 Arduino Uno:

Arduino Uno is a microcontroller

board based on the ATmega328P
(datasheet). It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as
PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz quartz crystal, a USB connection,
a power jack, an ICSP header and a reset button. It contains everything
needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer
with a USB cable or power it with AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get
started. You can tinker with your UNO without worrying too much about
doing something wrong, worst case scenario you can replace the chip for a
few dollars and start over again.

Specifications and Features:

 Microcontroller: ATmega328
 Operating Voltage: 5V
 Input Voltage (recommended): 7-12V
 Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
 Analog Input Pins: 6
 DC Current per I/O Pin: 40 mA
 DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA
 Flash Memory: 32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by boot loader
 SRAM: 2 KB (ATmega328)
 EEPROM: 1 KB (ATmega328)
 Clock Speed: 16 MHz
 Arduino IDE Software:
The Arduino Integrated Development Environment - or Arduino Software (IDE) -
contains a text editor for writing code, a message area, a text console, a toolbar
with buttons for common functions and a series of menus. It connects to the
Arduino and Genuino hardware to upload programs and communicate with them.

Writing Sketches

Programs written using Arduino Software (IDE) are called sketches. These
sketches are written in the text editor and are saved with the file extension .ino.
The editor has features for cutting/pasting and for searching/replacing text. The
message area gives feedback while saving and exporting and also displays errors.
The console displays text output by the Arduino Software (IDE), including
complete error messages and other information. The bottom right hand corner of
the window displays the configured board and serial port. The toolbar buttons
allow you to verify and upload programs, create, open, and save sketches, and
open the serial monitor.
Arduino UNO Software Toolbar:

Verify
Checks your code for errors compiling it.

Upload
Compiles your code and uploads it to the configured board.
See uploading below for details.

Note: If you are using an external programmer with your board, you can
hold down the "shift" key on your computer when using this icon. The
text will change to "Upload using Programmer"

New
Creates a new sketch.

Open
Presents a menu of all the sketches in your sketchbook. Clicking one will
open it within the current window overwriting its content.

Note: due to a bug in Java, this menu doesn't scroll; if you need to open
a sketch late in the list, use the File | Sketchbook menu instead.

Save
Saves your sketch.

Serial Monitor
Opens the serial monitor.
  Solar Panel:

Solar panels absorb the sunlight as a source of energy to

generate electricity or heat. A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connect
assembly of typically 6x10 photovoltaic solar cells. Photovoltaic modules
constitute the photovoltaic array of a photovoltaic system that generates and
supplies solar electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each module
is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions (STC), and typically
ranges from 100 to 365 Watts (W).

Solar Panel Layers:

Here are the different layers of a photovoltaic solar module:

Face-Plate (ESG)

The first layer is a 4mm thick ESG glass plate (safety glass), which is not only
impact-, pressure- and temperature-resistant, but also shock-proof. For area
loads in snow and wind load zone 3, values of 5400 N/m2 should be adhered to.
Applying an anti-reflective coating to the cover glass will reduce reflections and
increase the module's output power.

Upper encapsulating film (EVA)

A plastic layer made from EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate) or a cast resin layer is
inserted as the upper moisture barrier. The plastic films are welded (laminated)
onto the solar cells at temperatures around 150°C forming a water-proof
corrosion protection.

Solar cells

Single solar cells, interconnected with each other, produce electric power.

Lower encapsulating film (EVA)

A plastic layer made from EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate) or a cast resin layer is
inserted as the lower moisture barrier. The plastic films are welded (laminated)
onto the solar cells at temperatures around 150°C forming a water-proof
corrosion protection.

Tedlar laminated film

A plastic layer made from polyvinyl fluoride, better known under the trade name
Tedlar and ICOSOLAR, or a glass plate is used as finish on the back side.

