R & M Full Notes PDF

NEHRU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

AE6015 ROCKETS AND MISSILES
PREPARED BY
DR.R.ARRAVIND
MR.V.DINESH BABU—AP—NIET
AE6015 ROCKETS AND MISSILES L T P C
3003
OBJECTIVES:
To give exposure on important topics like rocket motion, rocket aerodynamics and staging
&control of rockets to students to enrich their knowledge in the area of missile flight.
UNIT I CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKETS AND MISSILES 9
Various methods of classification of missiles and rockets – Basic aerodynamic characteristics of
surface to surface, surface to air, air to surface and air to air missiles – Examples of various Indian
space launch vehicles and missiles – Current status of Indian rocket programme with respect to
international scenario
UNIT II AERODYNAMICS OF ROCKETS AND MISSILES 10
Airframe components of rockets and missiles – forces acting on a missile while passing through
atmosphere – classification of missiles – slender body aerodynamics – method of describing forces
and moments – lift force and lateral moment –lateral aerodynamic damping moment – longitudinal
moment – drag estimation – upwash and downwash in missile bodies – rocket dispersion.
UNIT III ROCKET MOTION IN FREE SPACE AND GRAVITATIONAL FIELD 10
One dimensional and two-dimensional rocket motions in free space and homogeneous gravitational
fields – description of vertical, inclined and gravity turn trajectories – determination of range and
altitude – simple approximations to determine burn out velocity and altitude – estimation of
culmination time and altitude.
UNIT IV STAGING OF ROCKETS AND MISSILES 8
Design philosophy behind multistaging of launch vehicles and ballistic missiles – optimization of
multistage vehicles – stage separation techniques in atmosphere and in space – stage separation
dynamics and lateral separation characteristics –
UNIT V CONTROL OF ROCKETS AND MISSILES 8
Introduction to aerodynamic and jet control methods – various types of aerodynamic control methods
for tactical and short range missiles- aerodynamic characteristics - various types of thrust vector
control methods including secondary injection thrust vector control for launch vehicles and ballistic
missiles .
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES
Knowledge in types of rockets and missiles with respect to Indian & international scenario
Gaining informations on aerodynamics of rocket and missiles
Knowledge on stages and remote control of rockets missiles
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Cornelisse, J.W., “Rocket Propulsion and Space Dynamics”, J.W. Freeman & Co., Ltd, London,
1982
2. Sutton, G.P., “Rocket Propulsion Elements”, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 5 th Edition, 1993.
REFERENCES:
1. Parker, E.R., “Materials for Missiles and Spacecraft”, McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc. 1982.
2. Mathur, M.L., and Sharma, R.P., “Gas Turbine, Jet and Rocket Propulsion”, Standard Publishers
and Distributors, Delhi, 1988.
ROCKETS AND MISSILES
UNIT I
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKETS AND MISSILES
ROCKET PRINCIPLE
A rocket in its simplest form is a chamber enclosing a gas under pressure. A small opening at one end of the
chamber allows the gas to escape, and in doing so provides a thrust that propels the rocket in the opposite direction. A
good example of this is a balloon. Air inside a balloon is compressed by the balloon’s rubber walls. The air pushes
back so that the inward and outward pressing forces balance. When the nozzle is released, air escapes through it and
the balloon is propelled in the opposite direction.
When we think of rockets, we rarely think of balloons. Instead, our attention is drawn to the giant vehicles that
carry satellites into orbit and spacecraft to the Moon and planets. Nevertheless, there is a strong similarity between the
two.The only significant difference is the way the pressurized gas is produced. With space rockets, the gas is produced
by burning propellants that can be solid or liquid in form or a combination of the two. One of the interesting facts about
the historical development of rockets is that while rockets
and rocket-powered devices have been in use for more than
two thousand years, it has been only in the last three
hundred years that rocket experimenters have had a
scientific basis for understanding how they work.
The science of rocketry began with the publishing
of a book in 1687 by the great English scientist Sir Isaac
Newton. ( Newton’s Law of Motion)
PUTTING NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

TOGETHER
An unbalanced force must be exerted for a rocket to lift off
from a launch pad or for a craft in space to change speed or
direction (First Law). The amount of thrust (force) produced
by a rocket engine will be determined by the rate at which
the mass of the rocket fuel burns and the speed of the gas escaping the rocket (Second Law). The reaction, or motion,
of the rocket is equal to and in the opposite direction of the action, or thrust, from the engine (Third Law).
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKETS AND MISSILES
Classification of Missile
Missiles are generally classified on the basis of their Type, Launch Mode, Range, Propulsion, Warhead
and Guidance Systems.
Type:
1. Cruise Missile
2. Ballistic Missile
Launch Mode:
1. Surface-to-Surface Missile
2. Surface-to-Air Missile
3. Surface (Coast)-to-Sea Missile
4. Air-to-Air Missile
5. Air-to-Surface Missile
6. Sea-to-Sea Missile
7. Sea-to-Surface (Coast) Missile
8. Anti-Tank Missile
Range:
1. Short Range Missile

2. Medium Range Missile
3. Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile
4. Intercontinental Ballistic Missile
Propulsion:
1. Solid Propulsion
2. Liquid Propulsion
3. Hybrid Propulsion
4. Ramjet
5. Scramjet
6. Cryogenic
Warhead:
1. Conventional
2. Strategic
Guidance Systems:
1. Wire Guidance
2. Command Guidance
3. Terrain Comparison Guidance
4. Terrestrial Guidance
5. Inertial Guidance
6. Beam Rider Guidance
7. Laser Guidance
8. RF and GPS Reference
On the basis of Type:
(i) Cruise Missile: A cruise missile is an unmanned self-propelled (till the time of impact) guided
vehicle that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path and whose primary
mission is to place an ordnance or special payload on a target. They fly within the earth’s atmosphere
and use jet engine technology. These vehicles vary greatly in their
speed and ability to penetrate defences.Cruise missiles can be
categorised by size, speed (subsonic or supersonic), range and
whether launched from land, air, surface ship or submarine.
Depending upon the speed such missiles are classified as:

1) Subsonic cruise missile
2) Supersonic cruise missile
3) Hypersonic cruise missile
Subsonic cruise missile flies at a speed lesser than that of

sound. It travels at a speed of around 0.8 Mach. The well-
known subsonic missile is the American Tomahawk cruise
missile. Some other examples are Harpoon of USA and Exocet
of France.
Supersonic cruise missile travels at a speed of around 2-3

Mach i.e.; it travels a kilometre approximately in a second. The
modular design of the missile and its capability of being launched at different orientations enable
it to be integrated with a wide spectrum of platforms like warships, submarines, different types of
aircraft, mobile autonomous launchers and silos. The combination of supersonic speed and
warhead mass provides high kinetic energy ensuring tremendous lethal effect. BRAHMOS is the
only known versatile supersonic cruise missile system which is in service.
Hypersonic cruise missile travels at a speed of more than 5 Mach. Many countries are working to
develop hypersonic cruise missiles. BrahMos Aerospace is also in the process of developing a
hypersonic cruise missile, BRAHMOS-II, which would fly at a speed greater than 5 Mach.
(ii) Ballistic Missile: A ballistic missile is a missile that has a ballistic trajectory over most of its
flight path, regardless of whether or not it is a weapon-delivery vehicle. Ballistic missiles are
categorised according to their range, maximum distance measured along the surface of earth's
ellipsoid from the point of launch to the point of impact of the last element of their payload. The
missile carry a huge payload. The carriage of a deadly warhead is justified by the distance the
missile travels. Ballistic missiles can be launched from ships and land based facilities. For
example, Prithvi I, Prithvi II, Agni I, Agni II and Dhanush ballistic missiles are currently
operational in the Indian defence forces.
On the basis of Launch Mode:
(i) Surface-to-Surface Missile: A surface-to-surface missile is a guided projectile launched from a

hand-held, vehicle mounted, trailer mounted or fixed installation. It is often powered by a rocket motor
or sometimes fired by an explosive charge since the launch platform is stationary.
(ii) Surface-to-Air Missile: A surface-to-air missile is designed for launch from the ground to destroy
aerial targets like aircrafts, helicopters and even ballistic missiles. These missiles are generally called air
defence systems as they defend any aerial attacks by the enemy.
(iii) Surface (Coast)-to-Sea Missile: A surface (coast)-to-sea missile is designed to be launched from
land to ship in the sea as targets.
(iv) Air-to-Air Missile: An air-to-air missile is launched from an aircraft to destroy the enemy aircraft.
The missile flies at a speed of 4 Mach.
(v) Air-to-Surface Missile: An air-to-surface missile is designed for launch from military aircraft and
strikes ground targets on land, at sea or both. The missiles are basically guided via laser guidance,
infrared guidance and optical guidance or via GPS signals. The type of guidance depends on the type of
target.
(vi) Sea-to-Sea Missile: A sea-to-sea missile is designed for launch from one ship to another ship.
(vii) Sea-to-Surface (Coast) Missile: A sea-to-surface missile is designed for launch from ship to land
based targets.
(viii) Anti-Tank Missile: An anti-tank missile is a guided missile primarily designed to hit and destroy
heavily-armoured tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles. Anti-tank missiles could be launched
from aircraft, helicopters, tanks and also from shoulder mounted launcher.
On the basis of Range:

This type of classification is based on maximum range achieved by the missiles. The basic
classification is as follows:
(i)Short Range Missile

(ii)Medium Range Missile
(iii)Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile
(iv) Intercontinental Ballistic Missile
On the basis of Propulsion:
(i) Solid Propulsion: Solid fuel is used in solid propulsion. Generally, the fuel is aluminium
powder. Solid propulsion has the advantage of being easily stored and can be handled in fuelled
condition. It can reach very high speeds quickly. Its simplicity also makes it a good choice
whenever large amount of thrust is needed.
(ii) Liquid Propulsion: The liquid propulsion technology uses liquid as fuel. The fuels are
hydrocarbons. The storage of missile with liquid fuel is difficult and complex. In addition,
preparation of missile takes considerable time. In liquid propulsion, propulsion can be controlled
easily by restricting the fuel flow by using valves and it can also be controlled even under
emergency conditions. Basically, liquid fuel gives high specific impulse as compared to solid
fuel.
(ii) Hybrid Propulsion: There are two stages in hybrid propulsion - solid propulsion and liquid
propulsion. This kind of propulsion compensates the disadvantages of both propulsion systems
and has the combined advantages of the two propulsion systems.
(iii) Ramjet: A ramjet engine does not have any turbines unlike turbojet engines. It achieves
compression of intake air just by the forward speed of the air vehicle. The fuel is injected and
ignited. The expansion of hot gases after fuel injection and combustion accelerates the exhaust air
to a velocity higher than that at the inlet and creates positive push. However, the air entering the
engine should be at supersonic speeds. So, the aerial vehicle must be moving in supersonic
speeds. Ramjet engines cannot propel an aerial vehicle from zero to supersonic speeds.
(iv) Scramjet: Scramjet is an acronym for Supersonic Combustion Ramjet. The difference
between scramjet and ramjet is that the combustion takes place at supersonic air velocities
through the engine. It is mechanically simple, but vastly more complex aerodynamically than a
jet engine. Hydrogen is normally the fuel used.
(v) Cryogenic: Cryogenic propellants are liquefied gases stored at very low temperatures, most
frequently liquid hydrogen as the fuel and liquid oxygen as the oxidizer. Cryogenic propellants
require special insulated containers and vents which allow gas to escape from the evaporating
liquids. The liquid fuel and oxidizer are pumped from the storage tanks to an expansion chamber
and injected into the combustion chamber where they are mixed and ignited by a flame or spark.
The fuel expands as it burns and the hot exhaust gases are directed out of the nozzle to provide
thrust.
On the basis of Warhead:
(i) Conventional Warhead: A conventional warhead contains high energy explosives. It is filled
with a chemical explosive and relies on the detonation of the explosive and the resulting metal
casing fragmentation as kill mechanisms.
(ii) Strategic Warhead: In a strategic warhead, radioactive materials are present and when
triggered they exhibit huge radio activity that can wipe out even cities. They are generally
designed for mass annihilation.
On the basis of Guidance Systems:
(i) Wire Guidance: This system is broadly similar to radio command, but is less susceptible to
electronic counter measures. The command signals are passed along a wire (or wires) dispensed
from the missile after launch.
(ii) Command Guidance: Command guidance involves tracking the projectile from the launch
site or platform and transmitting commands by radio, radar, or laser impulses or along thin wires
or optical fibres. Tracking might be accomplished by radar or optical instruments from the launch
site or by radar or television imagery relayed from the missile.
(iii) Terrain Comparison Guidance: Terrain Comparison (TERCOM) is used invariably by

