variables.

Organizational Effectiveness Model

The organizational effectiveness model can be presented in a more complex way i.e. at three
different levels such as the individual, group and organizational levels in order to make the
organization more effective. The effective organization is built of effective individuals who
work collectively in groups.
The extent to which individual and organizational goals are integrated, affects the degree of
organizational effectiveness, i.e., each individual tries to satisfy his goal by working in an
organization and simultaneously satisfying organizational goals. He may see his goal
satisfaction in satisfying organizational goals. If there is no perfect integration of individual
and organizational goals then organizational effectiveness is affected adversely. However,
organizational effectiveness is not a result of integration between individual and
organizational goals only but there are other causal variables affecting it.

ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE

DEFINITIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE


Organization culture has been defined, by scholars in varied ways and numerous definition
of culture have been proposed. A few of these insights are:
Porter, Lawler & Hackman (1975) identify organization culture as:
“A set of customs and typical patterns of ways of doing things. The force, pervasiveness
and nature of such model, beliefs and values vary considerably from
organization to organization. Yet it is assumed that an organization that has any history at
all has developed some sort of culture and that this will have a vital impact on the degree of
success of any effort to improve or alter the organization.”
Edgar H. Schein (1984) defines organization culture as:
“A set of basic assumptions that a given group has invented, discovered or developed in
learning to cope with its problems of external adaptations and internal integration that
have worked well enough to be considered valid, and therefore, to be taught to new
members as a correct way to percieve, think and feel in relation to these problems.”
According to Daniel R. Denison (1990):
“Organization culture refers to the underlying values, beliefs and principles that serve as a
foundation for organization’s management systems, as well as the set of management
practices and behaviors that both exemplify and reinforce those basic principles.”
Thus, though organization culture is defined by different people in different ways, most of
the definitions stress on the importance of shared norms and values in the study of culture.
The core of the culture is formed by values which are not visible but shared by people even
when membership in the group changes. Organization culture has many characteristics.
Based on the varied definitions of culture, Amarchand (1992) identified the following seven
distinct characteristics of organization culture. Culture is
 Learned
 Rooted in the traditions of the organization
 Shared by the people of the organization
 Transgenerational
 Cumulative
 Symbolic in nature
 Multifaceted (i.e. it is composed of several elements put together)

A critical examination of the deliberations presented above seems to suggest that culture
determines the important issues within the organization. It identifies the principal goals,
work methods and behaviours, work rules, individual interaction patters in which they
address each other and the ways in which personal relationships are conducted. Sinha
(1980) identified that in complex organizations there may be subcultures, which may be
different from each other. Different units of a corporate body may develop different
cultures. In the same organization, finance, production, marketing, personnel and
maintenance groups may hold different values and world-views and hence, while sharing
parts of the organization culture, these may have different specific patterns.

J. Chatman & Caldwell has suggested the


FOLLOWING SEVEN PRIMARY CHARACTERISTICS THAT CAPTURE THE
ESSENCE OF AN ORGANIZATION’S CULTURE:
1 Innovation and Risk Taking -The degree to which employees are encouraged to be
innovative and take risks.
2 Attention to detail -The degree to which employees are expected to exhibit precision,
analysis, and attention to detail.
3 Outcome Orientation -The degree to which management focuses on results or outcomes
rather than on the techniques and processes used to achieve these outcomes.
4 People Orientation -The degree to which management decisions take into consideration the
effect of outcomes on people within the organization.
5 Team Orientation -The degree to which work activities are organized around teams rather
than individuals.
6 Aggressiveness -The degree to which people are aggressive and competitive rather than
easygoing.
7 Stability -The degree to which organizational activities emphasize maintaining the status quo
in contrast to growth.
Types of organisational culture
Mechanistic and organic cultures:
Mechanistic culture exhibits the value of bureaucracy and feudalism.
Organic culture, formal hierarchy of authority, departmental boundaries, formal rules and
regulation, and prescribed channels of communication are forward upon.
Authoritarian and participative cultures.
Authoritative culture power is concentrated on the leader and obedience to orders and discipline
is stressed.
The participative culture, is premised on the notion that people are more committed to the
discipline that are participatively made than to those which are imposed on them.
STRONG AND WEAK CULTURE:
A strong culture will have a significant influnce on employee behaviour manifestation, lower
absenteeism, increase cohensiveness and positive attitudues. this is so becouse there at the is a
high agreement among members about what the organisation stands for.
A weak culture is charactrised by the presence of several sub-culture, sharing of few values and
behavioural norms by employees and existence of few sacred tradition.