Frame

To give stability to the different layers and to facilitate the assembly, the module
is enclosed in an aluminum frame.
  Photovoltaic Effect:

Photovoltaic effect, process in which two dissimilar materials in close contact

produce an electrical voltage when struck by light or other radiant energy. Light
striking crystals such as silicon or germanium, in which electrons are usually not
free to move from atom to atom within the crystal, provides the energy needed
to free some electrons from their bound condition. Free electrons cross the
junction between two dissimilar crystals more easily in one direction than in the
other, giving one side of the junction a negative charge and, therefore, a negative
voltage with respect to the other side, just as one electrode of a battery has a
negative voltage with respect to the other. The photovoltaic effect can continue
to provide voltage and current as long as light continues to fall on the two
materials. This current can be used to measure the brightness of the incident light
or as a source of power in an electrical circuit, as in a solar power system.
  Lead Acid Battery:

Working of Lead Acid Battery

The storage battery or secondary battery is such battery where electrical energy
can be stored as chemical energy and this chemical energy is then converted to
electrical energy as when required. The conversion of electrical energy into
chemical energy by applying external electrical source is known as charging of
battery. Whereas conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy for
supplying the external load is known as discharging of secondary battery.
During charging of battery, current is passed through it which causes some
chemical changes inside the battery. This chemical changes absorb energy during
their formation.
When the battery is connected to the external load, the chemical changes take
place in reverse direction, during which the absorbed energy is released as
electrical energy and supplied to the load.
Now we will try to understand principle working of lead acid battery and for that
we will first discuss about lead acid battery which is very commonly used as
storage battery or secondary battery.

Materials used for Lead Acid Storage Battery Cells:

The main active materials required to construct a lead acid battery are
1. Lead peroxide (PbO2).
2. Sponge lead (Pb)
3. Dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Lead Peroxide (PbO2)

The positive plate is made of lead peroxide. This is dark brown, hard and brittle
substance.
Sponge Lead (Pb)
The negative plate is made of pure lead in soft sponge condition.
Dilute Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)
Dilute sulfuric acid used for lead acid battery has ration of water : acid = 3:1.
The lead acid storage battery is formed by dipping lead peroxide plate and
sponge lead plate in dilute sulfuric acid. A load is connected externally between
these plates. In diluted sulfuric acid the molecules of the acid split into positive
hydrogen ions (H+) and negative sulfate ions (SO4 − −). The hydrogen ions when
reach at PbO2 plate, they receive electrons from it and become
hydrogen atom which again attack PbO2 and form PbO and H2O (water). This PbO
reacts with H2 SO4 and forms PbSO4 and H2O (water).

SO4 − − ions are moving freely in the

solution so some of them will reach to pure Pb plate where they give their extra
electrons and become radical SO4. As the radical SO4 cannot exist alone it will
attack Pb and will form PbSO4.
As H+ ions take electrons from PbO2 plate and SO4 − − ions give electrons to Pb
plate, there would be an inequality of electrons between these two plates. Hence
there would be a flow of current through the external load between these plates
for balancing this inequality of electrons. This process is called discharging of lead
acid battery.

1. Both of the plates are covered with PbSO4.

2. Specific gravity of sulfuric acid solution falls due to formation of water during
reaction at PbO2 plate.
3. As a result, the rate of reaction falls which implies the potential
difference between the plates decreases during discharging process.
Now we will disconnect the load and connect PbSO4 covered PbO2 plate with
positive terminal of an external DC source and PbO2 covered Pb plate with
negative terminal of that DC source. During discharging, the density of sulfuric
acid falls but there still sulfuric acid exists in the solution. This sulfuric acid also
remains as H+ and SO4 − − ions in the solution. Hydrogen ions (cation) being
positively charged, move to the electrode (cathode) connected with negative
terminal of the DC source. Here each H+ ion takes one electron from that and
becomes hydrogen atom. These hydrogen atoms then attack PbSO4 and form
lead and sulfuric acid. SO4 − − ions (anions) move
towards the electrode (anode) connected with positive terminal of DC source
where they will give up their extra electrons and become radical SO4. This
radical SO4 cannot exist alone hence reacts with PbSO4 of anode and forms lead
peroxide (PbO2) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Hence by charging the lead acid
storage battery cell,
1. Lead sulfate anode gets converted into lead peroxide.
2. Lead sulfate of cathode is converted to pure lead.
3. Terminal; potential of the cell increases.
4. Specific gravity of sulfuric acid increases.
Boost Converter:

A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter that steps up

voltage (while stepping down current) from its input (supply) to its output (load). It
is a class of switched-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at least two
semiconductors (a diode and a transistor) and at least one energy storage element:
a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination. To reduce voltage ripple, filters
made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally added
to such a converter's output (load-side filter) and input (supply-side filter).
The operation of the boost converter is relatively straightforward.

When the switch is in the ON position, the inductor output is connected to ground
and the voltage Vin is placed across it. The inductor current increases at a rate
equal to Vin/L.

