DEFINITION OF GROUP-

A collection of two or more individuals, interacting and

interdependent, who have come together to achieve a
common objective/s. CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPThe
important characteristics of groups are as follows:�Social
interaction�Stability�Common interests or
goals�Recognition as being a group

Types of Groups-
1-formal or informal groups:�Formal groupsare deliberately
created by the organization in order to help the
organizational members achieve some of the important the
organizational goals.

2-�The informal groups;, in contrast, develop rather

spontaneously among an organization’s members without
any direction from the organizational authorities.
Types of Informal group
1-Interest groups
2-Friendship groups �
3-Reference groups
4-Punctuated Equilibrium Model Group Structure�
Role
�Norms
�Status
�Group cohesiveness
Teams-�A special type of group whose members have
complementary skills and are committed to a common
purpose or set of goals for which they hold themselves
mutually accountable. Groups and Teams
GROUPS�INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE�INDIVIDUAL
ACCOUNTABILITY�SHARE
INFORMATION�NEUTRAL/NEGATIVE SYNERGY�RANDOM
SKILLS�RESPONSIVE TO DEMAND OF
MANAGEMENTTEAMS�COLLECTIVE
PERFORMANCE�MUTUAL ACCOUNTABILITY�COLLECTIVE
OUTCOME�POSITIVE SYNERGY�COMPLEMENTARY
SKILL�SELF-IMPOSED DEMANDS
STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
Formation of Groups:

Two models of group development have been offered by the

researchers in the field of social sciences to explain how
groups are formed. These are: a) Five-Stage Model and b)
Punctuated

Equilibrium Model:

According to the Five-Stage Model of group development,

groups go through five distinct stages during the process of
its development. These are as follows:

Five-Stage Model

� Forming is the initial stage of group development when

the group members first come in contact with others and get
acquainted with each other. This stage is characterized
predominantly by a feeling of uncertainty among the group
members as they now try to establish ground rules and
pattern of relationship among themselves.

� Storming is the next stage that is characterized by a high

degree of conflict among the members. Members often show
hostility towards each other and resist the leader’s control. If
these conflicts are not adequately resolved, the group may
even be disbanded. But, usually the group eventually comes
in terms with each other and accepts the leadership role at
the end of this stage.

� Norming is the third stage of the group development

process during which the group members become closer to
each other and the group starts functioning as a cohesive
unit. The group members now identify themselves with the
group and share responsibility for achieving the desired level
of performance of the group. Norming stage is complete
when the group members can set a common target and
agree on the way of achieving this.

� Performing is the fourth stage when the group is finally

ready to start working. As the group is now fully formed after
resolving their internal conflicts of acceptance and sharing
responsibility, they can now devote energy to achieve its
objectives.

� Adjourning is the final stage when the group, after

achieving the objectives for which it was created, starts to
gradually dissolve itself.
Many interpreters of the five-stage model have assumed
that a group becomes more effective as it progresses
through the first four stages. While this assumption may be
generally true, what makes a group effective is more
complex than this model acknowledges. Under some
conditions, high levels of conflict are conducive to high
group performance. So we might expect to find situations in
which groups in Stage II outperform those in Stages III or IV.
Similarly, groups do not always proceed clearly from one
stage to the next. Sometimes, in fact, several stages go on
simultaneously, as when groups are storming and
performing at the same time. Groups even occasionally
regress to previous stages. Therefore, even the strongest
proponents of this model do not assume that all groups
follow its five-stage process precisely or that Stage IV is
always the most preferable.

Another problem with the five-stage model, in terms of

understanding work- related behavior, is that it ignores
organizational context.4 For instance, a study of a cockpit
crew in an airliner found that, within 10 minutes, three
strangers as- signed to fly together for the first time had
become a high-performing group. What allowed for this
speedy group development was the strong organizational
context surrounding th~ tasks of the cockpit crew. This
context provided the rules, task definitions, information, and
resources needed for the group to per- form. They didn't
need to develop plans, assign roles, determine and allocate
re- sources, resolve conflicts, and set norms the way the
five-stage model predicts.
An Alternative Model: For Temporary Groups With Deadlines
Temporary groups with deadlines don't seem to follow the
previous model. Studies indicate that they have their own
unique sequencing of actions (or inaction): (1) Their first
meeting sets the group's direction; (2) this first phase of
group activity is one of inertia; (3) a transition takes place at
the end of this first phase, which occurs exactly when the
group has used up half its allotted time; (4) a transition
initiates major changes; (5) a second phase of inertia follows
the transition; and (6) the group's last meeting is
characterized by markedly accelerated activity . This pattern
is called the punctuated equilibrium model and is shown
below.
 Figure: Punctuated equilibrium Model