FACTORS SHAPING ORGANISATION CULTURE:


1.characteristic of people within the organisation, the ultimate source of organisational culture.
2. organisational ethics,
3. property right system, the rights that an organisation gives to its members to receive and ues
organisational resources.
4. organisational structure. Organizational structure is the formal system of task and reporting
relationship that an organization establish to coordinate and motivate its employees.
These factors work together produce different culture in different culture in different
organization and cause change in culture over time.

HRD CLIMATE
The concept have been developed by RAO and ABRAHAM.
CLIMATE, is an overall feeling that is conveyed by the physical layout the way employees
interact and the way members of the organization conduct themselves with outside.
Acc. To RAO , HRD climate is the perception of the employee about the HRD culture in the
organization.
Acc. ABRAHAM , HRD climate is a set of characteristics of an organization which are referred
in the descriptions employees make of the policies, practices, and conditions which exist in the
working environment.
Characteristic of HRD climate.
A tendency at all levels starting from top management to the lowest level to treat the people as
the most important resource.
A perception that development the competencies in the employee is the job of every manager
Faith in the capabilities of employees to change and acquire new competences at any stage of
life.
Encouraging risk taking and experimentation.
A general climate of trust.
Team spirit
Tendency to discourage stereostypes
Supportive personnel policies
Supportive HRD practices.
FUNCTIONS OF ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE The main function of organisational
culture is to define the way of doing things in order to give meaning to organisational life
(Arnold, 2005). Making meaning is an issue of organisational culture, because organisational
members need to benefit from the lessons of previous members. As a result, organisational
members are able to profit from whatever trials and errors regarding knowledge others have been
able to accumulate (Johnson, 1990). Organisational culture also determines organisational
behaviour, by identifying principal goals; work methods; how members should interact and
address each other; and how to conduct personal relationships (Harrison, 1993). Brown (1998, p
89- 91) states the following functions of organisational culture: ™ Conflict reduction. A common
culture promotes consistency of perception, problem definition, evaluation of issues and
opinions, and preferences for action. ™ Coordination and control. Largely because culture
promotes consistency of outlook it also facilitates organisational processes of coordination and
control.
Reduction of uncertainty. Adopting of the cultural mind frame is an anxiety reducing device
which simplifies the world of work, makes choices easier and rational action seem possible. ™
Motivation. An appropriate and cohesive culture can offer employees a focus of identification
and loyalty, foster beliefs and values that encourage employees to perform. ™ Competitive
advantage. Strong culture improves the organisation’s chances of being successful in the
marketplace. In addition to the above functions, Martins and Martins (2003, p 382) also mention
the following as functions of organisational culture: ™ It has a boundary-defining role, that is, it
creates distinctions between one organisation and the other organisations. ™ It conveys a sense
of identity to organisational members. ™ It facilitates commitment to something larger than
individual self-interests. ™ It enhances social system stability as the social glue that helps to bind
the organisation by providing appropriate standards for what employees should say and do. ™ It
serves as a meaningful control mechanism that guides or shapes the attitudes and behaviours of
employees. These functions of organisational culture suggest that an organisation cannot operate
without a culture, because it assists the organisation to achieve its goals. In general terms,
organisational culture gives organisational members direction towards achieving organisational
goals (Hampden-Turner, 1990).

MEASURING HRD CLIMATE.