cruise missiles. The system uses sensitive altimeters to measure the profile of the ground directly
below and checks the result against stored information.
(iv) Terrestrial Guidance: This system constantly measures star angles and compares them with
the pre-programmed angles expected on the missile’s intended trajectory. The guidance system
directs the control system whenever an alteration to trajectory is required.
(v) Inertial Guidance: This system is totally contained within the missile and is programmed
prior to launch. Three accelerometers, mounted on a platform space-stabilised by gyros, measure
accelerations along three mutually perpendicular axes; these accelerations are then integrated
twice, the first integration giving velocity and the second giving position. The system then directs
the control system to preserve the pre-programmed trajectory. This systems are used in the
surface-to-surface missiles and in cruise missiles.
(vi) Beam Rider Guidance: The beam rider concept relies on an external ground or ship-based
radar station that transmits a beam of radar energy towards the target. The surface radar tracks the
target and also transmits a guidance beam that adjusts its angle as the target moves across the
sky.
(vii) Laser Guidance: In laser guidance, a laser beam is focused on the target and the laser beam
reflects off the target and gets scattered. The missile has a laser seeker that can detect even
miniscule amount of radiation. The seeker provides the direction of the laser scatters to the
guidance system. The missile is launched towards the target, the seeker looks out for the laser
reflections and the guidance system steers the missile towards the source of laser reflections that
is ultimately the target.
(viii) RF and GPS Reference: RF (Radio Frequency) and GPS (Global Positioning System) are
examples of technologies that are used in missile guidance systems. A missile uses GPS signal to
determine the location of the target. Over the course of its flight, the weapon uses this
information to send commands to control surfaces and adjusts its trajectory. In a RF reference,
the missile uses RF waves to locate the target.
ROCKET CLASSIFICATION:
1.DUCT JET PROPULSION
This class, also called air-breathing engines, comprises devices which have a duct to confine the flow of
air. They use oxygen from the air to burn fuel stored in the flight vehicle. The class includes turbojets,
turbofans, ramjets, and pulsejets. This class of propulsion is mentioned primarily to provide a
comparison with rocket propulsion and a background for combination rocket-duct engines, which are
mentioned later. A high specific impulse is directly related to a long flight range and thus indicates the
superior range capability of air breather engines over chemical rockets at relatively low altitude. The
uniqueness of the rocket, for example, high thrust to weight, high thrust to frontal area, and thrust
independence of altitude, enables extremely long flight ranges to be obtained in rarefied air and in space.
The turbojet engine is the most common of ducted engines. Figure 1-1 shows the basic elements.
At supersonic flight speeds above Mach 2, the ramjet engine (a pure duct engine) becomes attractive for
flight within the atmosphere. Thrust is produced by increasing the momentum of the air as it passes
through the ramjet, basically as is accomplished in the turbojet and turbofan engines but without
compressors or turbines, Figure 1-2 shows the basic components of one type of ramjet.
Ramjets with subsonic combustion and hydrocarbon fuel have an upper speed limit of approximately
Mach 5; hydrogen fuel, with hydrogen cooling, raises this to at least Mach 16. Ramjets depend on
rocket boosters, or some other method (such as being launched from an aircraft) for being accelerated to
near their design flight speed to become functional. The primary applications have been in shipboard
and ground-launched antiaircraft missiles. Studies of a hydrogen-fueled ramjet for hypersonic aircraft
look promising. The supersonic flight vehicle is a combination of a ramjet-driven high-speed airplane
and a one- or two-stage rocket booster. It can travel at speeds up to a Mach number of 25 at altitudes of
up to 50,000 m.
2.ROCKET PROPULSION
Rocket propulsion systems can be classified according to the type of energy source (chemical, nuclear, or solar),
the basic function (booster stage, sustainer, attitude control, orbit station keeping, etc.), the type of vehicle
(aircraft, missile, assisted take-off, space vehicle, etc.), size, type of propellant, type of construction, or number of
rocket propulsion units used in a given vehicle. Each is treated in more detail in subsequent chapters. Another
way is to Classify by the method of producing thrust. A thermodynamic expansion of a gas is used in the majority
of practical rocket propulsion concepts. The internal energy of the gas is converted into the kinetic energy of the
exhaust flow and the thrust is produced by the gas pressure on the surfaces exposed to the gas, as will be
explained later. This same thermo-dynamic theory and the same generic equipment (nozzle) is used for jet
propulsion, rocket propulsion, nuclear propulsion, laser propulsion, solar-thermal propulsion, and some types of
electrical propulsion.
Chemical Rocket Propulsion
The energy from a high-pressure combustion reaction of propellant chemicals, usually a fuel and an oxidizing
chemical, permits the heating of reaction product gases to very high temperatures (2500 to 4100°C or 4500 to
7400°F). These gases subsequently are expanded in a nozzle and accelerated to high velocities (1800 to 4300
m/sec or 5900 to 14,100 ft/sec). Since these gas temperatures are about twice the melting point of steel, it is
necessary to cool or insulate all the surfaces that are exposed to the hot gases. According to the physical state of
the propellant, there are several different classes of chemical rocket propulsion devices.
Liquid propellant rocket engines use liquid propellants that are fed under pressure from tanks into a thrust
chamber. A typical pressure-fed liquid propellant rocket engine system is schematically shown in Fig. 1-3. The
liquid bipropellant consists of a liquid oxidizer (e.g., liquid oxygen) and a liquid fuel (e.g., kerosene). A
monopropellant is a single liquid that contains both oxidizing and fuel species; it decomposes into hot gas when
properly catalyzed. A large turbopump-fed liquid propellant rocket engine is shown in Fig. 1-4. Gas pressure feed
systems are used mostly on low thrust, low total energy propulsion systems, such as those used for attitude
control of flying vehicles, often with more than one thrust chamber per engine. Pump-fed liquid rocket systems
are used typically in applications with larger amounts of propellants and higher thrusts, such as in space launch
vehicles. In the thrust chamber the propellants react to form hot gases, which in turn are accelerated and ejected at
a high velocity through a supersonic nozzle, thereby imparting momentum to the vehicle. A nozzle has a
converging section, a constriction or throat, and a conical or bell-shaped diverging section as further described in
the next two chapters. Some liquid rocket engines permit repetitive operation and can be started and shut off at
will. If the thrust chamber is provided with adequate cooling capacity, it is possible to run liquid rockets for
periods exceeding 1 hour, dependent only on the propellant supply. A liquid rocket propulsion system requires
several precision valves and a complex feed mechanism which includes propellant pumps, turbines, or a
propellant-pressurizing device, and a relatively intricate combustion or thrust chamber.
In solid propellant rocket motors* the propellant to be burned is contained within the combustion chamber or
case. The solid propellant charge is called the grain and it contains all the chemical elements for complete
burning. Once ignited, it usually burns smoothly at a predetermined rate on all the exposed internal surfaces of the
grain. Initial burning takes place at the internal surfaces of the cylinder perforation and the four slots. The internal
cavity grows as propellant is burned and consumed. The resulting hot gas flows through the supersonic nozzle to
impart thrust. Once ignited, the motor combustion proceeds in an orderly manner until essentially all the
propellant has been consumed. There are no feed systems or valves (see Fig. 1-5).
FIGURE 1-3. Schematic flow diagram of a liquid propellant rocket engine with a gas pressure feed system. The
dashed lines show a second thrust chamber, but some engines have more than a dozen thrust chambers supplied
by the same feed system. Also shown are components needed for start and stop, controlling tank pressure, filling
propellants and pressurizing gas, draining or flushing out remaining propellants, tank pressure relief or venting,
and several sensors.
Gaseous propellant rocket engines use a stored high-pressure gas, such as air, nitrogen, or helium, as their
working fluid or propellant. The stored gas requires relatively heavy tanks. These cold gas engines have been
used on many early space vehicles as attitude control systems and some are still used today. Heating the gas by
electrical energy or by combustion of certain monopropellants improves the performance and this has often been
called warm gas propellant rocket propulsion.
FIGURE 1-4(Below fig) Simplified schematic diagram of one type of liquid propellant rocket engine with a turbo
pump feed system and a separate gas generator, which generates warm gas for driving the turbine. Not shown are
components necessary for controlling the operation, filling, venting, draining, or flushing out propellants, filters
or sensors. The turbo pump assembly consists of two propellant pumps, a gear case, and a high speed turbine.
Hybrid propellant rocket propulsion systems use both a liquid and a solid propellant. For example, if a liquid
oxidizing agent is injected into a combustion chamber filled with solid carbonaceous fuel grain, the chemical
reaction produces hot combustion gases.see FIG 1-6
There are also chemical rocket propulsion combination systems that have both solid and liquid propellants. One
example is a pressurized liquid propellant system that uses a solid propellant to generate hot gases for tank
pressurization; flexible diaphragms are necessary to separate the hot gas and the reactive liquid propellant in the
tank.
FIGURE 1-5.(Below) Simplified perspective three-quarter section of a typical solid propellant rocket motor with
the propellant grain bonded to the case and the insulation layer and with a conical exhaust nozzle. The cylindrical
case with its forward and aft hemispherical domes form a pressure vessel to contain the combustion chamber
pressure
Combinations of Ducted Jet Engines and Rocket Engines
The Tomahawk surface-to-surface missile uses two stages of propulsion in sequence. The solid propellant rocket
booster lifts the missile away from its launch platform and is discarded after its operation. A small turbojet engine
sustains the low level flight at nearly constant speed toward the target.
A ducted rocket, sometimes called an air-augmented rocket, combines the principles of rocket and ramjet engines;
it gives higher performance (specific impulse) than a chemical rocket engine, while operating within the earth's
atmosphere. Usually the term air-augmented rocket denotes mixing of air with the rocket exhaust (fuel-rich for
afterburning) in proportions that enable the propulsion device to retain the characteristics typifying a rocket
engine, for example, high static ,thrust and high thrust-to-weight ratio. In contrast, the ducted rocket often is :like
a ramjet in that it must be boosted to operating speed and uses the rocket component~ more as a fuel-rich gas
generator (liquid, solid, or hybrid), igniter, and air ejector pump.
The principles of the rocket and ramjet can be combined so that the two propulsion systems operate in sequence
and in tandem and yet utilize a common combustion chamber ,,volume as shown in Fig. 1-7. The low-volume
configuration, known as an integral rocket-ramjet, can be attractive in air launched missiles using ramjet
propulsion The transition from the rocket to the ramjet requires enlarging the exhaust nozzle throat (usually by
ejecting rocket nozzle parts), opening the ramjet air inlet-combustion chamber interface, and following these two
events with the normal ramjet starting sequence.
A solid fuel ramjet uses a grain of solid fuel that gasifies or ablates and reacts with air. Good combustion
efficiencies have been achieved with a patented boron-containing solid fuel fabricated into a grain similar to a
solid propellant and burning in a manner similar to a hybrid rocket propulsion system.
FIGURE 1--6. Simplified schematic diagram of a typical hybrid rocket engine. The relative positions of the
oxidizer tank, high pressure gas tank, and the fuel chamber with its nozzle depend on the particular vehicle
design.
Nuclear Rocket Engines
Three different types of nuclear energy sources have been investigated for delivering heat to a working fluid,
usually liquid hydrogen, which subsequently can be expanded in a nozzle and thus accelerated to high ejection
velocities (6000 to 10,000 m/sec). However, none can be considered fully developed today and none have flown.
They are the fission reactor, the radioactive isotope decay source, and the fusion reactor. All three types are
basically extensions of liquid propellant rocket engines. The heating of the gas is accomplished by energy derived
from transformations within the nuclei of atoms. In chemical rockets the energy is obtained from within the
propellants, but in nuclear rockets the power source is usually separate from the propellant.
In the nuclear fission reactor rocket, heat can be generated by the fission of uranium in the solid reactor material
and subsequently transferred to the working fluid. The nuclear fission rocket is primarily a high-thrust engine
(above 40,000 N) with specific impulse values up to 900 sec. Fission rockets were designed and tested in the
1960s. Ground tests with hydrogen as a working fluid culminated in a thrust of 980,000 N (210,000 lb force) at a
graphite core nuclear reactor level of 4100 MW with an equivalent altitude-specific impulse of 848 sec and a
hydrogen temperature of about 2500 K. There were concerns with the endurance of the materials at the high
temperature (above 2600 K) and intense radiations, power level control, cooling a reactor after operation,
moderating the high energy neutrons, and designing lightweight radiation shields for a manned space vehicle.
In recent years there have been renewed interest in nuclear fission rocket propulsion primarily for a potential
manned planetary exploration mission. Studies have shown that the high specific impulse (estimated in some
studies at 1100 sec) allows shorter interplanetary trip transfer times, smaller vehicles, and more flexibility in the
launch time when planets are not in their optimum relative position.
In the isotope decay engine a radioactive material gives off radiation, which is readily converted into heat.
Isotope decay sources have been used successfully for generating electrical power in space vehicles and some
have been flown as a power supply for satellites and deep space probes. The released energy can be used to raise
the temperature of a propulsive working fluid such as hydrogen or perhaps drive an electric propulsion system. It
provides usually a lower thrust and lower temperature than the other types of nuclear rocket. As yet, isotope
decay rocket engines have not been developed or flown.
Fusion is the third nuclear method of creating nuclear energy that can heat a working fluid. A number of different
concepts have been studied. To date none have been tested and many concepts are not yet feasible or practical.
Concerns about an accident with the inadvertent spreading of radioactive materials in the earth environment and
the high cost of development programs have to date prevented a renewed experimental development of a large
nuclear rocket engine. Unless there are some new findings and a change in world attitude, it is unlikely that a
nuclear rocket engine will be developed or flown in the next few decades.
Electric Rocket Propulsion
In all electric propulsion the source of the electric power (nuclear, solar radiation receivers, or batteries) is
physically separate from the mechanism that produces the thrust. This type of propulsion has been handicapped
by heavy and inefficient power sources. The thrust usually is low, typically 0.005 to 1 N. In order to allow a
significant increase in the vehicle velocity, it is necessary to apply the low thrust and thus a small acceleration for
a long time (weeks or months).
Of the three basic types, electro thermal rocket propulsion most resembles the previously mentioned chemical
rocket units; propellant is heated electrically (by heated resistors or electric arcs) and the hot gas is then
thermodynamically expanded and accelerated to supersonic velocity through an exhaust nozzle (see Fig. 1-8).
These electro thermal units typically have thrust ranges of 0.01 to 0.5 N, with exhaust velocities of 1000 to 5000
m/sec, and ammonium, hydrogen, nitrogen, or hydrazine decomposition product gases have been usedas
propellants.
The two other types--the electrostatic or ion propulsion engine and the electromagnetic or magneto plasma
engine--accomplish propulsion by different principles and the thermodynamic expansion of gas in a nozzle, as
such, does not apply. Both will work only in a vacuum. In an ion rocket (see Fig. 1-9) a working fluid (typically,
xenon) is ionized (by stripping off electrons) and then the electrically charged heavy ions are accelerated to very
high velocities (2000 to 60,000 rn/sec) by means of electrostatic fields. The ions are subsequently electrically
neutralized; they are combined with electrons to prevent the buildup of a space charge on the vehicle.
In the magneto plasma rocket an electrical plasma (an energized hot gas containing ions, electrons, and neutral
particles) is accelerated by the interaction between electric currents and magnetic fields and ejected at high
velocity (1000 to 50,000 m/sec). There are many different types and geometries. A simple pulsed (not
continuously operating) unit with a solid propellant is shown in Fig. 1-10. This type has had a good flight record
as a spacecraft attitude control engine.
FIGURE 1-8. Simplified schematic diagram of arc-heating electric rocket propulsion system. The arc plasma
temperature is very high (perhaps 15,000 K) and the anode, cathode, and chamber will get hot (1000 K) due to
heat transfer.
FIGURE 1-9. Simplified schematic diagram of a typical ion rocket, showing the approximate distribution of the
electric power.
Various Indian missiles

