Final Major Project

Bio-mimetic Portable Robotic Arms
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, GNIT 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS
What is the first thing that comes to mind when you think of a robot?
For many people it is a machine that imitates a human—like the androids in Star
Wars, Terminator and Star Trek: The Next Generation. However much these robots capture
our imagination, such robots still only inhabit Science Fiction. People still haven't been
able to give a robot enough 'common sense' to reliably interact with a dynamic world.
However, Rodney Brooks and his team at MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab are working on
creating such humanoid robots.
The type of robots that you will encounter most frequently are robots that do work
that is too dangerous, boring, onerous, or just plain nasty. Most of the robots in the world
are of this type. They can be found in auto, medical, manufacturing and space industries.
In fact, there are over a million of these type of robots working for us today.
Some robots like the Mars Rover Sojourner and the upcoming Mars Exploration
Rover, or the underwater robot Caribou help us learn about places that are too dangerous
for us to go. While other types of robots are just plain fun for kids of all ages. Popular toys
such as Teckno, Polly or AIBO ERS-220 seem to hit the store shelves every year around
Christmas time.
But what exactly is a robot?
As strange as it might seem, there really is no standard definition for a robot.

However, there are some essential characteristics that a robot must have and this might help
you to decide what is and what is not a robot. It will also help you to decide what features
you will need to build into a machine before it can count as a robot.
A robot has these essential characteristics:
Sensing: First of all your robot would have to be able to sense its surroundings. It would
do this in ways that are not un similar to the way that you sense your surroundings.

Giving your robot sensors: light sensors (eyes), touch and pressure sensors
(hands), chemical sensors (nose), hearing and sonar sensors (ears), and taste
sensors (tongue) will give your robot awareness of its environment.
Movement: A robot needs to be able to move around its environment. Whether rolling on
wheels, walking on legs or propelling by thrusters a robot needs to be able to move. To
count as a robot either the whole robot moves, like the Sojourner or just parts of the robot
moves, like the Canada Arm.
Energy: A robot needs to be able to power itself. A robot might be solar powered,
electrically powered, battery powered. The way your robot gets its energy will depend on
what your robot needs to do.
Intelligence: A robot needs some kind of "smarts." This is where programming enters the
pictures. A programmer is the person who gives the robot its 'smarts.' The robot will have
to have some way to receive the program so that it knows what it is to do.
So what is a robot?
Well it is a system that contains sensors, control systems, manipulators, power

supplies and software all working together to perform a task. Designing, building,
programming and testing a robots is a combination of physics, mechanical engineering,
electrical engineering, structural engineering, mathematics and computing. In some cases
biology, medicine, chemistry might also be involved. A study of robotics means that
students are actively engaged with all of these disciplines in a deeply problem-posing
problem-solving environment.
1.2 APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTICS
As more and more robots are designed for specific tasks this method of
classification becomes more relevant. For example, many robots are designed for assembly
work, which may not be readily adaptable for other applications. They are termed as
"assembly robots". For seam welding, some suppliers provide complete

welding systems with the robot i.e. the welding equipment along with other material
handling facilities like turntables etc. as an integrated unit. Such an integrated robotic
system is called a "welding robot" even though its discrete manipulator unit could be
adapted to a variety of tasks. Some robots are specifically designed for heavy load
manipulation, and are labelled as "heavy duty robots".[20]
 Military robots.
 Industrial robots. Robots are increasingly used in manufacturing (since the 1960s).
According to the Robotic Industries Association(RIA) US data, in 2016 automotive
industry was the main customer of industrial robots with 52% of total sales. In the auto
industry, they can amount for more than half of the "labour". There are even
"lights off" factories such as an IBM keyboard manufacturing factory in Texas that was
fully automated as early as 2003.
 Cobots (collaborative robots).