The first meeting sets the group's direction. A framework of

behavioral pat- terns and assumptions through which the
group will approach its project emerges in this first meeting.
These lasting patterns can appear as early as the first few
seconds of the group's life.
Once set, the group's direction becomes "written in stone"
and is unlikely to be reexamined throughout the first half of
the group's life. This is a period of inertia that is, the group
tends to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of
action. Even if it gains new

insights that challenge initial patterns and assumptions, the

group is incapable of acting on these new insights in Phase
1.
One of the more interesting discoveries made in these
studies was that each group experienced its transition at the
same point in its calendar-precisely halfway between its first
meeting and its official deadline-despite the fact that some
groups spent as little as an hour on their project while others
spent six months. It was as if the groups universally
experienced a midlife crisis at this point. The midpoint
appears to work like an alarm clock, heightening members'
awareness that their time is limited and that they need to
"get moving."
This transition ends Phase 1 and is characterized by a
concentrated burst of changes in which old patterns are
dropped and new perspectives are adopted. The transition
sets a revised direction for

Phase 2.

Phase 2 is a new equilibrium or period of inertia. In this

phase, the group executes plans created during the
transition period.
The group's last meeting is characterized by a final burst of
activity to finish its work.
In summary, the punctuated-equilibrium model characterizes
groups as exhibiting long periods of inertia interspersed with
brief revolutionary changes triggered primarily by their
members' awareness of time and deadlines. Keep in mind,
however, that this model doesn't apply to all groups. It's
essentially limited to temporary task groups that are working
under a time-constrained completion deadline.

Group process
In organizational development (OD), or group dynamics, the
phrase group process refers to the understanding of the
Behaviour of people in groups, such as task groups that are
trying to solve a problem or make a decision. An individual
with expertise in group process, such as a trained facilitator,
can assist a group in accomplishing its objective by
diagnosing how well the group is functioning as a problem-
solving or decision-making entity and intervening to alter the
group's operating Behaviour.

Because people gather in groups for reasons other than task

accomplishment, group process occurs in other types of
groups such as personal growth groups (e.g. encounter
groups, study groups, prayer groups). In such cases, an
individual with expertise in group process can be helpful in
the role of facilitator.

Well researched but rarely mentioned by professional group

workers, is the social status of people within the group ( (i.e.,
senior or junior). The group leader (or facilitator) will usually
have a strong influence on the group due to his or her role of
shaping the group's outcomes. This influence will also be
affected by the leader's sex, race, relative age, income,
appearance, and personality, as well as organizational
structures and many other factors.

Some dimensions of group process

Some of the aspects of group process that a process
consultant would look at include:

• Patterns of communication and coordination

• Patterns of influence

role relationship

• Patterns of dominance (e.g. who leads, who defers)

• Balance of task focus vs social focus
• Level of group effectiveness
• How conflict is handled

Group dynamics
Group dynamics is the study of groups, and also a general
term for group processes. In psychology, sociology, and
communication studies . A group is two or more
individuals who are connected to each other by social
relationships.[1] Because they interact and influence each
other, groups develop a number of dynamic processes
that separate them from a random collection of
individuals. These processes include norms, roles,
relations, development, need to belong, social influence,
and effects on behavior. The field of group dynamics is
primarily concerned with small group behavior. Groups
may be classified as aggregate, primary, secondary
and category groups.

Communities may be distinguished from other types of

groups, in Peck's view, by the need for members to eliminate
barriers to communication in order to be able to form true
community. Examples of common barriers are: expectations
and preconceptions; prejudices; ideology, counterproductive
norms, theology and solutions; the need to heal, convert, fix
or solve and the need to control. A community is born when
its members reach a stage of "emptiness" or peace.

Characteristics of Groups
There are several characteristics that define a true group:
Interaction among members
Social influence within the group (normative and
informational)
Group norms or unwritten rules dictating acceptable
behavior and group functioning
Individual roles within the group are defined formally or
informally
Interdependence among members:
members rely on each other to achieve
group goal
Example:

Software Project Management

The agile software development which puts emphasis on
people rather than processes has been interested in Group
Dynamics. It is then known that some agile practices
(Collective Code Ownership and pair programming) must be
taken with care because developers in a team-rewarded
team will eventually try to match their efforts to the average
of what they think their teammates are doing (Lui and Chan).

