Beruflich Dokumente
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RESEARCH METHODS C.R. Kothari. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques.
Wire Research:
http://wire.rutgers.edu/research_assignments_empirical_link.html
http://www.chssc.salford.ac.uk/healthSci/rem99/resmeth/planning.htm
http://www.io.com/~hcexres/tcm1603/acchtml/otherep.html#primresch
http://www.slideshare.net
References
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WHAT IS RESEARCH?
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
Any honest attempt to study a problem systematically or to
a body of established knowledge add to man’s knowledge of a problem may be regarded as
research. (Theodorson and Theodorson 1969 cited in
Reber 1995, p.663)
the observation, identification, investigation, and
theoretical explanation of natural phenomenon
The aim, as far as I can see, is the same in all sciences.
Put simply and cursorily, the aim is to make known
something previously unknown to human beings. It is to
advance human knowledge, to make it more certain or
better fitting
. . . the aim is, as I have said, discovery. (Elias 1986, p.20)
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
WHAT IS THEORY?
a set of inter-related constructs and propositions that • The systematic investigation into and study of materials,
specify relations among variables to explain and predict sources, etc, in order to establish facts and reach new
phenomena conclusions.
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EXAMPLES
KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES
• time in research
• variables Variable Attribute
• types of relationships
• hypotheses
age
• types of data
• fallacies
• structure or research
• deduction and induction
• ethics
• validity
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3= somewhat satisfied
4 = not satisfied
Types of variables
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EXAMPLES
patterns of relationships…
IV DV •no relationship
•positive relationship
health status •negative relationship
•curvilinear relationship +
attitude
exercise
fitness
participation
social support
-
intervention
- resting HR +
exercise intensity
variables perform in a other variable
synchronized manner
correlation does not imply causation!
(it’s necessary but not sufficient) -
- HR +
- -
- vocabulary
+ - arousal +
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EXAMPLES
KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES
hypothesis there is a relationship between age and
exercise participation • fallacies
this is a two‐tailed hypothesis as no
direction is predicted
this is a one‐tailed hypothesis as a OBSERVE
specific direction is predicted analyze data
reach conclusions
statistical significance means generalize back to questions
expected result was found
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Induction
types of validity are cumulative
• ethics
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THE VALIDITY QUESTIONS ARE CUMULATIVE... THE VALIDITY QUESTIONS ARE CUMULATIVE...
Validity
Can we generalize
External to other persons,
places, times?
Can we generalize to
Construct the constructs?
In this study Is the relationship causal? Internal Is the relationship causal?
Exploratory research
Internal Is the relationship causal? Describes a particular phenomenon, focusing upon the
issue of what is happening, or how much of it has
Is there a relationship between happened, rather than why it is happening.
Conclusion the cause and effect?
Predictive research
Can we generalize
In theory to other persons, Forecasts future phenomena, based on the interpretations
places, times? suggested by explanatory research.
Construc Can we generalize to
the constructs?
t
Internal Is the relationship causal?
Is there a relationship between
Conclusion the cause and effect?
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PRIMARY AND SECONDARY RESEARCH 2. An empirical research report is a report in which you
gather your most important information from primary
Primary research sources, such as the field or laboratory, rather than
published documents. The research focuses on why certain
Refers to research that has involved the collection of things happen.
original data specific to that particular research project, for (Power Tools for Technical Communication, McMurray,
example through using research methods such as Harcourt College Publications 2002)
questionnaires or interviews.
Secondary research
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People who make a major contribution to the study are These questions set up the context and rationale for the
listed as authors. You might want to do a background study.
search on the authors in order to determine the expertise
the researchers have.
A report of an empirical study also includes an abstract. Analyze published studies relevant to the
The abstract is a brief but comprehensive summary of the issue under study.
empirical research report. It includes a concise statement
of the goal of the research, outlines the methods, and Synthesize to avoid simply listing studies and findings.
presents the essential results and conclusions.
Cite studies with author(s) and date.
Avoid plagiarism by constructing a comprehensive outline.
Questions to be answered here: State Your Objective: Purpose of the Study
Why did you do the study? State Your Research Questions
How was the study done? State Your Hypothesis: What you thought you'd find?
What did you find?
Why are these findings important?
The purpose of the introduction is to describe the problem, The questions that will help you evaluate the method are:
develop the theoretical and empirical background for the Have you explained the samples used in the study?
research questions, and elaborate a rationale for all parts Are the samples appropriate for the study?
of the study. What is the research design?
Is the design appropriate for the research question(s)?
What are the measures?
Are the measures appropriate for addressing the research
question(s)?
What ethical considerations are important to address?
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RESULTS
REFERENCES
DISCUSSION
When preparing the report remember to:
The discussion section contains the interpretations and
implications of the study. There may be more than one 1. Determine that the objective is a project involving
study in the report; in this case, there are usually separate discussion of causes, effects, or both.
Method and Results sections for each study followed by a
2. Define the audience and purpose (&/or describe problem
general discussion that ties all the research together.
and background).
3. Perform the research.
The discussion section should start with a summary of the
most important results and then follow with a discussion of 4. Plan and develop graphics and tables.
how the results address the research questions. 5. Identify causes.
6. Identify effects.
Consider these questions as you write the discussion 7. Identify the relationships between causes and effects.
section:
8. Discuss causes and effects.
What conclusions do the researchers draw from their
results?
Are the conclusions important?
Why or why not?
1. Locate and read a few articles from within a field you are
Did your results support your hypothesis?
comfortable with.
Did your results relate to your objective?
2. Read studies that are of interest to you.
Did your results interpret in light of other published
results on the subject? 3. Read the abstract first.
Did your results suggest directions for further 4. Identify the research question and objectives.
research? 5. Why did the researcher(s) choose a particular setting or
Did your results discuss the limitations of your study? sample?
6. What were the methods chosen to collect data?
This section, or area of the report, is also the place 7. What were the most important findings?
to make recommendations or state ideas for further
research. 8. Do not be over-concerned with statistical analysis.
9. Be critical but objective.
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