 Construction robots. Construction robots can be separated into three types: traditional
robots, robotic arm, and robotic exoskeleton.
 Agricultural robots (AgRobots). The use of robots in agriculture is closely linked to
the concept of AI-assisted precision agriculture and drone usage. 1996-1998 research
also proved that robots can perform a herding task.
 Medical robots of various types (such as da Vinci Surgical System and Hospi).
 Kitchen automation. Commercial examples of kitchen automation are Flippy (burgers),
Zume Pizza (pizza), Cafe X (coffee), Makr Shakr (coctails), Frobot (frozen yogurts)
and Sally (salads). Home examples are Rotimatic (flatbreads baking) and Boris
(dishwasher loading).
 Robot combat for sport – hobby or sport event where two or more robots fight in an
arena to disable each other. This has developed from a hobby in the 1990s to several
TV series worldwide.
 Cleanup of contaminated areas, such as toxic waste or nuclear facilities.
 Domestic robots.
 Nanorobots
 Swarm robotics.

1.3 EXISTING SYSTEM
1) H. S. Yoon, J. Soh, Y. J. Bae and H. S. Yang, “Hand gesture recognition using

combined features of location, angle and velocity”, Pattern Recognition, vol. 34,
(2001), pp. 1491-1501.
2) Waldherr, S., Thrun, S., and Romero, R., “A Gesture based interface for Human-
Robot Interaction”, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherland, 2000.
3) Das, S., Toya, L., Green, Perez, B., and Murphy, M. M., “Detecting User Activities
using the Accelerometer on the Smartphone”, Team for Research in Ubiquitous
Secure Technology REU Research Program, July 2010.
1.4 PROPOSED SYSTEM
Fig. 1.1 Proposed System

CHAPTER 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM

2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM
Fig. 2.1 Block Diagram

The above figure 2.1 refers to the circuit diagram and the working of this robot is as follows.
 Firstly, the switch of the battery is turned ON to activate the robot and then the
program is loaded into the processor.
 Then later, when we make any gestures like moving our elbow joints up and down,
then by the help of potentiometers connected to the elbow joints, the slider of the
potentiometer rotates and this cause a variation in resistance.
 The variations in resistance are sent to arduino atmega 2560 through wires which
then rotates the servo motor in particular angle accordingly by using a map function
which maps the analog potentiometer values to angle values for servo motor.
 Thus when the servo motors rotates, the mechanism is in such a way that it lifts the
robotic arms connected to the servo motors.
 When we need to lift some heavy objects, we take the help of joystick module which
helps us to close and open the grippers which indirectly means rotates the mini servo

motor in particular angle by which the grippers open and close by which holding of
objects is done.
 While the grippers are holding the objects, we can once again move our elbows by
which lifting of arms will be performed and then the objects are lifted.
 With the help of joystick module we can drive the motors and the robot can be
carried to anywhere we want and can place the objects.
 The main application of this robot finds in industries where the lifting of heavy
objects can take place. For example in cargo loading and un-loading.

CHAPTER 3
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

3.1 ARDUINO ATMEGA 2560
Fig. 3.1 Arduino Atmega 2560
3.1.1 Product Overview
The Arduino Mega 2560 is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega2560

(datasheet). It has 54 digital input/output pins (of which 14 can be used as PWM outputs),
16 analog inputs, 4 UARTs (hardware serial ports), a 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB
connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains everything
needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable
or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. The Mega is compatible
with most shields designed for the Arduino Duemilanove or Diecimila.
3.1.2 Technical Specifications
● Microcontroller: Microchip ATmega2560
● Operating Voltage: 5 Volt
● Input Voltage: 7 to 20 Volts
● Digital I/O Pins: 54 (of which 15 provide PWM output)

● Analog Input Pins: 16
● DC Current per I/O Pin: 40 mA
● DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA
● Flash Memory: 256 KB of which 8 KB used by bootloader
● SRAM: 8 KB
● EEPROM: 4 KB
● Clock Speed: 16 MHz
3.1.3 ON Board
Fig. 3.2 Arduino Pinout