Group Interpersonal
Abstract. One form of Gestalt therapy group focuses on the
interpersonal interactions and relationships among group
members. This is an effective and exciting way to make
therapeutic use of the group setting. This practical article
discusses how to foster group norms that intensify and
maximize the interpersonal aspect of a Gestalt group. We
examine pre-group hand-outs and interviews, defining
appropriate norms, how group members initiate
interpersonal work, encouraging interpersonal norms, and
how to move work in an interpersonal direction.

Increasingly Gestalt therapists are using approaches to

group therapy that go beyond individual work in the group to
include interpersonal interactions or the group-as-a-whole
(Feder & Ronall 1980; Harman 1984; Melnick 1980; Zinker
1977, Chap. 7, Handlon & Frederickson, 1998; Earley, 1996).
I believe that the interpersonal learning and healing which
takes place in the interactions among the group members is
very valuable therapeutically, and therefore my approach to
Gestalt group therapy emphasizes this.
My Gestalt groups are designed to intensify and maximize
interpersonal contact and the work that emerges from this.
Much of the work is in pairs, as people explore their feelings
towards each other, work on their relationships, and
experiment with new ways of interacting. Some of the work
involves one person working on his relationship with the
group-as-a-whole. This approach embodies Gestalt therapy
in its emphasis on contact, awareness, dialogue, and
experimentation.

This group work is similar in some ways to the interpersonal

group method of Yalom (1995). However, unlike Yalom, I
emphasize awareness and the experiential exploration of
underlying intrapsychic issues. I also pay attention to contact
and intimacy issues

and use an active leadership style. All these differences are

characteristic of Gestalt therapy.

In my years of training Gestalt therapists in this method, it

has been especially important for them to learn how to focus
a group in an interpersonal direction. Therefore, this article
discusses the practicalities of developing group norms that
emphasize interpersonal work. This approach to group
therapy is discussed in detail in my forthcoming book

GROUP DECISION-MAKING
The most common form of group decision making takes
place in interacting groups. In these groups, members meet
face-to-face and rely on both verbal and nonverbal
interaction to communicate with each other. But as our
discussion of groupthink demonstrated, interacting groups
often censor themselves and pressure individual members
toward conformity of opinion. Brainstorming, the nominal
group technique, and electronic meetings have been
proposed as ways to reduce many of the problems inherent
in the traditional interacting group.
Brainstorming is meant to overcome pressures for
conformity in the interacting group that retard the
development of creative alternatives.73 It doe~ this by
utilizing an idea-generation process that specifically
encourages any and all alternatives, while withholding any
criticism of those alternatives.

DECISION-MAKING GROUP TECHNIQUES

The most common form of group decision making takes
place in interacting groups.
In these groups, members meet face-to-face and rely on
both verbal and nonverbal interaction to communicate with
each other.

But as our discussion groupthink demonstrated, interacting

groups often censor themselves and pressure individual
members toward conformity of opinion.
Brainstorming, the nominal group technique, and electronic
meetings have been proposed as ways to reduce many of
the problems inherent in the traditional interacting group.
Brainstorming is meant to overcome pressures for
conformity in the interacting group that retard the
development of creative alternatives. It does this by utilizing
an idea-generation process that specifically encourages any
and all alternatives, while withholding any criticism of those
alternatives.
In a typical brainstorming session, a half dozen to a dozen
people sit around a table.
The group leader states the problem in a clear manner so
that it is understood by all participants. Members then
"freewheel" as many alternatives as they can in a given
length of time. No criticism is allowed, and all the
alternatives are recorded for later discussion and analysis.
That one idea stimulates others and that judgments of even
the most bizarre suggestions are with held until later
encourage group members to "think the unusual.
Brainstorming, however, is merely a process for generating
ideas.
The following two techniques go further by offering methods
of actually arriving at a preferred solution.
The nominal group technique restricts discussion or
interpersonal Immunization during the decision-making
process, hence, the term nominal.
Group technique members are all physically present, as in a
traditional committee meeting, but A
members operate independently. Specifically, a problem is
presented and then m the following steps take place….
1- Members meet as a group but, before any discussion
takes place, each member independently writes down his or
her ideas on the problem.