T V RAO , developed an instrument to measure the hrd climate by assessing the three
components
Organizational structure or general cimate: the structure enables the peoples energy to be focused
towards the process achievement and goal achievement.
Organizational and octapace culture: the octapace culture indicates the existence of 7 factors
namely openness confrontation ,trust ,atanomy and experimentation in an organization.
HRD mechanism or sub-system: HRM is total system, various sub-systems. these sub-systems
are known as HRD mechanism or HRD instruments. successful implementation of HRD
involves taking an integral look and making effort to use as many mechanism as possible.
Pre-requisites to develop HRD climate in organization.
Top to bottom effort:
organization is considered to be complete organization after including top authority to bottom
line of workers.
Motivator role of manger and supervisor:
To prepare human resource development climate, manager and supervisors responsibility aer
more or can say that they are the key players.
Faith upon the employees:
In the process of developing HRD climate employer should have faith on its employees
capabilities, means whatever amount it invested that should be based on development of
employee.
Free expression of feeling:
There should not be any hidden while communication process.Clear communication process will
help to establish the HRD climate.
Feedback:
Feedback should be taken regularly to know the drawbacks in system.This will help to gain
complaints in employees mind.
Helpful nature of employees:
The nature of employees should be helping for management and for its colleagues.

Supportive personnel management:


The personnel policies of organization should motive employees to contribute more from their
part.
Encouraging and risk taking experiments:
Employees should be motivated by giving them authority to take decision.
Discouraging stereotypes and favouritism:
Management need to avoid those practices which leads to favouritism.Management and
managers need to give equal importance.

ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT:
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AS A CONCEPT
Organizational Development (OD) is a management discipline designed to improve an
organization's effectiveness and productivity. Rooted in behavioral science foundations,
OD focuses on complex interpersonal skills as they affect the problem solving activities
critical to the organization/s. Following an in-depth assessment of organization's select
needs, activities such as coaching, visionary planning, and group change processes are
utilized to address pivotal areas necessary for success.
Organizational Development is a systematic approach to organizational improvement that
applies behavioral science theory and research in order to increase individual and
organizational well-being and effectiveness. It is a term used to include a collection of
planned change interventions that seek to improve organizational effectiveness and
employee well being.
Organization development (OD) applies behavioral-science knowledge and practices to
help organizations change to achieve greater effectiveness. It seeks to improve how
organizations relate to their external environments and function internally to attain high
performance and high quality of work life.
OD emphasizes change in organizations that is planned and implemented deliberately. It is
both an applied field of social practice and a domain of scientific inquiry. Practitioners,
such as managers, staff experts, and consultants, apply relevant knowledge and methods to
organization change processes, while researchers study those processes to derive new
knowledge that can subsequently be applied elsewhere. In practice, this distinction between
application and knowledge generation is not straight-forward as OD practitioners and
researchers often work closely together to jointly apply knowledge and learn from those
experiences (Lawler et al., 1985). Thus, OD is an ‘action science’ where knowledge is
developed in the context of applying it and learning from the consequences (Argyris et
al.1985).
OD encompasses a diversity of concepts and methods for changing organizations. Although
several definitions of OD have been presented (Beckhard, 1969; Bennis, 1969; French,
1969; Beer, 1980;Burke, 1982), the enormous growth of new approaches and techniques
has blurred the boundaries of the field and made it increasingly difficult to describe. The
following definition seeks to clarify emerging aspects of OD while drawing on previous
definitions of the field: “Organization development is a systemwide process of
applying behavioralscience knowledge to the planned change and development of the
strategies, design components, and processes that enable organizations to be effective.”
OD addresses an entire system, such as a team, department, or total organization. It also
deals with relationships between a system and its environment as well as among the
different features that comprise a system’s design. This system-wide application follows
from an open-systems approach to organizations (Thompson, 1967; Katz & Kahn, 1978;
Cummings, 1980).
OD focuses on changing and improving three key aspects of
organizations: Strategies: Strategies have to do with how organizations use their resources
to gain competitive advantage. This includes choices about the functions an organization
will perform, the products or services it will provide, and the markets and customers it will
serve.
Design Components: Design components include decisions about organization structure,
work design, measurement systems, and human resources practices.
Processes: Processes have to do with how organizations go about doing things and include
how members relate to each other and their tasks and how different functions, such as
communication and decision-making, are performed.
OD seeks to bring congruence or fit among strategies, design components, and processes so
they mutually guide and reinforce organizational behavior in a strategic direction.
Finally, OD focuses on improving organization effectiveness. This includes helping
organizations achieve high performance, good quality of work life, and capacity for
continued problem-solving and improvement. Effective organizations perform at high
levels while meeting the needs of various stakeholders, including owners, customers,
employees, suppliers, and government regulators. They have a high quality of work life
that enables them to attract and retain talented members. Effective organizations are able
to solve their own problems while continually improving and renewing themselves.