3.1.4 Power:
The Arduino Mega2560 can be powered via the USB connection or with an
external power supply. The power source is selected automatically. External (non-USB)
power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can
be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's power jack. Leads
from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER connector.
The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less
than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be

unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the
board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.
The Mega2560 differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI
USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features the Atmega8U2 programmed as a USB-to-
serial converter.
The power pins are as follows:
 VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power
source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power
source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the
power jack, access it through this pin.
 5V. The regulated power supply used to power the microcontroller and other
components on the board. This can come either from VIN via an on-board
regulator, or be supplied by USB or another regulated 5V supply.
 3V3. A 3.3volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current
draw is 50 mA.
 GND. Ground pins.
3.1.5 Memory
The ATmega2560 has 256 KB of flash memory for storing code (of which 8 KB
is used for the bootloader), 8 KB of SRAM and 4 KB of EEPROM (which can be read
and written with the EEPROM library).
3.1.6 Input and Output
Each of the 54 digital pins on the Mega can be used as an input or output, using
pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin
can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor
(disconnected by default) of 20-50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have specialized
functions:
 Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX); Serial 1: 19 (RX) and 18 (TX); Serial 2: 17 (RX)
and 16 (TX); Serial 3: 15 (RX) and 14 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit
(TX) TTL serial data. Pins 0 and 1 are also connected to the corresponding pins

of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip.

 External Interrupts: 2 (interrupt 0), 3 (interrupt 1), 18 (interrupt 5), 19
(interrupt 4), 20 (interrupt 3), and 21 (interrupt 2). These pins can be
configured to trigger an interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a
change in value. See the attachInterrupt() function for details.
 PWM: 0 to 13. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function.
 SPI: 50 (MISO), 51 (MOSI), 52 (SCK), 53 (SS). These pins support SPI
communication, which, although provided by the underlying hardware, is not
currently included in the Arduino language. The SPI pins are also broken out on
the ICSP header, which is physically compatible with the Duemilanove and
Diecimila.
 LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is
HIGH value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
 I2C: 20 (SDA) and 21 (SCL). Support I2C (TWI) communication using the
Wire library (documentation on the Wiring website). Note that these pins are not
in the same location as the I2C pins on the Duemilanove.

The Mega2560 has 16 analog inputs, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e.
1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it
possible to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin and analogReference()
function.
There are a couple of other pins on the board:
 AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().
 Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a
reset button to shields which block the one on the board.
3.1.7 Communication
The Arduino Mega2560 has a number of facilities for communicating with a

computer, another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega2560 provides four
hardware UARTs for TTL (5V) serial communication. An ATmega8U2 on the board
channels one of these over USB and provides a virtual com port to software on the
computer (Windows machines will need a .inf file, but OSX and Linux machines will

recognize the board as a COM port automatically. The Arduino software includes a serial
monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the board. The RX and
TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the ATmega8U2 chip
and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0 and 1).
A Software Serial library allows for serial communication on any of the Mega's
digital pins.
The ATmega2560 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino
software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see the documentation on
the Wiring website for details. To use the SPI communication, please see the ATmega2560
datasheet.
3.1.8 Programming
The Arduino Mega2560 can be programmed with the Arduino software
(download). For details, see the reference and tutorials.
The Atmega2560 on the Arduino Mega comes reburned with a bootloader that
allows you to upload new code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer.
It communicates using the original STK500 protocol (reference, C header files).
You can also bypass the bootloader and program the microcontroller through the
ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header; see these instructions for details.
3.1.9 Automatic (Software) Reset
Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the
Arduino Mega2560 is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running on
a connected computer. One of the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of the ATmega8U2
is connected to the reset line of the ATmega2560 via a 100 nano-farad capacitor. When
this line is asserted (taken low), the reset line drops long enough to reset the chip. The
Arduino software uses this capability to allow you to upload code by simply pressing the
upload button in the Arduino environment. This means that the bootloader can have a
shorter timeout, as the lowering of DTR can be well-coordinated with the start of the
upload.
This setup has other implications. When the Mega2560 is connected to either a
computer running Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it from
software (via USB). For the following half-second or so, the bootloader is running on the