2- After this silent period, each member presents one idea

to the group. Each member takes his or her turn, presenting
a single idea until all ideas have been presented and
recorded. No discussion takes place until all ideas have been
recorded.

3- The group now discusses the ideas for clarity and

evaluates them.

4- Each group member silently and independently rank-

orders the ideas. The ideas with the highest aggregate
ranking determine the final decision.

The chief advantage of the nominal group technique is that it

permits the group to meet formally but does not restrict
independent thinking, as does the interacting group.
The most recent approach to group decision making blends
the nominal group technique with sophisticated computer
technology .
The future of group meetings undoubtedly will include
extensive use of this technology .
Each of these four group decision techniques has its own set
of strengths and weaknesses.
The choice of one technique over another will depend on
what criteria you want to emphasize and the cost-benefit
trade-off.
For instance, the interacting group is good for building group
cohesiveness, brainstorming keeps social pressures to a
minimum, the nominal group technique is an inexpensive
means for generating a large number of ideas, and
electronic meetings process ideas fast.
In a typical brainstorming session, a half dozen to a dozen
people sit around a table.
The group leader states the problem in a clear manner so
that it is understood by all participants. Members then
"freewheel" as many alternatives as they can in a given
length of time. No criticism is allowed, and all the
alternatives are recorded for later discussion and analysis.
That one idea stimulates others and that judgments of even
the most bizarre suggestions are with- held until later
encourage group members to "think the unusual.1I
Brainstorming, however, is

merely a process for generating ideas. The following two

techniques go further by offering methods of actually
arriving at a preferred solution.
The nominal group technique restricts discussion or
interpersonal communication during the decision-making
process, hence, the term nominal.
Group members are all physically present, as in a traditional
committee meeting, but members operate independently.
Specifically, a problem is presented and then the following
steps take place:

I.- Members meet as a group but, before any discussion

takes place, each member independently writes down his or
her ideas on the problem.
2.- After this silent period, each member presents one idea
to the group. Each member takes his or her turn, presenting
a single idea until all ideas have been presented and
recorded. No discussion takes place until all ideas have been
recorded.

3.- The group now discusses the ideas for clarity and
evaluates them.

4. - Each group member silently and independently rank-

orders the ideas. The idea with the highest aggregate
ranking determines the final decision.

The chief advantage of the nominal group technique is that it

permits the group to meet formally but does not restrict
independent thinking, as does the interacting group.
The most recent approach to group decision making blends
the nominal group technique with sophisticated computer
technology.
It's called the computer assisted group or electronic
meeting. Once the technology is in place, the concept is
simple. Up to SO people sit around a horseshoe-shaped
table, empty except for a series of computer terminals.
Issues are presented to participants and they

type their responses onto their computer screen. Individual

comments, as well as aggregate votes, are displayed on a
projection screen in the room.
The major advantages of electronic meetings are anonymity,
honesty, and speed.
Participants can anonymously type any message they want
and it flashes on the screen for all to see at the push of a
participant's keyboard.
It also allows people to be brutally honest without penalty.
And it's fast because chitchat is eliminated, discussions don't
digress, and many participants can talk" at once without
stepping on one another's toes. The future of group
meetings undoubtedly will include extensive use of this
technology.
Each of these four group decision techniques has its own set
of strengths and weaknesses. The choice of one technique
over another will depend oh what criteria you want to
emphasize and the cost-benefit trade-off.
For instance, the interacting group is good for building group
cohesiveness, brainstorming keeps social pressures to a
minimum, the nominal group technique is an inexpensive
means for generating a large number of ideas, and
electronic meetings process ideas fast.
Norms control group member behavior by establishing
standards of right and wrong. If managers know the norms of
a given group, it can help to explain the behaviors of its
members. When norms support high output, managers can
expect individual performance to be markedly higher than
when group norms aim to restrict output. Similarly;
acceptable standards of absenteeism will be dictated by the
group norms.
Status inequities create frustration and can adversely
influence productivity and the willingness to remain with an
organization. Among those individuals who are equity
sensitive, incongruence is likely to lead to reduced
motivation and an increased search for ways to bring about
fairness (i.e., taking another job).