PRITHVI:
It is India’s first indigenously built tactical “surface to surface” missile. It has a
maximum range of 300 Km. It was first test fired in year 1988 from Sriharikota. It was induced
into Indian Army in year 1994. Prithvi I is considered as India’s first indigenous ballistic missile.
Naval variant of the Prithvi missiles are called Dhanush. The weight of Prithvi missile is
about 4.5 to 5 Tons and it is designed to carry warhead of 0.5 Ton. All the variants of Prithvi can
carry nuclear warheads. Prithvi I and Prithvi II are based on liquid fuels which increases set-up
time before launching thus making these missiles redundant. Prithvi III uses solid fuel which is
more reliable as it reduces operational set-up time. Prithvi III has range 350 Km plus which is
considerably more than Agni I and Agni II. This is in service from year 2004.
TRISHUL
It is a short range “surface to air” missile. It was designed for the primary function of
defending naval ships against any missile attack, although it can be used to intercept low flying
targets on land also. It has a range of 5 to 9 Km. The weight of the missile is 130 Kg and it can carry
warhead up to 5 Kg. It was first successfully test launched in year 1988. This missile has been
removed from service in year 2008.
AKASH
It is a medium range multi target surface to air missile. It has capability of maximum range of
25 Km and altitude of 18 Km. Its primary use is to destroy flying targets in air like Fighter jets, and
cruise missiles etc. It was successfully test launched in 1990. This missile was first designed by DRDO
and it is being produced by Ordnance factories in collaboration with Bharat Dynamics and Bharat
Electronics Its designed weight is 720 Kg and it can carry war head of 60 Kg. It has inbuilt radar
system which is used to intercept not only fighter jets but can also neutralise the cruise missiles. It has a
speed range of Mach 3. It is fully mobile system and its launching platform is developed in such a way
that it can be fitted both on a wheel and track type vehicle.
The fully mobile Akash Missiles
.
NAG:
It is a third generation, fire and forget type anti-tank guided missile with a range of about 4
Km. It was first test launched in year 1988. The weight of this missile is very less nearly 42 Kg and
it can carry warhead of 8 Kg. The reason of such a low weight can be attributed to the fact that its
body is completely made up of fibre. It has a unique feature which differentiates it from others
is that its smoke is totally invisible. Most of the missiles generally leave heavy long smoke trail.
The invisible smoke of Nag ensures that no one can find out the missile came from which
direction. The vehicles from which it is test fired is of two types – i) NAMICA and ii) HELINA.
NAMICA stands for Nag missile carrier which is land based track type vehicle. HELINA stands for
Helicopter Nag which is still in development phase.
NAG missile along with prototype of HELINA under trial with Advanced Light Helicopters of HAL
AGNI:
It is a intermediate to long range ballistic surface to surface missile. Agni series consists of
6 different types namely Agni I, Agni II, Agni III, Agni IV, Agni V and Agni VI. Agni series missiles
differ from other missiles in the fact that Agni missiles are multi stage type while other missiles
are single stage. Agni 1 is MRBM (Medium Range Ballistic Missile) while Agni II, III and IV comes
under the category of IRBM (Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile) while Agni V and VI are ICBM
(Inter-continental Ballistic Missile).
AGNI I
It has range capability of up to 750-1250 Km. It was first test launched in year 1989. Agni I
has a weight of 12 Tons and it can carry nuclear warheads of 1 Ton.
AGNI II
It weighs 16 tons and can carry 1 Ton of Nuclear warhead. It has a range of 2000-3000 Km.
Agni II was successfully test launched in 1999 at Wheeler island, Balasore, Odisha.
AGNI III
Agni III has a range of up to 5000 Km. Its weight is 22 Tons and it can carry nuclear
warheads of up to 2.5 Ton.
AGNI IV
It has a range of 4000 Km and weight of 17 Ton. It defers from the early series of Agni
missiles by the fact that a lot of new technologies were introduced in this variant. The new
technologies introduced were Re-Entry to atmosphere heat shield, Composite rocket motor,
modern avionics with full digital control system providing very high level of accuracy in hitting
the target. It was successfully test fired on 15 No 2011 by road mobile launcher from wheeler
islands, Balasore, Odisha
AGNI V
It is a three stage type ICBM having weight of 50 tons and warhead capacity of 1.5
ton. Exact range of this missile was never disclosed but as per estimates it is considered to be
between 5000 – 8000 Km. This is an upgraded version of Agni III. It was successfully test fired on
19 April 2012. The accuracy level is less than 9 meter which is best among any of the missile built
by India. This missile has the capability to hit the across Asia and reach farthest ends of Europe.
AGNI VI
It is four stage type ICBM which is still in developmental stage. It is expected to have a
weight of 55 to 70 Tons and warhead carrying capacity of 3 Tons. The expected range of this
missile is 8000 to 12000 Km.
Ship Defense Surface to Air Missiles (SAM)

K SERIES MISSILES
K4 and K15 are Ship defense surface to air missiles which are basically an example of SLBM
(Submarine launched ballistic missiles). K series missiles are named in the memory of the late
former President A P J Abdul Kalam. K15 and K4 are both Nuclear missiles. While K15 has a range
of 700 Km, the K4 has a high range of 3500 Km. Both of these K series missiles are equipped in
recently commissioned Arihant nuclear powered submarine.
BARAK SERIES MISSILES
Barak 1 and Bark 8 are the surface to air missiles for Ship defense. Barak series missiles are
basically Ship defense missiles which are used against aircrafts, anti-ship missiles. Barak series of
missiles are developed as a joint venture between DRDO, India and Israel. While Barak 1 is SRSAM
which stands for short range surface to air missile, Barak 8 is LRSAM which means Long range
surface to air missile. Barak missiles are fitted on Shivalik class frigates and aircraft carriers INS
Virat and INS Vikramaditya.
BRAHMOS
It is named on Indian river Brahmaputra and Russian river Moskva. It earns the reputation
of World’s fastest cruise missile. It was developed as a joint venture between DRDO and Russia. It
has speed Range of 3 Mach and range of 300 to 500 Km. Its weight is 3 Tons and it can carry 200
KGs of conventional or nuclear warhead. It has three variants- i) land based, ii) Naval based, iii)
Air and Submarine based. The land based and Naval based are already inducted in service while
the Air and submarine based variants are still in development stage. The land based variant was
first test fired in 2001 at Chandipur while the Naval based variant was test fired on 5 March 2008
from INS Rajput.
NIRBHAY
It is India’s indigenously developed subsonic Cruise Missile. Its range is more than 1000
Km. this missile has the flexibility to be launched from land, air and naval base. The unique feature
which distinguishes it from others is that it is completely stealth. The first launch of land based
variant failed as it diverted from its trajectory. The second launch was successful on 17 Oct 2014.
INDIAN SPACE LAUNCH VEHICLE:
1.SOUNDING ROCKETS:
Sounding rockets are one or two stage solid propellant rockets
used for probing the upper atmospheric regions and for space
research. They also serve as easily affordable platforms to test or
prove prototypes of new components or subsystems intended for
use in launch vehicles and satellites. With the establishment of the
Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in 1963 at
Thumba, a location close to the magnetic equator, there was a
quantum jump in the scope for aeronomy and atmospheric
sciences in India. The launch of the first sounding rocket from
Thumba near Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala on 21 November 1963,
marked the beginning of the Indian Space Programme . Sounding
rockets made it possible to probe the atmosphere in situ using
rocket-borne instrumentation. The first rockets were two-stage
rockets imported from Russia (M-100) and France (Centaure).
While the M-100 could carry a payload of 70 kg to an altitude of 85 km, the Centaure was capable of
reaching 150 km with a payload of approximately 30 kg.
ISRO started launching indigenously made sounding rockets from 1965 and experience gained was of
immense value in the mastering of solid propellant technology. In 1975, all sounding rocket activities
were consolidated under the Rohini Sounding Rocket (RSR) Programme. RH-75, with a diameter of
75mm was the first truly Indian sounding rocket, which was followed by RH-100 and RH-125
rockets. The sounding rocket programme was the bedrock on which the edifice of launch vehicle
technology in ISRO could be built. It is possible to conduct coordinated campaigns by simultaneously
launching sounding rockets from different locations. It is also possible to launch several sounding
rockets in a single day.
Operational sounding Rockets
Currently, three versions are offered as operational sounding rockets , which cover a payload range of
8-100 Kg and an apogee range of 80-475 km.
Vehicle RH-200 RH-300-Mk-II RH-560-MK-II
Payload (in kg) 10 60 100
Altitude (in km) 80 160 470
Purpose Meterology Aeronomy Aeronomy
Launch Pad Thumba Balasore SDSC-SHAR SDSC-SHAR
Several scientific missions with national and international participation have been conducted using the
Rohini sounding rockets.
2.SLV:
Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 (SLV-3) was India's first experimental satellite launch
vehicle, which was an all solid, four stage vehicle weighing 17 tonnes with a height
of 22m and capable of placing 40 kg class payloads in Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
SLV-3 was successfully launched on July 18, 1980 from Sriharikota Range
(SHAR), when Rohini satellite, RS-1, was placed in orbit, thereby making India the
sixth member of an exclusive club of space-faring nations . SLV-3 employed an
open loop guidance (with stored pitch programme) to steer the vehicle in flight
along a pre-determined trajectory. The first experimental flight of SLV-3, in
August 1979, was only partially successfu l. Apart from the July 1980 launch,
there were two more launches held in May 1981 and April 1983, orbiting Rohini
satellites carrying remote sensing sensors.
The successful culmination of the SLV-3 project showed the way to advanced
launch vehicle projects such as the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV),
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and the Geosynchronous satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).
SN Title Launch Date Payload Remarks
1 SLV-3 Apr 17, 1983 Rohini Satellite RS-D2
2 SLV-3D1 May 31, 1981 Rohini Satellite RS-D1
3 SLV-3E2 Jul 18, 1980 Rohini Satellite RS-1
4 SLV-3E1 Aug 10, 1979 Rohini Technology Payload (RTP) Mission Unsuccessful
3.ASLV:
With a lift off weight of 40 tonnes, the 24 m tall ASLV was configured as a five stage, all-solid
propellant vehicle, with a mission of orbiting 150 kg class satellites into 400 km circular orbits.
The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) Programme was designed to augment the payload
capacity to 150 kg, thrice that of SLV-3, for Low Earth Orbits (LEO). While building upon the
experience gained from the SLV-3 missions, ASLV proved to be a low cost intermediate vehicle to
demonstrate and validate critical technologies, that would be needed for
the future launch vehicles like strap-on technology, inertial navigation,
bulbous heat shield, vertical integration and closed loop guidance.
Under the ASLV programme four developmental flights were conducted.