Mega2560. While it is programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an

upload of new code), it will intercept the first few bytes of data sent to the board after a
connection is opened. If a sketch running on the board receives one-time configuration or
other data when it first starts, make sure that the software with which it communicates
waits a second after opening the connection and before sending this data.
The Mega contains a trace that can be cut to disable the auto-reset. The pads on
either side of the trace can be soldered together to re-enable it. It's labeled "RESET-EN".
You may also be able to disable the auto-reset by connecting a 110ohm resistor from 5V
to the reset line; see this forum thread for details.
3.1.9 USB Overcurrent Protection
The Arduino Mega has a resettable polyfused that protects your computer's USB
ports from shorts and overcurrent. Although most computers provide their own internal
protection, the fuse provides an extra layer of protection. If more than 500 mA is applied
to the USB port, the fuse will automatically break the connection until the short or
overload is removed.
3.1.10 Physical Characteristics and Shield Compatibility:

The maximum length and width of the Mega PCB are 4 and 2.1 inches
respectively, with the USB connector and power jack extending beyond the former
dimension. Three screw holes allow the board to be attached to a surface or case. Note
that the distance between digital pins 7 and 8 is 160 mil (0.16"), not an even multiple of
the 100mil spacing of the other pins.
The Mega is designed to be compatible with most shields designed for the
Diecimila or Duemilanove. Digital pins 0 to 13 (and the adjacent AREF and GND pins),
analog inputs 0 to 5, the power header, and ICSP header are all in equivalent locations.
Further the main UART (serial port) is located on the same pins (0 and 1), as are external
interrupts 0 and 1 (pins 2 and 3 respectively). SPI is available through the ICSP header on
both the Mega and Duemilanove / Diecimila. Please note that I2C is not located on the
same pins on the Mega (20 and 21) as the Duemilanove / Diecimila (analog inputs 4
and 5).

3.2 ARDUINO SHIELD
Arduino shields are modular circuit boards that piggyback onto your Arduino to
instill it with extra functionality. By using Arduino shield we can connect to the internet.
Many Arduino shields are stackable. We can connect many shields together to create a "Big
Mac" of Arduino modules. For example, combine an Arduino uno with a Voice box shield,
and a Wi-Fi shield to create a Wi-Fi talking Stephen Hawking (TM).
Shields are often supplied with either an example sketch, or a library. So, not only
do they just simply plug into the Arduino, but all we need to do to make them work is up
load up some example code to the Arduino.
Fig.3.3 Arduino shield
3.2.1 Shield Form Factor
Every Arduino shield must have the same form-factor as the standard Arduino.
Power and ground pins on one eight (previously six) pin header, and analog pins on a six-
pin header next to that. Digital pins cover the other edge on the other side, an eight-pin
header separated from a 10-pin by that weird 0.5" spacing. Some shields also require a
connection to the Arduino's ICSP header (the 2x3 programming header on the end). [3]
Some shields use every pin on the Arduino, while others only use a couple. When
stacking shields, it's important to make sure they don't use overlapping pins. Some shields
communicate with the Arduino via SPI or serial, and others use the Arduino's interrupts
or analog inputs.

3.2.2 Applications of Arduino Shield

 Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Wireless, GPS, Etc
 Music and Sound
 Displays and Cameras
 Motor Drivers
3.3 SERVO MOTOR
The servo motor is most commonly used for high technology devices in the
industrial application like automation technology. It is a self-contained electrical device
that rotate parts of a machine with high efficiency and great precision. The output shaft of
this motor can be moved to a particular angle. Servo motors are mainly used in home
electronics, toys, cars, airplanes, etc. This article discusses about what is a servo motor,
servo motor working, servo motor types and its applications.
Fig.3.4 Servo Motor Working Principle
3.3.1 Types of Servo Motor
Servo motors are classified into different types based on their application, such as
AC servo motor, DC servo motor, brushless DC servo motor, positional rotation,
continuous rotation and linear servo motor etc. Typical servo motors comprise of three
wires namely, power control and ground. The shape and size of these motors depend on
their applications. RC servo motor is the most common type of servo motor used in hobby
applications, robotics due to their simplicity, affordability and reliability of control by
microprocessors.