The impact of size on a group's performance depends upon

the type of task in which the group is engaged. Larger
groups are more effective at fact-finding activities. Smaller
groups are more effective at action-taking tasks. Our
knowledge of social loafing suggests that if management
uses larger groups, efforts should be made to provide
measures of individual performance within the group.
We found the group's demographic composition to be a key
determinant of individual turnover. Specifically, the evidence
indicates that group members who share a common age or
date of entry into the work group are less prone to resign.
Group cohesiveness:

Cohesiveness is an important characteristic of group. Reins

Likert has defined cohesiveness as “ the attractiveness of
the members to the group or resistance of the members to
leaving it.” It refers to the attachment of the members with
the group. According to k. Aswathppa, “cohesiveness is
understood as the extent of liking each

member has towards others and how far everyone wants to

remain as a member of the group.” It is a degree of
attachment among members of the group and membership.
Attractiveness is the key to cohesiveness. Cohesiveness
group attract membership from new members. It also
changes in degree over time.

Factors affecting cohesiveness:

There are some factors that affect cohesiveness of group.

They are as under.

1- Group formation factors

The factors which are responsible for group
formation such as common interests, shared goals,
etc.serve as the base for cohesiveness.

2-interaction
Interaction between the group member makes the
group more cohesive.

3-difficulty in membership
Some group takes great care in selecting their
members and making admission to them very difficult.
Difficulty in getting membership increases cohesiveness of
group. Such groups are valued by members and feel proud
of being members.

4-Success
Success of individual or shared objectives by the
members feel pride about the success resulting in greater
cohesion of the group.

5- Threat

When members of group feel threatened from any

source, external in particular increases cohesiveness.

6- Size of group
Size of group affects its cohesiveness. Increased
size of group decreases its cohesiveness and vice versa.
Small size of group facilitates more interaction among the
group members, hence more cohesiveness.

7- Continued Membership
Membership of the group is continued by its
members for a longer period of time increases cohesiveness
of group. New members do not get membership easily
because of opposition from the old member.

8- Attitude and values

Cohesiveness of group increase because of shared
attitude and values. Everyone gets attracts towards the
people having identical attitudes, values and beliefs. The
sense of security and safety develops with the like-minded
people.

Cohesiveness has certain advantages. They are:

1. The members of cohesive groups have high morale.

2. They don’t have conflicting views, hence decrease in
conflicts among
the group members at the workplace or elsewhere.
3. People of cohesive groups have no anxiety at the
workplace.
4. members of cohesive groups are from botheration,
hence they are very regular at their work. This
reduces absenteeism and high employee turnover.
5. Cohesiveness increase productivity.
6. organizations gain from the members of cohesive group
because they communicate better, they share ideologies and
respect opinions of fellow employees. This all create an
environment of cooperation resulting into benefits to the
organization in the from of increased productivity, low
employee turnover,etc.

Satisfaction of Members
Members of cohesive group drive more
satisfaction than those of non-cohesive groups. They get
support from fellow members. They get more opportunities
to interact. They are protected against external threats.
They succeed in their works. They have better friends at the
workplace than others. All these factors provide immense
satisfaction to the group member than any other person at
the workplace. Active participation of member in decision
making gives him more satisfaction. According to Clovis R.
Shepherd, “ A group members perception at progress
towards the achievement of desired goals is an important
factor which is related to member satisfaction.” Group
members progressing toward goal achievement are more
satisfaction than these group members who are not
progressing towards goal achievement.

GROUP AND FORMATION OF GROUPS

Welcome students to the module of Group Behaviour. Up till
now we have restricted ourselves to check the behavior of
individuals within the organization. But individuals may
sometimes need to work in groups in the organization. So in
this lesson we shall try to understand about group and the
influence of behavior of individuals while working in a group .
So students Consider a collection of people waiting at a bus
stop for a series of buses. Do these people constitute a
group?
No! These people are simply that; a collection of people. As a
collection of people waiting for buses, they probably do not
interact , they lack cohesion (as they may be heading off in
different directions), and, unless they are somehow huddled
together against the rain, they are unlikely to see any
commonality of interest between them.

Defining a group : Two or more people constitute a group if...