The first developmental flight took place on March 24, 1987 and the
second on July 13, 1988. The third developmental flight, ASLV-D3 was
successfully launched on May 20, 1992, when SROSS-C (106 kg) was put
into an orbit of 255 x 430 km. ASLV-D4, launched on May 4, 1994,
orbited SROSS-C2 weighing 106 kg. It had two payloads, Gamma Ray
Burst (GRB) Experiment and Retarding Potentio Analyser (RPA) and
functioned for seven years.
4.PSLV:
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is the third generation launch

vehicle of India. It is the first Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with
liquid stages. After its first successful launch in October 1994, PSLV
emerged as the reliable and versatile workhorse launch vehicle of India with 39 consecutively successful
missions by June 2017. During 1994-2017 period, the vehicle has launched 48 Indian satellites and 209
satellites for customers from abroad.
Besides, the vehicle successfully launched two spacecraft – Chandrayaan-1 in 2008 and Mars Orbiter
Spacecraft in 2013 – that later traveled to Moon and Mars respectively.
Vehicle Specifications:
Height : 44 m
Diameter : 2.8 m
Number of Stages :4
Lift Off Mass : 320 tonnes (XL)
Variants : 3 (PSLV-G, PSLV - CA, PSLV - XL)
First Flight : September 20, 1993
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Payload to SSPO: 1,750 kg
PSLV earned its title 'the Workhorse of ISRO' through consistently delivering various satellites to Low
Earth Orbits, particularly the IRS series of satellites. It can take up to 1,750 kg of payload to Sun-
Synchronous Polar Orbits of 600 km altitude.
Payload to Sub GTO: 1,425 kg

Due to its unmatched reliability, PSLV has also been used to launch various satellites into
Geosynchronous and Geostationary orbits, like satellites from the IRNSS constellation.
Fourth Stage: PS4

The PS4 is the uppermost stage of PSLV, comprising of two Earth storable liquid engines.
Engine : 2 x PS-4
Fuel : MMH + MON
Max. Thrust : 7.6 x 2 kN

Third Stage: PS3
The third stage of PSLV is a solid rocket motor that provides the upper stages high thrust after the
atmospheric phase of the launch.
Fuel : HTPB
Max. Thrust : 240 kN
Second Stage: PS2

PSLV uses an Earth storable liquid rocket engine for its second stage, know as the Vikas engine,
developed by Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre.
Engine : Vikas
Fuel : UDMH + N2O4
First Stage: PS1

PSLV uses the S139 solid rocket motor that is augmented by 6 solid strap-on boosters.
Engine : S139
Fuel : HTPB
Strap-on Motors
PSLV uses 6 solid rocket strap-on motors to augment the thrust provided by the first stage in its PSLV-
G and PSLV-XL variants. However, strap-ons are not used in the core alone version (PSLV-CA).
Fuel : HTPB
5.GSLV:
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark II (GSLV Mk II) is the largest launch vehicle developed by
India, which is currently in operation. This fourth generation launch vehicle is a three stage vehicle with four
liquid strap-ons. The indigenously developed cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS), which is flight proven, forms the
third stage of GSLV Mk II. From January 2014, the vehicle has achieved four consecutive successes
Vehicle Specifications
Height : 49.13 m
Number of Stages: 3
Lift Off Mass: 414.75 tonnes
First Flight: April 18, 2001
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Payload to GTO: 2,500 kg
GSLV's primary payloads are INSAT class of communication satellites that operate from Geostationary
orbits and hence are placed in Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits by GSLV.
Payload to LEO: 5,000 kg

Further, GSLV's capability of placing up to 5 tonnes in Low Earth Orbits broadens the scope of
payloads from heavy satellites to multiple smaller satellites.
Third Stage: CUS

Developed under the Cryogenic Upper Stage Project (CUSP), the CE-7.5 is India's first cryogenic
engine, developed by the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre. CE-7.5 has a staged combustion operating
cycle.
Fuel : LOX + LH2
Max. Thrust : 75 kN
Burn-time : 720 sec
Second Stage: GS2

One Vikas engine is used in the second stage of GSLV. The stage was derived from the PS2 of PSLV
where the Vikas engine has proved its reliability.
Engine : Vikas
Fuel : UDMH + N2O4
Burntime : 150 sec

First Stage: GS1
The first stage of GSLV was also derived from the PSLV's PS1. The 138 tonne solid rocket motor is
augmented by 4 liquid strap-ons.
Engine : S139
Fuel : HTPB
Burntime : 100 sec
Strap-on Motors
The four liquid engine strap-ons used in GSLV are heavier derivatives of PSLV's PS2, and use one
Vikas engine each.
Fuel : UDMH + N2O4
Burntime : 160 sec
6.GSLV MK III:
GSLV Mk III is a three-stage heavy lift launch vehicle developed by ISRO. The vehicle has two solid
strap-ons, a core liquid booster and a cryogenic upper stage.
GSLV Mk III is designed to carry 4 ton class of satellites into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) or
about 10 tons to Low Earth Orbit (LEO), which is about twice the capability of GSLV Mk II.
The two strap-on motors of GSLV Mk III are located on either side of its core liquid booster.
Designated as ‘S200’, each carries 205 tons of composite solid propellant and their ignition results in
vehicle lift -off . S200s function for 140 seconds. During strap-ons functioning phase, the two clustered
Vikas liquid Engines of L110 liquid core booster will ignite 114 sec after lift -off to further augment the
thrust of the vehicle. These two engines continue to function after the separation of the strap-ons at
about 140 seconds after lift -off.
The first experimental flight of LVM3, the LVM3-X/CARE mission lifted off from Sriharikota on
December 18, 2014 and successfully tested the atmospheric phase of flight. Crew module Atmospheric
Reentry Experiment was also carried out in this flight. The module reentered, deployed its parachutes as
planned and splashed down in the Bay of Bengal.
The first developmental flight of GSLV Mk III, the GSLV-Mk III-D1 successfully placed GSAT-19
satellite to a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) on June 05, 2017 from SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota.
Vehicle Specifications
Height : 43.43 m
Vehicle Diameter : 4.0 m
Heat Shield (Payload Fairing) Diameter : 5.0 m
Number of Stages : 3
Lift Off Mass : 640 tonnes
DR.R.ARRAVIND ,V.DINESH BABU –AERONAUTICAL--NIET

Scanned by CamScanner
UNIT – 3
ROCKET MOTION IN FREE SPACE AND IN GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
NEWTON'S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION:
Newton's law of universal gravitation states that every point mass in the universe attracts
every other point mass with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. (Separately it was shown that large
spherically symmetrical masses attract and are attracted as if all their mass were concentrated at their
centers.) This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by what Newton called
induction.
Every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a force pointing along the line
intersecting both points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them
where:
F is the force between the masses,
G is the gravitational constant,
m1 is the first mass,
m2 is the second mass, and
r is the distance between the centres of the masses.
Assuming SI units, F is measured in newtons (N), m1 and m2 in kilograms (kg), r in meters
(m), and the constant G is approximately equal to 6.674×10−11 N m2 kg−2.
Newton's law of gravitation resembles Coulomb's law of electrical forces, which is used to
calculate the magnitude of electrical force between two charged bodies. Both are inverse-square laws,
in which force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. Coulomb's
Law has the product of two charges in place of the product of the masses, and the electrostatic
constant in place of the gravitational constant.
Newton's law has since been superseded by Einstein's theory of general relativity, but it
continues to be used as an excellent approximation of the effects of gravity. Relativity is required only
when there is a need for extreme precision, or when dealing with gravitation for extremely massive
and dense objects.
THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION

To describe the motion of the rocket vehicle we need the following reference frames:
Inertial frame: OXYZ
This frame is chosen such that the trajectory of the centre of mass of the vehicle lies in the XZ
plane. So this plane is determined by the launch direction (initial velocity) and the direction of the
gravitational field. The inertial frame will be specified further where necessary. The unit vectors along
the axes of the inertial frame will be ex, ey and ez.
Vehicle reference frame oxyz:
The origin of this frame is the centre of mass of the rocket. The x-axis coincides withthe
longitudinal axis of the rocket and is positive forwards. The y- and z-axes are chosen such that
they form an orthogonal right handed Cartesian frame, the xz- plane coinciding with the XZ plane.
The unit vectors along the axes of the vehicle reference frame are ex , ey and ez. The position of
the rocket is determined by the X and Z coordinates of its centre of mass, while the orientation is
determined by the angle between the x axis and X axis: the pitch angle θ The equation of two
dimensional motion (along the axes of the vehicle reference frame) can be obtained by substitution of
v=p=r=0.However, in this simple case, we prefer to express the equations in components along the
axes of the inertial frame. The equations for translation motion can be obtained from the vector
equation,
As we will only consider nominal trajectory, the thrust is assumed to act along the x-axis,
i.e,Fx=Fy=0, while its application point will be assumed to lie on the x axis, ye=ze=0. The thrust F and
aerodynamic force Fa are given by,
Fig: coordinate systems to describe the two-dimensional rocket motion

The gravitational field strength g, and the position vector, R cm of the centre of mass are
resolved into components along the inertial axes
By using the equation and the relation between the unit vectors in both reference frames,
We obtain the equations,
The above equations are the complete equations for two dimensional rocket motion. This system of
equations is still rather complicated. The aerodynamic forces are dependent on velocity and position;
the gravitational components are in general dependent on the position, while the thrust is dependent
on the position owing to the atmospheric pressure term. In general, analytic solution of these
equations is not possible.
TSIOLKOVSKY ROCKET EQUATION (OR) IDEAL ROCKET EQUATION (OR)
EQUATION OF OBERTH
The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, or ideal rocket equation, describes the motion of
vehicles that follow the basic principle of a rocket: a device that can apply acceleration to itself (a
thrust) by expelling part of its mass with high speed and move due to the conservation of momentum.
The equation relates the delta-v (the maximum change of speed of the rocket if no other external
forces act) with the effective exhaust velocity and the initial and final mass of a rocket
For any such maneuver (or journey involving a number of such maneuvers):
where:
M 0 -is the initial total mass, including propellant,
M1- is the final total mass,
V e -is the effective exhaust velocity( where is the specific impulse of a
time period and is Standard Gravity),
- is delta-v - the maximum change of speed of the vehicle (with no external forces acting),
refers to the natural logarithm function.
This equation was independently derived by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky towards the end of the
19th century and is widely known under his name or as the 'ideal rocket equation'.
Derivation
Consider the following system:

In the following derivation, "the rocket" is taken to mean "the rocket and all of its unburned
propellant".
Newton's second law of motion relates external forces (F i ) to the change in linear momentum of the
system as follows:
where P 1 is the momentum of the rocket at time t=0:

where is the initial total mass including propellant, the final total mass, and the velocity of the rocket
exhaust with respect to the rocket (the specific impulse, or, if measured in time, that multiplied by
gravity-on-Earth acceleration).
The value m0-m1 is the total mass of propellant expended, and hence
Where Mf is the mass fraction (the part of the initial total mass that is spent as reaction mass).
Applicability
The rocket equation captures the essentials of rocket flight physics in a single short equation.
It also holds true for rocket-like reaction vehicles whenever the effective exhaust velocity is constant;
and can be summed or integrated when the effective exhaust velocity varies. It does not apply to non
rocket systems, such as aero braking, gun launches, space elevators, launch loops, and in tether
propulsion.
ROCKET PARAMETERS:
The mass ratio is the very important parameter in determining the ideal velocity of the rocket. Mass
ratio is defined as the ratio between the initial and final mass of the rocket.
Mass ratio = M0/M1
Next to the mass ratio we can also define some of the other dimensionless quantities.
We divide the initial mass (M0) of the rocket into three parts. They are,
1. Payload mass(Mu)
2. Propellant mass(Mp)
3. Structural mass (Mc)
Therefore we also define the initial mass and final mass as,
Initial mass,M0 = Mu+Mp+Mc
Final mass, M1 = Mu +Mc
1. PAYLOAD MASS (λ):
Payload ratio is defined as the ratio between payload mass to the initial mass of the rocket. It
is defined by the symbol λ.
2. PROPELLANT RATIO (Φ):
Propellant ratio is defined as the ratio between useful propellant mass to the initial mass of the
rocket.
3. STRUCTURAL EFFICIENCY (ε):
Structural efficiency is defined as the ratio of structural mass to the summation of propellant mass and
structural mass. It is denoted by the symbol ɛ.
NOTE:
1. Mass ratio ˄, is always larger than 1.But in gravitation less field it is less than 1.
2. The payload ratio, structural efficiency and propellant ratio are always less than 1.
3. In general the range of these parameters for a single stage rocket is,
It can be checked easily that the various parameters are related by,
Apart from the mass parameters, the two other rocket parameters which relate the mass and thrust are,
1. The Specific thrust (β):
2. The thrust-to-weight ratio(ψ0):
THE BURNOUT RANGE:

Burnout is defined as the termination of a rocket operation because of fuel exhaustion or shut off.
The distance covered at a time t is given by,
In order to evaluate the above integral we have to know V as a function of time, m=m(t), has
to be known.
For burnout range we have to derive expressions for two different propellant consumptions.
The first one yields a constant thrust and the second one yields the constant specific thrust.
There are two cases in case of burn out range. They are,
1. Constant Thrust
2. Constant Specific Thrust
CASE1: CONSTANT THRUST:
In this case the propellant consumption is,
Consequently the instantaneous mass of the rocket during thrusting is given by,
The burning time tb follows from,
Solve the above equation for getting tb using mass ratio and thrust to weight ratio, which yields
IMPULSIVE SHOT:
For a fixed ψ0 the burning time increases with increasing specific impulse, and increasing mass
ratio˄.
The burning time decreases if ψ0 increases, and tb→0 if ψ0→∞.
In that case all the propellant is consumed instantaneously. This is called an impulsive shot.
The velocity as a function of time is given by (for zero initial velocity)
Substitute the velocity equation in eqn no1, and evaluate the integral which leads to
Introduce the range function p(t), which is defined as,
Ad using thrust to weight ratio equation, the range can be written as,
The burnout range i.e, the distance covered at t=t b, then,
Where,
Therefore the burnout range is given by,
We see that the burnout range is proportional to the square of the specific impulse and inversely
proportional to the thrust to weight ratio.
For an impulsive shot Δsb =0. If ˄→∞ the function pb approaches unity.
DIMENSIONLESS ACCELERATION:
It is defined as,
This equals the specific thrust and is increasing monotonically from ψ 0 to ˄ψ0 at burnout.
The dimensionless burnout range in free space
The figure gives the dimensionless burnout range, Δsb/g0Isp2, as a function of ˄and also depicts the
range as a function of instantaneous mass ratio M0/ (M0-m0t).
CASE 2: CONSTANT SPECIFIC THRUST:
In this case,
By differentiating the above equation, the propellant consumption as a function of time is
found to be,
And the burning time follows from the eqn 2,
In this case, the specific impulse can be interpreted as a burning time, namely the burning time of the
rocket with mass ratio˄=e and a constant specific thrust of unity. As the acceleration is constant and
equal to g0β0, velocity and range are given by
It can be verified easily that, in the case of constant specific thrust, burning time and burnout range
are larger than the corresponding quantities in the case of constant thrust with the same initial specific
thrust.
ROCKET MOTION IN A HOMOGENEOUS GRAVITATIONAL FIELD:

Homogeneous gravitational field is defined as the gravitational field at which the field
strength g, is constant throughout.
If we consider the earth locally as being flat, the local gravitational field may be considered
homogeneous. Actually the earth is nearly spherical and its gravitational field can be approximated
very well by a central inverse square field.
However as long as the altitude and range are small relative to the mean earth’s radius, the
earth may be considered flat and the field strength can be approximated very well by a constant.
For small rockets, such as sounding rockets and tactical missiles this approximation yields
good results. For launch vehicles and intercontinental ballistic missiles the powered flight trajectory
of the first stages can also be calculated by good approximation with the flat earth assumption.
For upper stages, however, the velocity will be so large that the flat earth approximation will
lead to unacceptable deviations from the real trajectory. However, as most part of this trajectory is a
coast phase, the trajectory can be approximated by a ballistic one and can be determined analytically
in case of spherical earth.
If we choose the X-axis of the inertial system to coincide with the flat earth surface and the Z-
axis vertical, then gx=0 and gz= -g0, where it is assumed that motion takes place near the surface of the
earth. Then the equation of transitional motion become,
Then the thrust is given by,
There are two cases in case of homogeneous gravitational field. They are,
1. Vertical Flight
2. Inclined Flight (or) Constant Pitch Angle
CASE1: VERTICAL FLIGHT:

If during the whole flight θ=900, and if we have zero initial horizontal velocity, the trajectory will be
straight line parallel to the z-axis. In that case Vz equals to the total velocity V, and the equation of
motion simplifies to
As initial conditions we will choose a zero velocity and altitude at t=0. Equation 1 can be
integrated independently of the mass flow program, leading to
We see that, in order to determine V as a function of time. Even the burn out velocity in this
case is dependent on the thrust program because the burning time depends on it. Again we
will assume a constant thrust, in which case the mass flow is given by,
For this case the burning time is already derived in burn out range derivation. Then we find the
velocity as a function of time
CULMINATION TIME:
Maximum altitude is reached at V=0. For ψ0≥1 this will always occur for t>tb and we find
for the culmination time.
The culmination time does not depend on ψ0.

Integration of V with respect to time yields the altitude as a function of time. Using the range
function p, the altitude is given by
From the figure above there is an optimal thrust to weight ratio, yielding a maximum value of the
burnout altitude. The optimal value of ψ0 is found by differentiating the expression for hb with respect
to ψ0 and setting the result equal to zero. Apart from the solution ψ 0→∞, which yields a maximum
burnout altitude, this leads to
The corresponding value of burnout altitude then is,
The maximum culmination altitude is given by,
CASE 2: CONSTANT PITCH ANGLE:

For constant pitch angle case we have to consider the equation of motion with θ=θ 0. For simplicity ,
we assume t=0, in the origin of the inertial frame, with zero initial velocity. The equations for the
velocity components can be integrated directly yielding,
From burn out range derivation we derive burn out velocity. From that we use burn out velocity ,
We see that gravity losses increase with increasing pitch angle θ 0, and increasing burning time
tb.
The flight path angle between the velocity vector and the X-axis and positive if Vz is positive follows
from
The angle of attack, i.e. the angle between the longitudinal axis of the roc ket and the velocity
vector is given by,
By using tanγ equation it can be derived that,
We see that, in general flight path angle and angle of attack will not be constant and the
trajectory will be curved. Only in the case that ln M 0/M1 is proportional to the flight path angle and the
angle of attack is constant and the resulting trajectory will be a straight line.
If we consider a constant thrust then the velocity components, the flight path angle and the
angle of attack follows a function of time by substitution of
Sub the above in equations Vx, Vy and tanα equations. We then find that during powered flight
γ increases and the trajectory is curved upwards. By taking the limit for t→0
Consequently, the angle of attack decreases during powered flight. Its initial value is given by,
After burnout, γ decreases and α increases. Then the trajectory is curved downwards. Culmination
altitude is reached if γ=0, or equivalently if Vz=0, leading to,
The culmination time is independent of thrust.

Fig: the angle of attack for flights with constant pitch angle and constant thrust in a
homogeneous gravitational field and in vacuum
GRAVITY TURN TRAJECTORY (OR) ZERO LIFT TRAJECTORY:
To reduce the aerodynamic forces on a rocket during its flight through the atmosphere, one
will endeavour to keep the angle of attack as small as possible. For simple aerodynamically stabilized
vehicles, this is accomplished by fixed fins.
Vehicle that are mechanically stabilized or more or less complicated control systems to
generate the moments necessary to keep the angle of attack as small as possible. This is of course not
the case for aerodynamically controlled rockets during manoeuvring.
For launch vehicles, ICBMs and uncontrolled aerodynamically stabilized rockets we can say that the
flight through the atmosphere takes place with zero angle of attack. In that case there is no lift and the
curvature of trajectory is solely due to gravity, and hence the name gravity turn or zero lift trajectory
.
As the angle of attack is zero, the flight path angle equals the pitch angle,
Then the equation of motion become,
It is convenient in this case to use the total velocity V and the flight path angle γas dependent
variables instead of Vx and Vz and the summation yields,
The differential equation for γ is found by multiplication of eqn of motion eqn by Vz and by Vx and
subtract the results we get,
The equations for the gravity turn, in general, cannot be solved analytically. However some special
cases exist which allow for analytical solutions. These are constant specific thrust and constant pitch
rate
KICK ANGLE:
In preliminary trajectory calculations the pitch over period is represented mathematically by an
instantaneous rotation of both vehicle and velocity vector over an angle δ 0, called the kick angle. The
flight path angle then is,
The relation between time and flight path angle can be written as,
The velocity factor and the time factor for the gravity turn with constant specific thrust
in a homogeneous gravitational field
Substitution of V =V(γ,γ0,V0) from above two equation and changing to the variable q, defined as
UNIT IV
STAGING OF ROCKETS AND MISSILES
Multi staging of Rockets:
A multistage (or multi-stage) rocket is a rocket that uses two or more stages, each of
which contains its own engines and propellant. A tandem or serial stage is mounted on top of
another stage; a parallel stage is attached alongside another stage. The result is effectively
two or more rockets stacked on top of or attached next to each other. Taken together these are
sometimes called a launch vehicle. Two stage rockets are quite common, but rockets with as
many as five separate stages have been successfully launched. By jettisoning stages when
they run out of propellant, the mass of the remaining rocket is decreased. This staging allows
the thrust of the remaining stages to more easily accelerate the rocket to its final speed and
height.
In serial or tandem staging schemes, the first stage is at the bottom and is usually the
largest, the second stage and subsequent upper stages are above it, usually decreasing in size.
In parallel staging schemes solid or liquid rocket boosters are used to assist with lift-off.
These are sometimes referred to as ‘stage 0’. In the typical case, the first stage and booster
engines fire to propel the entire rocket upwards. When the boosters run out of fuel, they are
detached from the rest of the rocket (usually with some kind of small explosive charge) and
fall away. The first stage then burns to completion and falls off. This leaves a smaller rocket,
with the second stage on the bottom, which then fires. Known in rocketry circles as staging,
this process is repeated until the final stage’s motor burns to completion.
In some cases with serial staging, the upper stage ignites before the separation- the
interstate ring is designed with this in mind, and the thrust is used to help positively separate
the two vehicles.
The Taurus rocket is unusual in that its ‘stage 1’ ignites in flight; this designation is
used because its upper three stages are identical to those of the Pegasus rocket, with the
‘stage 0′ booster replacing the Pegasus’ carrier aircraft.
Advantages:
The main reason for multi-stage rockets and boosters is that once the fuel is
exhausted, the space and structure which contained it and the motors themselves are useless
and only add weight to the vehicle which slows down its future acceleration. By dropping the
stages which are no longer useful, the rocket lightens itself. The thrust of future stages is able
to provide more acceleration than if the earlier stage were still attached, or a single, large
rocket would be capable of. When a stage drops off, the rest of the rocket is still traveling
near the speed that the whole assembly reached at burn-out time. This means that it needs less
total fuel to reach a given velocity and/or altitude.
A further advantage is that each stage can use a different type of rocket motor each
tuned for its particular operating conditions. Thus the lower stage motors are designed for use
at atmospheric pressure, while the upper stages can use motors suited to near vacuum
conditions. Lower stages tend to require more structure than upper as they need to bear their
own weight plus that of the stages above them, optimizing the structure of each stage
decreases the weight of the total vehicle and provides further advantage.
Disadvantage:
On the downside, staging requires the vehicle to lift motors which are not being used
until later, as well as making the entire rocket more complex and harder to build. In addition,
each staging event is a significant point of failure during a launch, with the possibility of
separation failure, ignition failure, and stage collision. Nevertheless the savings are so great
that every rocket ever used to deliver a payload into orbit has had staging of some sort.
In more recent times the usefulness of the technique has come into question due to
developments in technology. In the case of the Space Shuttle the costs of space launches
appear to be mostly composed of the operational costs of the people involved, as opposed to
fuel or equipment. Reducing these costs appears to be the best way to lower the overall
launch costs. New technology that is mainly in the theoretical and developmental stages is
being looked at to lower the costs of launch vehicles. More information can be found
on single stage to orbit designs that do not have separate stages.
REASONS FOR MULTISTAGING:

1. To improve performance by eliminating dead weight during powered flight.
2. To maintain acceleration within reasonable limits by reducing thrust in mid flight.
NOMENCLATURE OF A MULTISTAGE ROCKET:

FIG: A THREE STAGE ROCKET
Before entering into the multi staging of rockets we have to distinguish a stage and a sub rocket.
STAGE:
A stage (which is also known as a step), is a complete propulsion unit with motor, propellant feed
system, tanks, propellant together with control equipment, which is discarded completely when all the
propellant of that stage is consumed.
SUB ROCKET:
A sub rocket is a complete rocket vehicle, consisting of one or more stages together with a payload
and the guidance and control system.
MUTISTAGING OF ROCKETS:
The figure above shows a three stage rocket. In this stage we have three stages and three sub rockets.
The first sub-rocket is the complete rocket vehicle. The second sub-rocket is the first sub rocket minus
the first stage. The third sub-rocket, finally, is the second sub rocket minus the second stage, or
equivalently the payload plus the third stage.
In general for a N-stage rocket,
Sub rocket 1 = complete rocket
Sub rocket (i+1) = sub rocket i- stage i, where i = 1.........N-1
Payload sub rocket N = actual payload.