According to Robbins the following briefly identifies the underlying values in most OD
efforts:
1 Respect for people: Individuals are perceived as being responsible, conscientious,
and caring. They should be treated with dignity and respect.
2 Trust and Support: The effective and healthy organization is characterized by
trust, authenticity, openness, and a supportive climate.
3 Power Equalization: Effective organizations deemphasize hierarchical authority
and control.
4 Confrontation: Problems shouldn’t be swept under the rug. They should be
openly confronted.
5 Participation: The more that people who will be affected by a change are involved
in the decisions surrounding that change, the more they will be committed to implementing
those decisions.

Some recent definitions of Organization Development


According to Burke(1994),
“Organization Development is a planned process of change in an organization’s culture
through the utilization of behavioural science technologies, research, and theory.’
Cummings and Worley (1993) defined OD as,
“A system wide application behavioural science knowledge to the planned development
and reinforcement of organizational strategies, structures, and processes for
improving an organization’s effectiveness
OD INTERVENTIONS
Organization Development (OD) is a unique organizational improvement strategy. The sets
of structured/planned activities adopted by groups or individuals in an organization as a
part of the organization development program are known as OD techniques or OD
interventions. While change programs may involve either external or internal consultants,
OD interventions mostly involve external consultants.
“OD interventions are sets of structured activities in which selected organizational units
(target groups or individuals) engage in a task or sequence of tasks with the goals of
organizational improvement and individual development.”
OD interventions are plans or programs comprised of specific activities designed to effect
change in some facet of an organization. Numerous interventions have been developed over
the years to address different problems or create various results. However, they all are
geared toward the goal of improving the entire organization through change. In general,
organizations that wish to achieve a high degree of organizational change will employ a full
range of interventions, including those designed to transform individual and group
behavior and attitudes. Entities attempting smaller changes will stop short of those goals,
applying interventions targeted primarily toward operating policies, management
structures, worker skills, and personnel policies. OD interventions can be categorized in a
number of ways, including function, the type of group for which they are intended, or the
industry to which they apply. In fact, W.L. French identified 13 major "families" of
interventions based on the type of activities that they included—activity groups included
teambuilding, survey feedback, structural change, and career-planning. One convenient
method of classifying OD interventions is by group size and interrelationship, including:
interpersonal relationships, group processes, intergroup systems, and the entire
organization. Typically, an OD program will simultaneously integrate more than one of
these interventions. A few of the more popular interventions are briefly described below.

OD INTERVENTION TECHNIQUES
1. Sensitivity Training
2. Survey Feedback
3. Process Consultation
4. Team Building
5. Intergroup Development