1. they have some common purpose or goal...
2. there exists a relatively stable structure -- a hierarchy
(perhaps a leader), an established set of roles, or a
standardized pattern of interaction...
3. this collection of people see themselves as being part of
that group
So students "Why do groups form?", There are a number of
general tendencies within us such as:

The similarity-attraction effect: we like people who are

similar to us in some way
Exposure: we like people whom we have been exposed to
repeatedly
Reciprocity: we like people who like us
Basking in reflected glory: we seek to associate with
successful, prestigious groups
Furthermore, we also tend to avoid individuals who possess
objectionable characteristics.
Further more there are number of reasons why people join
groups which are as follows;
Affiliation
Humans are by nature gregarious. Groups provide a natural
way for people to gather in order to satisfy their social
needs.
Goal achievement
Problems and tasks that require the utilization of knowledge
tend to give groups an advantage over individuals. There is
more information in a group than in any one of its members,
and groups tend to provide a greater number of approaches
to solving any particular problem
Power
Individuals gain power in their relationship with their
employers by forming unions.

Status
Membership in a particular service clubs or a political body
may be seen to confer status on members. So as to gain that
status people join in such groups
Self-esteem
As suggested by Maslow, people have a basic desire for self-
esteem. Group membership may nurture self-esteem. If one
belongs to a successful group, the self-esteem of all
members may be boosted.
Security
Sometimes individuals need protection from other groups
or more powerful individuals -- "there is safety in numbers".
These individuals may seek security in group membership.
Neighbors may form a "Block Watch" group to ensure the
security and protection of their neighborhood.
The important characteristics of groups are as follows:
� Social interaction. The members of a group affect each
other and there is a definite pattern of interaction among
them.
� Stability. Groups also must possess a stable structure.
Although groups can change, which often they do, there
must be some stable relationship that keeps the group
members together and functioning as a unit.
� Common interests or goals. Members of a group must
share some common interests or goals that bind the group
together.

� Recognition as being a group. It is not just being

together would ensure the formation of a proper group. The
members of the group must also perceive themselves as a
group. They must recognize each other as a member of their
group and can distinguish them from nonmembers.

Emotional Intelligence: With example:

Ever since the publication of Daniel Goleman’s first book
on the topic in 1995, emotional intelligence has become
one of the hottest

buzzwords in corporate America. For instance, when the

Harvard Business Review published an article on the topic
two years ago, it attracted a higher percentage of readers
than any other article published in that periodical in the
last 40 years. When the CEO of Johnson & Johnson read
that article, he was so impressed that he had copies sent
out to the 400 top executives in the company worldwide.

Given that emotional intelligence is so popular in

corporate America, and given that the concept is a
psychological one, it is important for I/O psychologists to
understand what it really means and to be aware of the
research and theory on which it is based. So in my
presentation today, I’d like to briefly lay out the history of
the concept as an area of research and describe how it has
come to be defined and measured. I also will refer to some
of the research linking emotional intelligence with
important work-related outcomes such as individual
performance and organizational productivity.
Even though the term has been misused and abused by
many popularizers, I believe it rests on a firm scientific
foundation. Also, while there are aspects of the concept
that are not new, some aspects are. Finally, emotional
intelligence represents a way in which I/O psychologists
can make particularly significant

contributions to their clients in the future. So let’s begin

with some history.

The Value of Emotional Intelligence at Work

Martin Seligman has developed a construct that he calls
"learned optimism" . It refers to the causal attributions
people make when confronted with failure or setbacks.
Optimists tend to make specific, temporary, external
causal attributions while pessimists

make global, permanent, internal attributions. In research

at Met Life, Seligman and his colleagues found that new
salesmen who were optimists sold 37 percent more
insurance in their first two years than did pessimists.
When the company hired a special group of individuals
who scored high on optimism but failed the normal
screening, they outsold the pessimists by 21 percent in
their first year and 57 percent in the second. They even
outsold the average agent by 27 percent .

In another study of learned optimism, Seligman tested 500

members of the freshman class at the University of
Pennsylvania. He found that their scores on a test of
optimism were a better predictor of actual grades during
the freshman year than SAT scores or high school grades .

The ability to manage feelings and handle stress is

another aspect of emotional intelligence that has been
found to be important for success. A study of store
managers in a retail chain found that the ability to handle
stress predicted net profits, sales per square foot, sales
per employee, and per dollar of inventory investment .