TYPES OF MUTISTAGE ROCKETS:
There are two fundamental types of rocket staging. They are,
1. Series staging
2. Parallel staging
1.SERIES STAGING:
Series staging is also known as vertical staging. In a series staged rocket, the second stage fires after
the first stage is finished. The series staging is also known as tandem staging. Some of the best
examples of series rockets are, Explorer I and Saturn V.
2.PARALLEL STAGING:
Parallel staging is defined as staging a vehicle such that the upper stage engines are also used during
lower stage operation. This is usually accomplished by arranging the stages alongside one another,
hence the name parallel staging. The perfect example of parallel staging is Titan III C
ADVANTAGES:
1. Reduction of gravitational losses.
2. In a gravitational field, the parallel staging is always advantageous to consume the propellant as
fast as possible.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. The disadvantage of parallel staging is that the rocket is likely to be bulky and for the flight through
the atmosphere the drag penalty may be large.
2. The second disadvantage of parallel staging is the reduction in nozzle efficiency of the engine of
the thrust stage.
STAGE SEPARATION TECHNIQUES:
In multistage launch vehicles the stage separation process is broadly classified into two
categories. They are,
1. SEPARATION OCCURING WITHIN THE ATMOSPHERE.
2. SEPARATION OCCURING OUT OF ATMOSPHERE.
1. SEPARATION OCCURING WITHIN THE ATMOSPHERE:
Separation within the atmosphere is otherwise known as booster separation/lower stage
separation/strapton separation.
The burn out of the first stage generally occurs within the upper regions of the atmosphere (i.e) 45km
to 60km, to minimize the energy lost due to the aerodynamic forces. The ignition of the second stage
must be done as quickly as possible after the first stage burnout. There are two techniques of
separation are avail within the atmosphere. They are,
a. FIRING IN THE HOLE TECHNIQUE
b. ULLAGE ROCKET TECHNIQUE
(a.) FIRING IN THE HOLE TECHNIQUE:
Firing in the hole staging is also known as vented inter stage separation or hot separation. This
technique involves the firing of the upper stage motor before the thrust level of the lower stage motor
has decayed to zero (i.e. before the actual separation takes place).
DRAWBACKS:
1. Care must be taken
2. Adequate ventilation holes are provided in the structure of the lower stage separation bay to prevent
an excessive build up of pressure from the jet efflux which might cause the rupture of lower stage
tanks.
3. In practice even though burnout conditions have been reached, the tanks still usually consists of
unusable propellant, which may cause hazard.
4. There is a risk of tank rupture by direct jet impingement. So the upper surfaces of the tank should
be stronger and hence heavier which imposes additional weight penalty.
b. ULLAGE ROCKET TECHNIQUE:

This technique involves the use of short duration solid propellant rockets which are called ullage
rockets, to bridge the gap caused by the decay of lower stage thrust and subsequent build up of lower
stage thrust. The nominal thrust level of the upper stage motor is not reached until there is an
appreciable separation distance between the two stages.
DRAWBACK:
1. Heavy weight.
2. SEPARATION OUT OF ATMOSPHERE (IN SPACE):
Separation occurring out of atmosphere is also known as vacuum/space/upper stage separation. The
separation of subsequent stages takes place either at extreme high altitudes in space
The problem of separation is relatively simplified when occurs in space because of absence of
aerodynamic forces but it does not mean as soon as burn out of lower stage occurs the ignition of
upper stage is initiated.
This separation technique involves two methods.

a. HELICAL COMPRESSION SPRING TECHNOLOGY
b. SHORT DURATION SOLID PROPELLANT TECHNOLOGY
a. HELICAL COMPRESSION SPRING TECHNOLOGY:
In this technology, separation may be obtained by a single compression spring centrally located but in
practice it was a large number of small springs located symmetrically around the periphery. This is
done in case of accommodation and secondly to minimize the possibility of separation aborting
through spring failure.
ADVANTAGES:
1. No separate command is needed for actuation
2. Highly reliable
DRAW BACK:
1. Much heavier when compared to other jettisoning system.
STAGE SEPARATION SYSTEMS:

Selection of stage separation system of launch vehicle is an extensive and exhaustive process.
The critical criterions are,
1. Joint rotation
2. Simultaneity
3. Reliability
4. Confinement of debris
5. Low shock levels
6. Weight
7. Cost.
The selected separation system should also meet all the functional requirements viz,
To achieve collision free separation of spent stages, ie, to establish clearances, between the
separating bodies to ensure safe separation.
To provide the structural rigidity to attach the two bodies, the ability of the mechanism to withstand
the flight loads encountered during flight that is structural integrity should be maintained.
To provide the means to severe the structural connection
To impart positive separation velocity to the separation bodies.
To impart minimum tip off rate to ongoing stage.
Minimum shock transmission to the payload interfaces or the continuing stages
ELEMENTS (OR) SYSTEM FOR SEPARATION PROCESS:

Generally three basic elements are required for the functioning of separation process. They are,
a) An actuator -to trigger the event usually electric or pyro based
b) Release / Severance system for physical separation
c) Jettisoning systems – to impart sufficient relative separation velocity
1) ACTUATOR:
The actuator system as the word indicates actuates the triggering of the separation event. Thus, there
is a delay between actuating the trigger and physical separation. Usually actuators are either
a) Electric or
b) Pyro based.
2) SEVERANCE/ RELEASE MACHANISMS:
The severance/release systems impart physical separation to bodies; they are primarily 2types;
a) Mechanical systems &
b) Pyro –technique devices.
The design requirements for these systems are,
Load carrying capability & compatibility with vehicle structure.
Minimum electrical power for separation system.
Minimum system weight & minimum volume.
Minimum impulse & minimum tip off rates.
High reliability, maintainability & long storage life.
Survival of extremely high or low temperatures
No contamination, debris free & survival of nuclear environment
Safe handling & easy transportation.
A) Mechanical systems:
1. Ball & lock systems
Ball & lock system consists of upper & lower stages adopter rings held together by steel balls which
in turn are held by a retainer ring. The retainer ring is provided with escape holes for balls. In the
locked condition, the holes in the retainer ring are given an angular offset. During release, pyro
thrusters rotate the retainer ring which nullifies the offset. A stopper limits retainer ring rotation.
Helical compression springs positioned between the flanges impart the required differential separation
velocity. The lower stage outer ring is provided with through holes for the balls in the locked
condition and the upper stages adapter ring is provided with conical ball seat, the radial component of
the spring forces pushes the balls outward & releases the inner ring which ensures a clean separation.
2. Merman band /Clamp band:

Multistage launch vehicles use clamp band joint for separation of upper stages & payload fairing. The
necessary preload on clamp is given by tensioning two steel band segments placed over the clamps &
connected by two tension bolts & nuts. In this type of joint the tapered interfaces flanges are held
together by a series of aluminum clamps made of m250 steel circumferentially positioned. These
clamps are preloaded using two steel band segments through two connecting bolts & nuts under
tension pyro-cutters severe the connecting bolts when separation of the joint is required.
.
2. COLLET MECHANISM:
The collect mechanism consists of a collect housing / cylinder with a piston holding the finger spread
out in locked position. The mechanism can carry tensile loads when in locked position. When gas
pressure is introduced in to the cylinder bore it acts on piston causing it to move forward & allowing
the collect fingers to collapse due to their strain energy. This action permits separation of the vehicle
from the spent stages. The device is capable of resisting high tensile loads and it can withstand the
flight dynamic loads. It withstand a maximum temperature Gradient from 80 K 353 K .This system
has to be protected from excessive aerodynamic Heating using cowlings & it has to be made
waterproof for reliable operation. This system provides a debris free clean separation.
B) PYRO SEPARATION DEVICES:

These systems use pyro active element for imparting physical separation, two types are commonly
employed they are,
1. Explosive Bolt:
In the explosive bolt, the pyro charge is electrically initiated to severe the bolt at notches provided at
separation planes.
2. Frangible nut:
In frangible nut pyro activation causes the nut to open out and to release the studs engaged in nut
threads.
JETTISONING DEVICES:
These systems have been used to provide the required relative separation velocity to the separating
bodies. Energy required for jettisoning the systems are provide by employing anyone of the following
type of thrusters,
Spring thrusters
Pneumatic thrusters
Rocket thrusters
Some of the Jettisoning systems usually employed in launch vehicles are described below:
1. SPRING THRUSTERS:
In spring thrusters, springs are packed and compressed to the required energy level. Disc springs
depending or coil springs are employed depending on the jettisoning requirements; high energies are
met with disc springs. The advantage of spring thrusters is that spring energy characteristics can be
evalued prior to the assembly of the system and once assembled jettisoning spring force is always
available for the function. Thus, separate command is not needed for the actuation and is highly
reliable. To draw back with the spring thrusters is that they are heavier compared to the other types of
jettisoning system. For smaller mass with lower energy requirements spring thrusters is an ideal
choice whereas for large size boosters with higher jettisoning energy requirements their use is not
recommended.
2. ROCKET THRUSTERS:
Rocket thrusters are used for jettisoning higher diameter massive boosters where the associated
energy requirements are higher. The advantage of the rocket thrusters is that it can store much higher
energy for a given weight of thrusters.
3. PNEUMATIC THRUSTERS:
In this type, the working medium is pressurized nitrogen gas. These thrusters are light in weight as the
working medium is gas. The energy stored depends on the initial pressure and stroke length and there
for by changing the pressure stored energy also can be varied. The pressure holding characteristics of
the rolling diaphragm and joints is the limiting factor for the stored energy. Pneumatic thrusters do not
require separate command for actuation as the jettisoning force is always available. I In pneumatic
thrusters design must be simple, relatively steady operation process, less disturbances no exhaust ports
are required and heat insulation is required.
Stage Separation Dynamics:
A missile stage separation event occurs when the booster motor separates from the
upper stage vehicle components. Active stage separation involves the firing of the upper stage
motor to initiate separation, and this flight event can be effectively modeled using CFD. In
some cases, stage separation can be treated using a quasi-steady assumption to decouple the
relative motion of the two bodies from the fluid dynamics (this is valid if the fluid dynamic
time scale is short compared to the motion of the bodies).
While this approach can produce a large amount of CFD data for use in Monte Carlo
flight simulations, it fails to capture the dynamics of the separation event. The Loci/CHEM
team has developed modules to simulate the full six degrees of freedom (6 DOF) relative
motion of the separating bodies.
The methodology couples the aerodynamics and propulsion to the integrated body
motion along the flight trajectory. Overset unstructured grids with advanced hole cutting and
interpolation procedures provide a robust tool that can be used for the analysis of stage and
store separation systems, launch simulations, or other types of multiple bodies in relative
motion.
DR.R.ARRAVIND ,V.DINESH BABU –AERONAUTICAL--NIET

UNIT V
CONTROL OF ROCKETS AND MISSILES
Rocket Thrust Vector Control Methods:
In addition to providing a propulsive force to a flying vehicle, a rocket propulsion

system can provide moments to rotate the flying vehicle and thus provide control of the
vehicle’s attitude and flight path. By controlling the direction of the thrust vectors through the
mechanisms described later in the chapter, it is possible to control a vehicle’s pitch, yaw, and
roll motions.
All chemical propulsion systems can be provided with one of several types of thrust
vector control (TVC) mechanisms. Some of these apply either to solid, hybrid, or to liquid
propellant rocket propulsion systems, but most are specific to only one of these propulsion
categories. We will describe two types of thrust vector control concept: (1) for an engine or a
motor with a single nozzle; and
(2) For those that have two or more nozzles.
Thrust vector control is effective only while the propulsion system is operating and
creating an exhaust jet. For the flight period, when a rocket propulsion system is not firing
and therefore its TVC is inoperative, a separate mechanism needs to be provided to the flying
vehicle for achieving control over its attitude or flight path.
Aerodynamic fins (fixed and movable) continue to be very effective for controlling
vehicle flight within the earth’s atmosphere, and almost all weather rockets, antiaircraft
missiles, and air-to-surface missiles use them. Even though aerodynamic control surfaces
provide some additional drag, their effectiveness in terms of vehicle weight, turning moment,
and actuating power consumption is difficult to surpass with any other flight control method.
Vehicle flight control can also be achieved by a separate attitude control propulsion system as
described in Sections 4.6, 6.8, and 11.3. Here six or more small liquid propellant thrusters
(with a separate feed system and a separate control) provide small moments to the vehicle in
flight during, before, or after the operation of
The main rocket propulsion system.