SENSITIVITY TRAINING
Sensitivity training is a psychological technique in which intensive group discussion and
interaction are used to increase individual awareness of self and others; it is practiced in a variety
of forms under such names as T-group, encounter group, human relations, and group-dynamics
training. The group is usually small and unstructured and chooses its own goals.
Sensitivity training is often offered by organizations and agencies as a way for members of a
given community to learn how to better understand and appreciate the differences in other
people. It asks training participants to put themselves into another person's place in hopes that
they will be able to better relate to others who are different than they are.
Sensitivity training often specifically addresses concerns such as gender sensitivity, multicultural
sensitivity, and sensitivity toward those who are disabled in some way. The goal in this type of
training is more oriented toward growth on an individual level. Sensitivity training can also be
used to study and enhance group relations, i.e., how groups are formed and how members
interact within those groups.
The origins of sensitivity training can be traced as far back as 1914, when
J.L. Moreno created "psychodrama," a forerunner of the group encounter (and sensitivity-
training) movement. This concept was expanded on later by Kurt Lewin, a gestalt psychologist
from central Europe, who is credited with organizing and leading the first T-group (training
group) in 1946. Lewin offered a summer workshop in human relations in New Britain,
Connecticut. The T-group itself was formed quite by accident, when workshop participants were
invited to attend a staff-planning meeting and offer feedback. The results were fruitful in helping
to understand individual and group behavior.
Sensitive Training in Practice An integral part of sensitivity training is the sharing, by each
member of the group, of his or her own unique perceptions of everyone else present. This, in
turn, reveals information about his or her own personal qualities, concerns, emotional issues, and
things that he or she has in common with other members of the group. A group's trainer refrains
from acting as a group leader or lecturer, attempting instead to clarify the group processes using
incidents as examples to clarify general points or provide feedback. The group action, overall, is
the goal as well as the process.
Sensitivity training resembles group psychotherapy (and a technique called psychodrama) in
many respects, including the exploration of emotions, personality, and relationships at an intense
level. Sensitivity training, however, usually restricts its focus to issues that can be reasonably
handled within the time period available. Also, sensitivity training does not include among its
objectives therapy of any kind, nor does it pass off trainers/facilitators as healers of any sort.
Groups usually focus on here-and-now issues; those that arise within the group setting, as
opposed to issues from participants' pasts. Training does not explore the roots of behavior or
delve into deeper concepts such as subconscious motives, beliefs, etc.
Sensitivity training seeks to educate its participants and lead to more constructive and beneficial
behavior. It regards insight and corrective emotional or behavioral experiences as more
important goals than those of genuine therapy. The feedback element of the training helps
facilitate this because the participants in a group can identify individuals' purposes, motives, and
behavior in certain situations that arise within the group. Group members can help people to
learn whether displayed behavior is meaningful and/or effective, and the feedback loop operates
continuously, extending the opportunity to learn more appropriate conduct.
Another primary principle of sensitivity training is that of feedback; the breakdown of inhibitions
against socially repressed assertion such as frankness and self-expression are expected in place
of diplomacy. Encounters that take place during sensitivity training serve to help people practice
interpersonal relations to which they are likely not accustomed. The purpose is to help people
develop a genuine closeness to each other in a relatively short period of time. Training
encounters are not expected to take place without difficulty. Many trainers view the encounter as
a confrontation, in which two people meet to see things through each other's eyes and to relate to
each other through mutual understanding.
SURVEY FEEDBACK
Survey feedback is one of the means which is used for assessing the attitudes held by the
members of the organizations, identifying discrepancies among member perceptions, and solving
these differences.
Everyone in an organization can participate in survey feedback, but of key importance is the
organizational family – the manager of any given unit and those employees who report directly
to him or her. A questionnaire is usually completed by all members in the organization.
Organization members may be asked to suggest or may be interviewed to determine what issues
are relevant. The questionnaire typically asks members for their perceptions and attitudes on a
broad range of topics, including decision making practices, communication effectiveness,
coordination between units, and satisfaction with the organization, job, peers, and their
immediate supervisor.
The data from this questionnaire are tabulated with data pertaining to an individual’s specific
‘family’ and to the entire organization and distributed to employees. These data then become the
springboard for identifying problems and clarifying issues that may be creating difficulties for
people. In some cases, the manager may be counseled by an external change agent about the
meaning of the responses to the questionnaire and may even be given suggested guidelines for
leading the organizational family in group discussion of the results. Particular attention is given
to the importance of encouraging discussion and ensuring that discussions focus on issues and
ideas and not on attacking individuals.
Finally group discussion in the survey feedback approach should result in member identifying
possible implications of the questionnaire’s findings. Are people listening? Are new ideas being
generated? Can decision making, interpersonal relations, or job assignments be improved?
Answers to questions like these, it is hoped, will result in the group agreeing upon commitments
to various actions that will remedy the problems that are identified.
PROCESS CONSULTATION
Process Consultation has been descried as “the central discipline for helping professionals to
build strong client-consultant relationships that result in sustained change and improvement.”
This model has enormous practical significance, not just for OD consultants, but for counselors,
managers, therapists, social workers, and others involved in building and maintaining “helping
relationships.”
Edgar Schein defined the technique of process consultation as “the set of activities on the part of
the consultant which help the client to perceive, understand, and act upon the process events
which occur in the client’s environment.’ Process consultation concentrates on certain specified
areas such as communication, functional roles of members, group problem solving and decision
making, group norms and growth, leadership and authority and intergroup cooperation and
competition.
Schein’s process consultation model has following underlying assumptions:
� Managers require special diagnostic help in knowing what is wrong with the organization.