3.3.2 DC Servo Motor
The motor which is used as a DC servo motor generally have a separate DC source
in the field of winding & armature winding. The control can be archived either
by controlling the armature current or field current. Field control includes some particular
advantages over armature control. In the same way armature control includes some
advantages over field control. Based on the applications the control should be applied to
the DC servo motor. DC servo motor provides very accurate and also fast respond to start
or stop command signals due to the low armature inductive reactance. DC servo motors are
used in similar equipment and computerized numerically controlled machines.
Fig.3.5 DC Servo Motor
3.3.3 AC Servo Motor
AC servo motor is an AC motor that includes encoder is used with controllers for
giving closed loop control and feedback. This motor can be placed to high accuracy and
also controlled precisely as compulsory for the applications. Frequently these motors have
higher designs of tolerance or better bearings and some simple designs also use higher
voltages in order to accomplish greater torque. Applications of an AC motor mainly involve
in automation, robotics, CNC machinery, and other applications a high level of precision
and needful versatility.

Fig.3.6 AC Servo Motor
3.3.4 Positional Rotation Servo Motor
Positional rotation servo motor is a most common type of servo motor. The shaft’s
o/p rotates in about 180°. It includes physical stops located in the gear mechanism to stop
turning outside these limits to guard the rotation sensor. These common servos involve in
radio-controlled water, radio-controlled cars, aircraft, robots, toys and many other
applications.
3.3.5 Continuous Rotation Servo Motor
Continuous rotation servo motor is quite related to the common positional rotation
servo motor, but it can go in any direction indefinitely. The control signal, rather than set
the static position of the servo, is understood as the speed and direction of rotation. The
range of potential commands sources the servo to rotate clockwise or anticlockwise as
preferred, at changing speed, depending on the command signal. This type of motor is used
in a radar dish if you are riding one on a robot or you can use one as a drive motor on a
mobile robot.
Fig. 3.7 Continuous Rotation Servo Motor

3.3.7 Linear Servo Motor
Linear servo motor is also similar the positional rotation servo motor is discussed
above, but with an extra gear to alter the o/p from circular to back-and-forth. These servo
motors are not simple to find, but sometimes you can find them at hobby stores where they
are used as actuators in higher model airplanes.
3.3.8 Servo Motor Working
A unique design for servo motors are proposed in controlling the robotics and for
control applications. They are basically used to adjust the speed control at high torques and
accurate positioning. Parts required are motor position sensor and a highly developed
controller. These motors can be categorized according the servo motor controlled by
servomechanism. If DC motor is controlled using this mechanism, then it is named as a DC
servo motor. Servo motors are available in power ratings from fraction of a watt to 100
watts. The rotor of a servo motor is designed longer in length and smaller in diameter so
that it has low inertia. To know more about this, please follow the link: Servo motor
working principle and interfacing with 8051 microcontroller
Fig. 3.8 Servo Motor Working
3.3.9 Applications of Servo Motor
The servo motor is small and efficient, but serious to use in some applications like
precise position control. This motor is controlled by a pulse width modulator signal. The

applications of servo motors mainly involve in computers, robotics, toys, CD/DVD players,
etc. These motors are extensively used in those applications where a particular task is to be
done frequently in an exact manner.
Fig. 3.9 Servo Motor in Packaging Machine
The servo motor is used in robotics to activate movements, giving the arm to its
precise angle.
The Servo motor is used to start, move and stop conveyor belts carrying the product
along with many stages. For instance, product labeling, bottling and packaging
The servo motor is built into the camera to correct a lens of the camera to improve
out of focus images.
The servo motor is used in robotic vehicle to control the robot wheels, producing
plenty torque to move, start and stop the vehicle and control its speed.
The servo motor is used in solar tracking system to correct the angle of the panel so
that each solar panel stays to face the sun
The Servo motor is used in metal forming and cutting machines to provide specific
motion control for milling machines
The Servo motor is used in Textiles to control spinning and weaving machines,
knitting machines and looms