The reasons for TVC are: (1) to willfully change a flight path or trajectory
(e.g., changing the direction of the flight path of a target-seeking missile); (2) to rotate the
vehicle or change its attitude during powered flight; (3) to correct for deviation from the
intended trajectory or the attitude during powered flight; or
(4) To correct for thrust misalignment of a fixed nozzle in the main propulsion system during
its operation, when the main thrust vector misses the vehicle’s center of gravity.
Pitch moments are those that raise or lower the nose of a vehicle; yaw moments turn
the nose sideways; and roll moments are applied about the main axis of the flying vehicle
(Fig. 16-1). Usually, the thrust vector of the main rocket nozzle is in the direction of the
vehicle axis and goes through the vehicle’s center of gravity. Thus it is possible to obtain
pitch and yaw control moments by the simple deflection of the main rocket thrust vector;
however, roll control usually requires the use of two or more rotary vanes or two or more
separately hinged propulsion system nozzles. Figure 16-2 explains the pitch moment obtained
by a hinged thrust chamber or nozzle. The side force and the pitch moment vary as the sine of
the effective angle of thrust vector deflection.
TVC MECHANISMS WITH A SINGLE NOZZLE
Many different mechanisms have been used successfully. Several are illustrated in Refs. 16-1
and 16-2. They can be classified into four categories:
1. Mechanical deflection of the nozzle or thrust chamber.
2. Insertion of heat-resistant movable bodies into the exhaust jet; these experience
aerodynamic forces and cause a deflection of a part of the exhaust gas flow.
3. Injection of fluid into the side of the diverging nozzle section, causing an asymmetrical
distortion of the supersonic exhaust flow.
4. Separate thrust-producing devices that are not part of the main flow through the nozzle.
Each category is described briefly below and in Table 16-1, where the four categories
are separated by horizontal lines. Figure 16-3 illustrates several TVC mechanisms. All of the
TVC schemes shown here have been used in production vehicles.
In the hinge or gimbal scheme (a hinge permits rotation about one axis only, whereas
a gimbal is essentially a universal joint), the whole engine is pivoted on a bearing and thus
the thrust vector is rotated. For small angles this scheme has negligible losses in specific
impulse and is used in many vehicles. It requires a flexible set of propellant piping (bellows)
to allow the propellant to flow from the tanks of the vehicle to the movable engine. The
Space Shuttle (Fig. 1-13) has two gimballed orbit maneuver engines, and three gimballed
main engines.
Figures 6-1, 6-3, and 8-19 show gimballed engines. Some Soviet launch vehicles use multiple
thrusters and hinges, while many U.S. vehicles use gimbals.
Jet vanes are pairs of heat-resistant, aerodynamic wing-shaped surfaces submerged in

the exhaust jet of a fixed rocket nozzle. They were first used about 55 years ago. They cause
extra drag (2 to 5% less is; drag increases with larger vane deflections) and erosion of the
vane material. Graphite jet vanes were used in the German V-2 missile in World War II and
in the Scud missiles fired by Iraq in 1991. The advantage of having roll control with a single
nozzle often outweighs the performance penalties.
Small auxiliary thrust chambers were used in the Thor and early version of Atlas
missiles. They provide roll control while the principal rocket engine operates. They are fed
from the same feed system as the main rocket engine. This scheme is still used on some
Russian booster rocket vehicles.
The injection of secondary fluid through the wall of the nozzle into the main gas
stream has the effect of forming oblique shocks in the nozzle diverging
L, used with liquid propellant engines; S, used with solid propellant motors.
FIGURE 16–3. Simple schematic diagrams of eight different TVC mechanisms. Actuators
and structural details are not shown. The letter L means it is used with liquid propellant
rocket engines and S means it is used with solid propellant motors.
METHODS OF THRUST VECTOR CONTROL:

Some of the methods of thrust vector control are,
1. JET VANES
2. JET AVATORS
3. HINGE/GIMBAL SCHEME
4. SWIVELLING NOZZLES/MOVABLE NOZZLES
5. SECONDARY FLUID INJECTION THRUST VECTOR CONTROL(SITVC)
1. JET VANES:
FOUR ROTATING HEAT RESISTANT AERODYNAMIC VANES IN A JET
Jet vanes are the pairs of heat resistant, aerodynamic wing shaped surfaces submerged in the
exhaust jet of a fixed rocket nozzle. This method is used both in liquid and solid rocket motors.
This was the first method used for controlling the thrust vector. When the vanes deflections
are larger they cause extra drag. In German-V2 four graphite vanes are used.
ADVANTAGES:
1. It is a proven technology
2. Low actuation power is needed for this method
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Erosion of jet vanes takes place
2. Thrust loss is of 0.5% to 3%
2. JET AVATORS:
It is used in solid type of rocket motors. The most common method of thrust direction control
is by the use of rings called jet avators.
The jet avator consists of two rings one for yaw control and one for pitch control. Since the
rings are external to the nozzle minimum thrust is lost compared to jet vanes.
ADVANTAGES:
1. It is a proven technology on Polaris missile.
2. Low actuation power is needed.
3. Light weight.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Erosion and thrust loss taken place.
2. Limited durational operation only.
3. HINGE (OR) GIMBAL SCHEME:
It is used in liquid type of rocket motors. In hinge type, the whole engine is pivoted on a
bearing and thus the thrust vector is rotated.
For small angles this scheme has negligible losses in specific impulse and it is used in many
vehicles.
It requires a flexible set of propellant piping (bellows) to allow the propellant to flow from the
tank of the vehicle to the movable engine.
ADVANTAGES:
1. It is simple and proven technology.
2. Low torque and low power is needed.
3. Only very small thrust loss
DISADVANTAGES:
1. It requires flexible piping.
2. Large actuators are needed for high slew rate.
4.SWIVELLING NOZZLE (OR) MOVABLE NOZZLE:

It is used in solid type of rocket motors. Movable nozzles are one of the mechanical types and
are most efficient. They do not significantly reduce thrust or specific impulse and are weight
competitive with other mechanical types.
The movable nozzle consists of a molded multilayer bearing (which acts as a seal), a load
transfer bearing and a visco elastic flexure.
ADVANTAGES:
2. No sliding (or) moving seals
3. Predictable actuation power
DISADVANTAGES:
1. High torque at low temperature is needed
2. Needs continuous load to maintain seal.
5.SECONDARY FLUID INJECTION THRUST VECTOR CONTROL:
SIDE
INJECTION
The injection of secondary fluid through the wall of the nozzle into the main gas stream has
the effect of forming oblique shocks in the nozzle diverging section. It causes an unsymmetrical
distribution of the main gas flow which produces a side force.
The secondary fluid can be stored in liquid or gas from a separate hot gas generator, a direct
bleed from the chamber, or the injection of a catalyzed monopropellant.
When the deflections are small, this is a low loss scheme, but for large moments (large side
force), the amount of secondary fluid becomes excessive. This scheme has found application in few
large solid propellant rockets such as Titan-III
ADVANTAGES:
2. Components are reusable
3. Light weight and compact
4. Low actuation power is needed
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Toxic liquids are needed for high performance
2. It requires excessive maintenance
3. Toxic fumes with some propellants may pollute atmosphere.
THRUST TERMINATION:
The engine thrust must be cut off, the instant that proper velocity is achieved to conserve fuel
and or the rocket obtained a desired orbit. The thrust termination in liquid propellant rocket engines is
easily accomplished by closing the fuel valve.
But in solid propellant motors the problem is more difficult. One method to terminate the
thrust in solid motor is the rupture disks, which vent the combustion chamber, reducing the thrust to
zero.
Recent development has indicated that thrust termination can be affected by nozzle blow out
or by blowing out the forward section of the combustion chamber. By this means the combustion
chamber pressure can be reduced below that required for sustained burning and hence terminate the
thrust. Careful design must be made in order that random re ignition does not occur once burning is
stopped.
The accomplishment of thrust termination on TVC paves the way for application of this type
of motor to ballistic missiles, which require thrust cut off for different range missions. It has been an
error in the burn out velocity that has a large detrimental effect of the accuracy of the ballistic
missiles.
Hence it is important that the thrust termination of the propellant unit can be accurately
accomplished and with a good degree of repeatability for one motor to another.
THRUST MAGNITUDE CONTROL:

Thrust Magnitude Control (TMC) allows for large thrust variations usually with small variations in
chamber pressure.
TRANSLATING INLET NOZZLE
PINTLE NOZZLE
In some solid propellant rocket motors, TMC has been used without varying the throat area
by reducing the mass flow into the chamber. As a result of the reduced mass flow, the chamber
pressure decreases too. This may cause irregular combustion, or even extinguishments. Apart from
this, the exhaust velocity is also lowered.
Two possible systems without these adverse effects are the translating inlet nozzle and the
pintle nozzle. Both systems vary the throat to modulate the thrust. The translating nozzle is primarily
designed for two different thrust magnitudes.
In the figure port A is either closed or fully opened. If the port A is closed, the sustain throat
is the only way through which propulsive gases can leave the rocket engine. If port A is opened, an
extra boost flow can leave the combustion chamber and the boost throat acts as a nozzle throat.
The pintle nozzle employs a centre body that can move in an axial direction; thereby
continuously vary in throat area. The central body, which holds the movable pintle, is mounted on the
nozzle inlet. It is of course, possible to combine TVC and TMC to obtain real thrust vector control, i.e
both magnitude and direction of the thrust can be varied.
Another TMC device that should be mentioned in this section is the extendable exit cone. If
during powered flight under expansion losses become unacceptably large, one can increase the thrust
by lengthening the exit cone.
This may be done by moving aft an extension to the divergent part of the
nozzle. This concept was planned for the space shuttle engine but has be abandoned to keep the
mechanism simple.
AE 6015 ROCKETS AND MISSILES
TWO MARKS
UNIT 1
1. Define Newton’s law of gravitation.
According to Newton’s law of gravitation,” Any two particles attract each other with a force
which is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them and acts along the line joining particles”.
F= (G M1 M2) / R2
Where: M1 and M2 = Masses of two bodies
R = Distance between their centers of mass
G = Universal constant (6.670*10-11 m3/Kg sec2)
2. Define Thrust Vector Control.
Thrust vector control (TVC) is the internal change of direction o the thrust vector with respect to
the symmetry axis of the rocket.
The purpose of TVC and aerodynamic surface control system is to steer or regulate of vehicle in
flight that is to control its attitude at any instant.
(OR)
Thrust vectoring, also thrust vector control ( TVC), is the ability of an rocket or other vehicle
to manipulate the direction of the thrust from its engine(s) or motor(s) in order to control the
attitude or angular velocity of the vehicle.
In rocketry and ballistic missiles that fly outside the atmosphere, aerodynamic control surfaces
are ineffective, so thrust vectoring is the primary means of attitude control.
3. Define burnout range.
The propellant consumption as a function of time. L n=m(t) has to be known. In the following we
will drive the expression for the range for two different propellant consumption such as
i) Constant thrust ii) Constant specific thrust
4. Define impulsive shot.
The burning time decrease if the spacecraft velocity increase (magnitude and/or direction) , in
that cases all the propellant is consumed instantaneously. This is called as impulsive shot.
5. Define gravity turns.
To reduce the aerodynamic forces on a rocket during its flight through the atmosphere. One will
endeavor to keep the angle of attack as small as possible.
6. Define lateral dispersion during power flight.
If the perturbing factor is at work the axis of rocket will in general deviation from the tangent to
the trajectory of the mass center by an angle known as angle of attack.
7. Define perturbing factors causing angle of attack
i) Asymmetry of thrust force manufacturing defects in nozzle gas flow
ii) Perturbation when the rocket leaves the launcher.
AE 6015 ROCKETS AND MISSILES
8. What are the Types of rocket dispersion?

There are two types of rocket dispersion such as
i) In plane dispersion ii) Lateral dispersion
9. Define Wing tail interference.
When missile with fore and aft wing location is inclined at an angle of attack to the airstream.
The original flow deflection will be changed as the air leaves the forward lifting surfaces.
10. Define Body up wash
It is of great important in the analysis of flow condition around bodies of revolution with wing
surfaces at angle of attack with increases of flow velocity.
11. Write the fundamental equation of motion.
M(dvcm/dt) = Fa+W+Fo
Where M = Instantaneous mass of the rocket
(dvcm/dt) = Acceleration of center of mass of the rocket
W = Weight Force
12. Write the Tsiolkovsky’s equation. (or) Rocket equation (or) Tsiolkovsky rocket equation
(or) ideal rocket equation.
V-V0 = c ln (M0/M)
At time ‘t’
V (t) – V0 = c ln [M0/M(t)]
Where:
V = Rocket flight speed in m/s
Mo = Initial launch mass in kg
M = Instantaneous mass of the rocket in kg
C = Effective exhaust velocity in m/s
13. Define.
i) Payload ratio (λ) = Mu / M0 = Payload Mass / Initial Mass
ii) Structural Efficiency (£) = Mc / [Mc + Mp] =
Structural Mass / [Structural Mass + Propellant Mass]
iii) Propellant Ratio (ᶲ) = Mp/Mo = Propellant Mass / Initial Mass
iv) Empty Mass (Me) = Mo * Mp = Initial Launch Mass * Propellant Mass
v) Mass Ratio (˄) = M0 / Me = Initial Mass / Empty Mass
vi) Specific Thrust (β) = F/ g0 M
vii) Trust to weight ratio (ψ0) = F/ g0 M
Mass Ratio (˄) = 1 / {£ [1- λ] + λ}
14. Define Kick angle.