When the switch is placed

in the OFF position, the
voltage across the inductor
changes and is equal to
Vout-Vin. Current that was
flowing in the inductor
decays at a rate equal to (Vout-Vin)/L.

It can be seen from the waveform diagrams that the input current to the boost
converter is higher than the output current. Assuming a perfectly efficient, i.e.
lossless, boost converter, the power out must equal the power in, i.e. Vin⋅Iin =
Vout⋅Iout. From this it can be seen if the output voltage is higher than the input
voltage, then the input current must be higher than the output current.

In reality no boost converter will be lossless, but efficiency levels of around 85%
and more are achievable in most supplies.
  LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a
wide range of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very
commonly used in various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred
over seven segments and other multi segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are
economical; easily programmable; have no limitation of displaying special &
even custom characters (unlike in seven segments), animations and so on.A 16x2
LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this
LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers,
namely, Command and Data.The command register stores the command
instructions given to the LCD. A command is an instruction given to LCD to do a
predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the cursor position,
controlling display etc. The data register stores the data to be displayed on the
LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD.

Pin Configuration:
RS(Register select):A 16X2 LCD has two registers, namely, command and
data. The register select is used to witch from one register to other. RS=0 for
command register, whereas RS=1 for data register.

Command Register: The command register stores the command instructions

given to the LCD. A command is an instruction given to LCD to do a predefined
task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the cursor position, controlling
display etc. Processing of commands happen in command register.

Data Register: The data register stores the data to be displayed on the LCD. The
data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD. When we
send data to LCD it goes to the data register and is processed there. When RS=1,
data register is selected.
Motor Driver

Fig No 2.1.5.1 Motor Driver

A motor driver is a little current amplifier; the function of motor drivers is to take a low-current
control signal and then turn it into a higher-current signal that can drive a motor.

Types of Motor Drivers

There are many different kinds of motor drivers. At Future Electronics we stock many of the
most common types categorized by maximum supply voltage, maximum output current, rated
power dissipation, load voltage, packaging type and number of outputs. The parametric filters on
our website can help refine your search results depending on the required specifications.

The most common values for maximum supply voltage are 36 V and 52 V. We also carry motor
drivers with supply voltage up to 450 V. The number of outputs can be between 1 and 12, with
the most common motor drivers having 1, 2 or 4 outputs.
Motor Drivers from Future Electronics

Future Electronics has a full programmable motor driver selection from several chip
manufacturers that can be used for a motor driver IC (integrated circuit), bipolar stepper motor
driver, H bridge motor driver, servo motor driver, DC motor driver, brushless motor driver or for
any circuit that may require a motor driver. Simply choose from the motor driver technical
attributes below and your search results will quickly be narrowed in order to match your specific
motor driver application needs.

If you have a preferred brand, we deal with several semiconductor manufacturers such as
Freescale Semiconductor, ON Semiconductor, ROHM Semiconductor or STMicroelectronics,
among others. You can easily refine your motor driver product search results by clicking your
preferred motor driver brand below from our list of manufacturers.

Applications for Motor Drivers:

Motor drivers can be found in a wide array of applications including:

Relay and solenoid switching

Stepping motor

LED and incandescent displays

Automotive applications

Audio-visual equipment

PC Peripherals

Car audios

Car navigation systems

Working of L293D:
There are 4 input pins for l293d, pin 2, 7 on the left and pin 15 ,10 on the right as shown on the
pin diagram. Left input pins will regulate the rotation of motor connected across left side and
right input for motor on the right hand side. The motors are rotated on the basis of the inputs
provided across the input pins as LOGIC 0 or LOGIC 1. In simple you need to provide Logic 0
or 1 across the input pins for rotating the motor.

L293D Logic Table:

Let’s consider a Motor connected on left side output pins (pin 3, 6). For rotating the motor in
clockwise direction the input pins has to be provided with Logic 1 and Logic 0.

Pin 2 = Logic 1 and Pin 7 = Logic 0 | Clockwise Direction

Pin 2 = Logic 0 and Pin 7 = Logic 1 | Anticlockwise Direction
Pin 2 = Logic 0 and Pin 7 = Logic 0 | Idle [No rotation] [Hi-Impedance state]
Pin 2 = Logic 1 and Pin 7 = Logic 1 | Idle [No rotation]