Emotional intelligence has as much to do with knowing

when and how to express emotion as it does with
controlling it. For instance, consider an experiment that
was done at Yale University by Sigdal Barsade . He had a
group of volunteers play the role of managers who come
together in a group to allocate bonuses to their
subordinates. A trained actor was planted among them.
The actor

always spoke first. In some groups the actor projected

cheerful enthusiasm, in others relaxed warmth, in others
depressed sluggishness, and in still others hostile
irritability. The results indicated that the actor was able to
infect the group with his emotion, and good feelings led to
improved cooperation, fairness, and overall group
performance. In fact, objective measures

indicated that the cheerful groups were better able to

distribute the money fairly and in a way that helped the
organization. Similar findings come from the field.
Bachman found that the most effective leaders in the US
Navy were warmer, more outgoing, emotionally
expressive, dramatic, and sociable.

One more example. Empathy is a particularly important

aspect of emotional intelligence, and researchers have
known for years that it contributes to occupational
success. Rosenthal and his colleagues at Harvard
discovered over two decades ago that people who were
best at identifying others’ emotions were more successful
in their work as well as in their social lives . More recently,
a survey of retail sales buyers found that apparel sales
reps were valued primarily for their empathy. The buyers
reported that they wanted reps who could listen well and
really understand what they wanted and what their
concerns were .

Thus far I have been describing research suggesting that

"emotional intelligence" is important for success in work
and in life. However, this notion actually is somewhat
simplistic and misleading. Both Goleman and Mayer,
Salovey, & Caruso have argued that by itself emotional
intelligence probably is not a strong predictor of job
performance. Rather, it provides the bedrock for
competencies that are. Goleman has tried to represent
this idea by making a distinction between emotional
intelligence and emotional competence. Emotional
competence refers to the personal and social skills that
lead to superior performance in the world of work. "The
emotional competencies are linked to and based on
emotional intelligence. A certain level of emotional
intelligence is necessary to

learn the emotional competencies." For instance, the

ability to recognize accurately what another person is
feeling enables one to develop a specific competency such
as Influence. Similarly, people who are better able to
regulate their emotions will find it easier to develop a
competency such as Initiative or Achievement drive.

Ultimately it is these social and emotional competencies

that we need to identify and measure if we want to be able
to predict performance.

Conclusion
So is there anything new about emotional intelligence? In
some ways, emotional intelligence really is not new. In
fact, it is based on a long history of research and theory in
personality and social, as well as I/O, psychology.
Furthermore, Goleman has never claimed otherwise. In
fact, one of his main points was that the abilities
associated with emotional intelligence have been studied
by psychologists for many years, and there is an
impressive, and growing, body of research suggesting that
these abilities are important for success in many areas of
life.

However, rather than arguing about whether emotional

intelligence is new, I believe it is more useful and
interesting to consider how important it is for effective
performance at work. Although I have not had the time to
cover very much of it, I hope I have shown that there now
is a considerable body of research suggesting that a
person’s ability to perceive, identify, and manage
emotion provides the basis for the kinds of social and
emotional competencies that are important for success in
almost any job. Furthermore, as the pace of change
increases and the world of work makes ever greater
demands on a person’s cognitive, emotional, and physical
resources, this particular set of abilities will become
increasingly important. And that is good news for I/O
psychologists, for they are the ones who are best situated
to help clients to use emotional intelligence to improve
bothproductivity and psychological well-being in the
workplace of tomorrow.

Groups and Teams

Do you still remember the excitement during the last world cup and the way
the Indian team performed? No matter what they could finally achieve or
not, we all used to comment on spirit of the Indian team. A team can be
defined as a special type of group whose members have complementary
skills and are committed to a common purpose or set of goals for which they
hold themselves mutually accountable. In the recent times, a lot of emphasis
is being given on developing teams. The importance of teams has long been
appreciated in the world of sports, and now it is being used increasingly in
the realm of business and industry as well. Though there are similarities
between groups and teams and these two terms are often used
interchangeably, there are in fact a few striking differences between the two.
The following table will help to summarize this.
Work Groups Work Teams
Individual
Collective
Individual outcome
Mutual outcome
Share information
Neutral / negative
Collective performance
Always positive
Random
Complementary
Performance
Accountability
Goals
Synergy
Skills
Responsive to
Self-imposed demands
Demands of management
Groups and Teams
Implications for Managers
The recognition of the existence of both formal and informal groups in any
organization and an understanding of the basic processes involved have
created a profound effect on the functioning and outlook of the managers in
today’s workplace. Understandably, there is now a great deal of concern in
developing groups and effective teams as there is ample evidence to support
the view that organizational performance improved when the employees are
encouraged to work in groups rather than working as an individual member