� Most managers have constant desire to increase organizational effectiveness, but they need
help in deciding ‘how’ to achieve it.
� Managers can be effective if they learn to diagnose their own strengths and weaknesses
without exhaustive and time consuming study of the organization.
� The outside consultant cannot learn enough about the culture of the organization, to suggest
reliable new course of action. He should, therefore, work jointly with the members of the
organization.
� The client must learn to see the problem for himself, understand the problem and find a
remedy. The consultant should provide new and challenging alternatives for the client to
consider. However, the decision making authority on these alternatives about organizational
changes remains with the client.
� It is essential that the process consultant is an expert in diagnosing and establishing effective
helping relationships with the client. Effective process consultation involves passing those skills
on to the client.
Steps in Process Consultation
According to Schien, process consultation normally proceeds as given below:
1 Initial Contact -Here the client comes into contact with the consultant and specifies the
problem that cannot be solved by normal organizational procedures or resources.
2 Define the relationship -After identifying the specific problem areas, the consultation and the
client enter into a formal contract. The formal contract spells out the services, time and the fees
of the consultant. Actually there is also a psychological contract because both parties are
involved in the satisfaction of certain expectations.
3 Select the method of work -It involves the clear-cut understanding of where and how the
consultant would perform the job. Each individual employee in the organization is made aware
of who the consultant is so that he can help the consultant by furnishing the required information.
4 Collection of Data and Diagnosis -The consultant invests a great deal of time in collecting
the relevant information. Normally, he gathers data through questionnaires, observation and
personal interviews etc. and then makes an indepth diagnosis of the problems.
5 Intervention -Various interventions by the consultant such as agenda setting, feedback,
coaching, and structural suggestions are made in the process consultation approach. During this
phase, the solutions designed by the consultant will be translated into action in the organization.
6 Reducing Involvement and Termination -When the goals of OD intervention have been
successfully achieved, the consultant leaves the organization by closing the formal contract with
the client.
TEAM BUILDING
"Teamwork doesn't happen automatically, and it doesn't result just from the exhortations of a
single leader. It results from members paying attention to how they are working together, issues
that block teamwork and working them through, and consciously developing patterns of working
together that all members find challenging and satisfying."(Peter Vail, Managing as a Performing
Art, 1989).
Periodically a team's ability to rally around goals is blocked by simple group dynamics, and the
team gets stuck, lowering morale, productivity and job satisfaction. Group process facilitation is
powerful tool introduced to break this cycle. During ongoing meeting with a team, group change
activities, including insight-oriented techniques and experiential exercises, are used by an OD
specialist to promote awareness among group members of their own unique personal styles in
communication, collaboration, group roles and conflict resolution. Members develop increased
sensitivity and enhanced perspective-taking skills as well as an understanding of different
communication styles among group members. All of these skills promote greater group
cohesiveness and an ability to work productively toward a common goal. As individuals develop
greater interpersonal awareness, qualitative changes occur in the group as a whole.
Team building directly focuses on identification of problems relating to task performance and
lays down concrete plans of their elimination. A team building programme deals with new
problems on an going basis. It is an effective technique by which members of an organizational
group diagnose how they work together and plan changes that will improve their effectiveness
(Michael Beer).
Team building attempts to improve effectiveness of work groups by allowing the group members
to concentrate on:
1. Setting goals or priorities for organizational groups.
2. Analyzing or allocating the way the work is performed.
3. Examining the way the group is working.
4. Examining the relationships among the people doing the work. (R. Bechard).
Thus, the fundamental aim of team building is to help the group members in examining their
own behaviours and developing action plans that foster task accomplishment.
Necessary Conditions for the Success of Team Building Programme
There are certain prerequisites to be fulfilled before making an attempt to undertake the team
building exercises. These prerequisites have been identified by Hellriegel, Slocum &Woodman.
They recommend that management has to ensure the following:
1. The group members understand the stated goals clearly.
2. The group members unanimously agree with the objectives.
3. Basic interdependence among the members of the group exists.
4. The group is capable of taking corrective action on the problems identified or at least
will be able to tackle some reasonable percentage of them.
INTERGROUP DEVELOPMENT
Intergroup interventions are integrated into OD programs to facilitate cooperation and efficiency
between different groups within an organization. For instance, departmental interaction often
deteriorates in larger organizations as different divisions battle for limited resources or become
detached from the needs of other departments.
Conflict resolution meetings are one common intergroup intervention. First, different group
leaders are brought together to get their commitment to the intervention. Next, the teams meet
separately to make a list of their feelings about the other group(s). Then the groups meet and
share their lists. Finally, the teams meet to discuss the problems and to try to develop solutions
that will help both parties. This type of intervention helps to gradually diffuse tension between
groups caused by lack of communication and misunderstanding.
Rotating membership interventions are used by OD change agents to minimize the negative
effects of intergroup rivalry that result from employee allegiances to groups or divisions. The
intervention basically entails temporarily putting group members into their rival groups. As more
people interact in the different groups, greater understanding results.
OD joint activity interventions serve the same basic function as the rotating membership
approach, but it involves getting members of different groups to work together toward a common
goal. Similarly, common enemy interventions achieve the same results by finding an adversary
common to two or more groups and then getting members of the groups to work together to
overcome the threat. Examples of common enemies include competitors, government regulation,
and economic conditions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OD:
 OD is a planned strategy to bring about organizational change
 OD is always involves a collaborative approach to change
 OD programs include an emphasis on ways to improve and enhance performances
 OD relies on a set of humanistic values about people and organization.
 OD represents a system approach
 OD is based upon scientific approaches to increase organizational effectiveness.