Instantaneous rotation of both vehicle and velocity vector over an angle is called Kick angle.
15. What is the importance of lift-off thrust to weight ratio in a launch vehicle?
Thrust-to-weight ratio is a dimensionless ratio of thrust to weight of a rocket, jet engine,
propeller engine, or a vehicle propelled by such an engine that indicates the performance of the engine
or vehicle.
The thrust-to-weight ratio of an aircraft is the inverse of the lift-to-drag ratio because thrust is
the inverse of drag, and weight is the inverse of lift.
UNIT 2
11. List the types of fluid.
1. Inert Gases : H2,He 2. Reactive Gases : O2
3. Inert Liquids : H2O,CO2,NH3 4. Reactive Liquids : N2O4 (H2O)
12. Advantages of SITVC
1. High slew rate and increased motor performance
2. Easy to adopt to various motor 3. It can be checked out before flight
4. The components are reusable 5. The duration is limited by liquid supply
13. Disadvantages of SITVC
1. Additional equipment and the liquid propellant are required
2. Toxic liquids are needed for high performance
3. Limited to low vector angle applications
4. It is often difficult packaging for tanks and feed system
14. Thrust termination techniques:
Sl.No Action Result
1 Venting Forward ports Balance Thrust / Reduce pressure
2 Chamber destruction Reduced chamber pressure
3 Liquid quenching Extinguish Flame
4 Nozzle ejection Reduced chamber pressure
15. Define multistage rocket.
A multistage (or) multistep rocket is a series of individual vehicles or stages each with its own
structure, tanks and engines. The stages are so connected that each operates in turn accelerating the
remaining stages and the payload before being detached from them.
6. Nomenclature of the multistage rocket.
17. Write the different types of stage separation techniques.

1. By helical compression springs 2. By short duration solid propellant rockets.
18. List the aerodynamic controls. [or] How do you classify missiles based on aerodynamic
control?
1. Canard control 2. Wing control 3. Tail control
4. Wingless control 5. Tailless control
19. Separation of stages with in the atmosphere
The burnout of the first stage generally occurs within the upper region of the atmosphere
i) Firing in the hole technique ii) Ullage rocket techniques.
20. Define jet vane thrust control
Two opposing vanes moving in a same direction, where used pitch and yaw control. All four
moved clockwise or anticlockwise for roll control.
21. Define swiveling control
Thrust direction control can also be obtained in solid propellant rockets by connecting the
nozzles to propellant chamber by flexible.
22. Explain SITVC
SITVC: Secondary Injection Thrust Vector Control.
1. A fluid injected at one or more points in the nozzle.
2. Local shock wave results causing the flow to become asymmetrical.
23 .Mention the shapes of fore body?
There are three types of fore body, they are
a) Conical fore body. b) Ogvial fore body. c) Hemispherical fore body.
24. Thrust Magnitude Control
It allows for large thrust variations usually with small variations in camber pressure.
In some liquid propellant rocket motors, TMC has been used without varying the t roat area.
25. Thrust Termination
The engine thrust must be cut off the instant proper velocity is achieved is concerned fuel and or
obtained the desire orbit.
26. What is the need for multistage of rocket?
It permits higher vehicle velocities, more payloads for space vehicles and improved performance
for long-range ballistic missiles,
27. Difference between rocket stages and sub rockets.
Rocket Stages:
A rocket stage is a complete propulsion unit [ Motor, Propellant feed system, tanks and
propellant] together with control equipment.
The stage is completely discarded when all the propellant of that stage is consumed.
Sub- Rocket:
A Sub- rocket is a complete rocket vehicle, consisting of one or more stages together with the
payload and the guidance and control system.
Sub Rocket 1 = Complete Rocket
Sub Rocket (i+1) = (Sub Rocket i) – (Stage i)
UNIT 3
1. What are the components of rockets and missiles?
The body of the missiles may be divided into three major sections.
1. Propulsion system 2. Control system 3. Guidance system
2. Mention the shapes of fore body?
There are three types of forebody, they are
1. Conical fore body. 2. Ogvial fore body. 3. Hemispherical fore body.
3. What is boat tail?
The tapered portion of the aft section of a body is called the boat tail. The purpose of the boat tail
is to decrease the drag of a body which has a “squared-off” base.
4. What is base pressure?
At supersonic velocities the base of the body experiences a large negative pressure resulting in a
substantial increase in missile drag. An accurate determination of third base pressure co-efficient is
also quite involved since it depends in many parameters including boat tail angle, Mach number, and
boat tail length.
5. What are the effects of aspect ratio?
The effects of increasing aspect ratio are as follows:
i) Increase CN0, CD0. ii) Increase (L/D) max.
iii) Increase spin. iv) Reduce wing area.
v) Increase structural area. vi) Negligible effect on centre of pressure.
6. What are the classifications of missiles?
Most missiles can be classified into four general classes:
1. Classification based on the Range 2.Classification based on the Start to end Points
3. Classification based on the Navigation 4. Classification based on the missiles
7. What are the types of rocket dispersion?
There are two types of rocket dispersion, such as;
i. In –plane dispersion. ii. Lateral dispersion.
8. What is the perturbing factors causing angle of attack?
a. Asymmetry of thrust force manufacturing defects in nozzle gas flow.
b. Perturbations when the rocket leaves the launcher.
9. Difference between Ballistic missiles and Cruise missiles.
Sl.No Ballistic Missile Cruise Missile
1 It is defined as any pilotless missile that It is defined as any pilotless missile that is generally
generally follows a ballistic trajectory for flown under continuous power and aerodynamic
most of its flight path to place its warhead lift through the atmosphere to place its warhead on
on target. target.
2 Its spend most of their trajectory in Its spend most of their trajectory in powered flight
unpowered flight and which don’t use
aerodynamics forces for its mission.
3 Its propelled by liquid fuel rockets Its propelled by solid rockets
4 It can’t operate within the atmosphere It can operate within the atmosphere
5 Eg : AGNI , PRITHVI Eg : BRAHMOS
10. Define Aspect Area (AR).
Aspect Ratio (AR) = I2 / Sw
11. List the drag estimation.
1. Induced drag 2. Pressure drag 3. Wave drag
4. Viscous drag 5. Base drag 6. Roughness drag
7. Interference drag
12. What are the advantages of Jet vanes?
1. Is to orient and stabilize the rocket vehicle.
2. Variation of the jet vane is the jetavator. This device is a ring placed around the circumference
of the motor nozzle. Deflecting the ring deflects the exhaust, just as with vanes.
3. It does not causing the propulsion losses
4. Jetavators have been most frequently applied to control of solid-propellant rockets.
13. Define spin rate.
Spin is often used to maintain a constant angular momentum and stabilize a spacecraft during
flight to keep it from tumbling. After a spacecraft is put into spin, it no longer requires gimballed rocket
controls to maintain stable pointing.
14. What type of control system is used in air-air missiles?
Air-to-air missiles typically use movable fins at the rear of the rocket. The movable fin adjusts
the amount of the aerodynamic force on the rocket.
Most modern rockets rotate, or gimbal, the nozzle to produce the control torque. In a gimbaled
thrust system, the exhaust nozzle of the rocket can be swiveled from side to side. As the nozzle is
moved, the direction of the thrust is changed relative to the center of gravity of the rocket.
15. Classification of missiles.
Missiles are generally classified on the basis of their Type, Launch Mode, Range, Propulsion,
Warhead and Guidance Systems.
Type:
1. Cruise Missile 2. Ballistic Missile
Launch Mode:
1.Surface-to-Surface Missile 2.Surface-to-Air Missile 3. Surface (Coast)-to-Sea Missile
4.Air-to-Air Missile 5.Air-to-Surface Missile 6. Sea-to-Sea Missile
7. Sea-to-Surface (Coast) Missile 8. Anti-Tank Missile
Range:
1. Short Range Missile 2.Medium Range Missile 3.Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile
4. Intercontinental Ballistic Missile
Propulsion:
1.Solid Propulsion 2. Liquid Propulsion 3.Hybrid Propulsion
4.Ramjet 5.Scramjet 6.Cryogenic
Warhead:
1.Conventional 2. Strategic
Guidance Systems:
1.Wire Guidance 2. Command Guidance 3.Terrain Comparison Guidance
4.Terrestrial Guidance 5.Inertial Guidance 6.Beam Rider Guidance
7. Laser Guidance
16. Define cruise missile.
A cruise missile is an unmanned self-propelled (till the time of impact) guided vehicle that
sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path and whose primary mission is to place
an ordnance or special payload on a target. They fly within the earth’s atmosphere and use jet engine
technology. These vehicles vary greatly in their speed and ability to penetrate defences. Cruise missiles
can be categorized by size, speed (subsonic or supersonic), range and whether launched from land, air,
surface ship or submarine.
Depending upon the speed such missiles are classified as:
1) Subsonic cruise missile 2) Supersonic cruise missile 3) Hypersonic cruise missile
17. Define Ballistic Missile.
A ballistic missile is a missile that has a ballistic trajectory over most of its flight path, regardless
of whether or not it is a weapon-delivery vehicle. Ballistic missiles are categorised according to their
range, maximum distance measured along the surface of earth's ellipsoid from the point of launch to the
point of impact of the last element of their payload. The missile carries a huge payload. The carriage of a
deadly warhead is justified by the distance the missile travels. Ballistic missiles can be launched from
ships and land based facilities.
For example, Prithvi I, Prithvi II, Agni I, Agni II and Dhanush ballistic missiles are currently
operational in the Indian defence forces.

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NEHRU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

PUTTING NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

1. Short Range Missile

On the basis of Type:

Depending upon the speed such missiles are classified as:

Subsonic cruise missile flies at a speed lesser than that of

Supersonic cruise missile travels at a speed of around 2-3

(i) Surface-to-Surface Missile: A surface-to-surface missile is a guided projectile launched from a

On the basis of Range:

(i)Short Range Missile

On the basis of Propulsion:

On the basis of Warhead:

On the basis of Guidance Systems:

(iii) Terrain Comparison Guidance: Terrain Comparison (TERCOM) is used invariably by

1.DUCT JET PROPULSION

Chemical Rocket Propulsion

Nuclear Rocket Engines

Electric Rocket Propulsion

Various Indian missiles

Ship Defense Surface to Air Missiles (SAM)

INDIAN SPACE LAUNCH VEHICLE:

Vehicle RH-200 RH-300-Mk-II RH-560-MK-II

Payload (in kg) 10 60 100

Altitude (in km) 80 160 470

Purpose Meterology Aeronomy Aeronomy

Launch Pad Thumba Balasore SDSC-SHAR SDSC-SHAR

SN Title Launch Date Payload Remarks

1 SLV-3 Apr 17, 1983 Rohini Satellite RS-D2

2 SLV-3D1 May 31, 1981 Rohini Satellite RS-D1

3 SLV-3E2 Jul 18, 1980 Rohini Satellite RS-1

Under the ASLV programme four developmental flights were conducted.

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is the third generation launch

Lift Off Mass : 320 tonnes (XL)

Variants : 3 (PSLV-G, PSLV - CA, PSLV - XL)

First Flight : September 20, 1993

Payload to Sub GTO: 1,425 kg

Fourth Stage: PS4

Fuel : MMH + MON

Max. Thrust : 7.6 x 2 kN

Max. Thrust : 240 kN

Second Stage: PS2

Fuel : UDMH + N2O4

Max. Thrust : 799 kN

First Stage: PS1

Max. Thrust : 4800 kN

Max. Thrust : 719 kN

Lift Off Mass: 414.75 tonnes

First Flight: April 18, 2001

Payload to LEO: 5,000 kg

Third Stage: CUS

Fuel : LOX + LH2

Burn-time : 720 sec

Second Stage: GS2

Fuel : UDMH + N2O4

Max. Thrust : 800 kN

Burntime : 150 sec

Max. Thrust : 4700 kN

Burntime : 100 sec

Fuel : UDMH + N2O4

Max. Thrust : 680 kN

Burntime : 160 sec

Vehicle Diameter : 4.0 m