PRINCIPLES OF OD:
Integrity principles:
The integrity means wholeness.the integrity will include internal facets highly valued enough to
ensure harmonic stability and vitality.
Commitment principle:
People will give their best if the necessary resources are committed.It is important to develop
commitment to the over reaching integrity principle at the onset.
Empowerment principle:
The OD intervention must empower the people and the people system so that operate in tandem
and seamlessly for high performance.
Versatility principle.
Is consequential upon the empowerment principle. it emphasis the importance of ensuring
adaptability, responsiveness , flexibility, innovativeness, spontaneity of the people and
integrating systems.
Renewal principle:
The heart of any OD intervention is the renewal of people and integrity system.The renewal
principle take off from the premise of OD intervention and it is linked with the versality
principle.
Integration principle:
Address issue of integration of elements,sub-system or people attributes for ultimate high
performance.

CONDITION FOR SUCCESS OF OD:


 Commitment from the top
 Strong link pins
 Willing and resource in the department
 Involvement of external consultant
 Strong internal resources

PROCESS OF OD:
Initial diagnosis

Data collection

Data feedback and confrontation

Selection and design of interventions

Implementation of intervention

Action planning and problem solving

Team-building

Inter-group development

Evaluation and follow-up

BENEFITS OF OD:
 Provide opportunities for people to function as human being rather than
productive process
 Provide opportunities for full potential development of organization members
 Creative environment to face new challenges
 Clearly define strategic direction,company goals and objectives
 Gives orderly,well planned analysis of alternative organizational structures
 Helps in appraisal of personnel capabilities in relation to present and future
organizational needs

HRD EXPERIENCE IN INDIA:


In 25years ago,witnessed the emergence of new HRD culture in India with prof.Udai Pareek and
prof.T V Rao heading the movement.
 The 1st HRD workshop held at IIMA in 1979.
 PROBLEMS OF HRD IN INDIAN ORGANISATION:
 Unconscious organization
 Finding places in carporate mission
 Lack of identification of element of training program
 Lecture method is used
 Language and cultural differences
 Unconducive environment
 Emphasis on job training only
 Lack of institute and experts

HRD PRACTICES IN INDIA:


Pareek provides six fold system of classification
Appraisal system:
2. Potential appraisal
3. Performance appraisal
4. Performance coaching and counciling
Career system :
 Three broad components
 Experience
 Opportunities
 Career planning
 Training system
 Task analysis
 Quality of work life
 Productivity
 Role stress

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