The Servo motor is used in automatic door openers to control the door in public
places like supermarkets, hospitals and theatres
3.4 POTENTIOMETER
Resistor, a small bundle of resistance, is one of the most used basic components in
an electric circuit. Mostly used to regulate the current flow by adding/subtracting resistance
from the circuit, these resistors are available in many shapes and sizes. These resistors can
be broadly classified as fixed and variable resistors. As their respective names suggest, a
fixed resistor has a single fixed value of resistance, whereas a variable resistor has
resistance value over a defined range. Out of the numerous linear and Non-linear variable
resistors available, the most common is the Potentiometer. This article deals with the
working principle, construction and application of a potentiometer. So, let’s get started!
The potentiometers or the “pots”, as it is commonly known in the electric circles, is a three
terminal variable resistor. Out of its three terminals, two of them are fixed and one is a
varying (linear / rotary) terminal.
The value of the resistance can be changed from zero to a defined upper limit, by
just manually sliding the contact over a resistive strip. As the resistance changes, the
current through the circuit changes and hence according to the ohms law, the voltage across
the resistive material also changes.
Since its covert’s rotary or linear motion by the operator into a change in resistance
(hence a change in electric parameter), it can be called an electro-mechanical transducer.
They are passive in nature, therefore dissipate power rather than supplying power to the
circuit.
In its early days of manufacture, it was thought of like a large wire wound resistive
coil, which could be adjusted so as to measure the voltage difference across it. Hence, the
name “potentiometer” was given to this device, which is coined from the combination of
two words: potential difference and metering.
They have come a long way since then. Gone are the days of large bulky
potentiometers, now what we get is quite small and easy to use and light to carry, also they
have now used in wide range of applications.

Now that we have had an introduction about the potentiometer, you might have a
curiosity of knowing how it looks like. Figure 1 shows some practical pots, while figure 2
shows the standard symbol of the same.
Fig. 3.10 Potentiometer
Fig. 3.11 Potentiometer Symbol
It is represented by a zigzag line with an arrow pointing inwards at the center.
3.4.1 How does it work?
As already discussed, a potentiometer has three terminals. When connected to a circuit, the
two fixed terminals are connected to the ends of the resistive elements while the third
terminal is connected to the wiper.

In the circuit diagram shown below, the terminals of the potentiometer are marked 1, 2 and
3. The voltage supply is connected across terminals 1 and 3, positive lead to terminal one
while negative lead to terminal three. The terminal 2 is connected to the wiper.
Fig. 3.12 Potentiometer Circuit Diagram
Now a closer look into the figure, we can see that at the current position of wiper,
there are two resistive paths just like the resistor is split into two resistors. Out of these two
resistors, the one having longer resistive path will have a higher resistance. This is due to
the fact that resistance of a resistor depends on its length (since R=ρ). Higher the length,
higher is the resistance, provided the material of the resistor and its cross-sectional area
remains same.
For simplicity, lets name the two resistors, R1 and R2 (Refer figure). The wiper
voltage is actually the voltage across R2. The circuit now looks like a voltage divider, where
the output voltage is given the equation:
Vout = {R2/(R1+R2)} x V; where V= supply voltage.
So clearly, if we want to change the output voltage, we can just change the value of R2, by
sliding the wiper towards the terminal 3. When the wiper is at terminal 1, R1 becomes zero
and the voltage across the wiper is same as the supply voltage.
Also, when the wiper is at terminal 3, the effective resistive path for R2 is zero, hence the
resistance R2 is zero.
3.4.2 Construction of a Potentiometer
The potentiometer essentially has a resistive element over which a moving terminal,
the wiper slides. Any potentiometer is constructed of the following parts:

The terminals: As already discussed, the potentiometer has three terminals, two fixed and
one variable.
The resistive element: This part is the main part of the device and it is connected to the
two fixed terminals. It is one of the decisive aspects when it comes to the cost of the
potentiometer, and also can govern aspects of the performance of the component including
the power dissipation capability and noise generated.
The resistive element used can be of the following types:
Carbon Composition: This is made from carbon granules and is one of the most common
types of resistive material used, because of its low cost. It also has a reasonably low noise
and lesser wear than other Materials. However, it is not that accurate in its operation.
Wire wound – These are basically Nichrome wires and are wound over an insulating
substrate. They are mostly used in high power applications and last really long. They are
precise but have limited resolution.
Conductive plastic: Often used in high end audio applications, they have very good
resolution but are really costly, and can be used in low power applications only.
Cermet: A very stable type of material, it has a low temperature coefficient and is highly
resistant to temperature. However, it has a short life and can burn a hole in your pocket.
The wiper: This is the one terminal that slides over a resistive strip to make an electrical
contact. It may be a rotary wiper that is like a half an arc, that covers over ¾ of a circle or
a linear wiper.
Angular position of the rotary wiper in degrees is given by the formula:
θ = (Vout/Vsupply)
The shaft: In case of a rotary wiper type potentiometer, a shaft is present over which the
wiper is fabricated.
Casting: All of the components is housed inside a casting, to prevnt it from external
physical damages

Fig. 3.13 Potentiometer Construction
There are some particular characteristics of a potentiometer that one needs to know. Next
section deals with that.
3.4.3 Characteristics of Potentiometers
Some of the characteristics of a potentiometer are:
TAPER:
The law of pots or the taper of pots is one such characteristic of potentiometer in
which one needs a prior knowledge, to pick the right device for the desired application. It
is nothing but a ratio between the wiper position and the resistance. This ratio when plotted
may be linear, logarithmic or antilogarithmic, as shown in figure.
Fig. 3.14 Taper

MARKING CODES: While selecting a potentiometer, you need to know the maximum
value of resistance it can attain. For this purpose, the manufactures use marking codes,
which indicate the same. For example, a pot with a resistance of 100K marked on it
means, the maximum limit of the pot is 100kΩ.
Since, we also need to know the taper of the pot, the manufacturers use marking codes for
indicating the taper of the pot as well. The marking codes differ from a region to region.
One must have prior knowledge of what a code stands for.
RESOLUTION: As we vary the resistance in the pot, there is a minimum amount of

resistance that can be changed. This is known as the resolution of the pot. For example, if
I say the resistance of pot is 20kΩ, with a resolution of 0.5, the minimum change in
resistance will be 0.5Ω, and the values that we get for the smallest change will be 0.5,1.5,2Ω
and so on.
HOP ON HOP OFF RESISTANCE: Like we have seen in the construction part of this
article that the resistive element is connected in between the two terminals. These terminals
are made of very low resistance metal. Hence, whenever the wiper enters or exits this
region, there will be a sudden change in the resistance. This characteristic of the pot is
called, hop on hop off resistance.
Now that the characteristics of the pot have been discussed let’s have a look into what are
the types of potentiometers.
3.4.3 Types of Potentiometers:
Even though the basic construction and working principle of potentiometers are the
same, they differ in one aspect that is the geometry of the moving terminal. Mostly the
potentiometers what we find has a wiper that rotates over an arc shaped resistive material,
there is another type of pot where the wiper slides linearly over a straight resistive strip.
Based on the geometry of the resistive strip, the potentiometer can be broadly classified
into two types, discussed below.
Rotary type potentiometers: As the name suggests, this type of potentiometer has a
wiper which can be rotated across the two terminals, to vary the resistance of the

potentiometer. They are one of the common types of Pots. Depending upon how many
times, one can turn the wiper, they are further classified into the following categories:
Single turn: These pots are one of the commonly used type of pots. The wiper can take
only a single turn. It usually rotates a 3/4th of the full turn.
Multi turn: These pots can make multiple rotations like 5, 10 or 20. They have a wiper in
the form of a spiral or helix, or a worm-gear, to make the turns. Known for their high
precision, these types of pots are used where high precision and resolution are required.
Dual gang: From the name of this pot it can be assumed what it is. It is nothing but two
pots with equal resistance and taper are combined on the same shaft. The two channels are
set in parallel.
Concentric pot: Here two pots are combined together on shafts placed in a concentric
manner. The advantage of using this type of pot is that two controls can be used in one unit.
Servo pot: “Servo” meaning motor pot is a motorized pot. This means its resistance can be
adjusted or controlled automatically by a motor.
Fig. 3.15 Potentiometer Types
Linear type potentiometers: The next type of pots is one in which the wiper slides over
a straight resistive strip. They are also known by the names such as: slider, slide pot or
fader. They are further classified into the following types:

Slide pot: This is the basic type of a linear pot. They have a single resistive strip over which
the wiper slides linearly. They have a good precision and are moistly made from conducive
plastic.
Dual slide pot: This type of linear pot is just the calibration of two slide pot in parallel.
This means it has a single slider that controls two pots in parallel.
Multi turn pot: In an application where Precion and good resolution of utmost importance
this type of pot is used. IT HAS a spindle, that actuates the slider, that can turn up to 5, 10
or 20 times to improve the precision.
Motorized fader: As the name suggests, the movement of wiper of this pot is controlled
by a motor, and hence its resistance.
Fig. 3.16 Linear Potentiometers
3.4.4 Applications of Potentiometers
A potentiometer essentially works as a voltage divider however it is used in many

industries and applications too. Some of the applications are listed below, categorically:
I. Pots as Controllers:
Potentiometers can be used in user Controlled input applications, where there is a
requirement of manual variation in the input. Like for example a throttle pedal is often a
dual gang pot, used to increase the redundancy of the system. Also, the joysticks that we
use in machine control, is a classic example of pot used as a user Controlled input.

Another application where pots are used as controllers are in audio systems. The
potentiometer with logarithmic taper, is often used in audio volume control devices, this is
so because our hearing has a logarithmic response to sound pressure. A logarithmic taper
pot will therefore naturally make the transition from a loud to soft sound (and vice versa),
smoother to our ears. Mostly a motorized pot (with logarithmic taper) is used for this
application.
II. Pots as measuring devices:

Most common application of potentiometer is as voltage measuring devices. The
name itself has that implication. It was first manufactured for the purpose of measuring and
controlling the voltage.
Since these devices convert the position of the wiper into an electrical output, they
are used as transducers to measure distance or angles.
III. Pots as tuners and calibrators:

Pots can be used in a circuit, to tune them to get the desired output. Also during the
calibrations of a device, a preset pot are often mounted on the circuit board. They are kept
fixed for most of the time.
Fig. 3.17 Interfacing Potentiometer with Arduino

Table 3.1 Connecting Potentiometer with Arduino Uno
Potentiometer Arduino Atmega
Vcc 5V
GND GND
O/P A0, A1, A3, A4
3.5 JOYSTICK
3.5.1 Introduction
 Joystick is an input device. Analog joystick is sometimes called as Control Stick. It

is used to control the pointer movement in 2-dimension axis.
 The joystick has two potentiometers to read user’s input. One potentiometer is used
to get the analog output voltage for X-Direction movement and the other
potentiometer is used to get the analog output voltage for Y-Direction movement.
 The potentiometers are connected between +VCC and Ground. They simply behave
as Voltage Divider Network.
 The joystick has one freewheeling Holder. According to the holder movement, the
potentiometer knob changes its position and resistance of the potentiometer.
Fig. 3.18 Analog Joystick

Output Voltage Mapping with XY Position
At Idle position output voltage, will be VCC/2. Now considering VCC = 5 volts,
following fig. shows the voltage mapping with different XY position.
Fig. 3.19 Joystick Output
When the joystick is at idle position, the output value of the X terminal and Y terminal
are Centre (2.5V) of the specified range (0V to 5V). According to the movement of a
holder, the output values are varying from minimum limit (0V) to maximum limit (5V).
This Joystick also has a select button/switch that is actuated when the Joystick knob
pressed down.
3.5.2 Pin Description
Fig. 3.20 Pin Description

Pin 1, 5 - VCC and GND
Supply voltage(+5V) and ground given to Joystick.
Pin 2 –X-OUT
This pin provides an analog output voltage from 0 volts to VCC according to the
movement of Holder in X-direction (axis).
Pin 3 - Y-OUT
This pin provides an analog output voltage from 0 volts to VCC according to the
movement of Holder in Y- direction (axis).
Pin 4 - Switch
This pin has one tactile switch.
When a switch is not pressed, this pin is connected to VCC through a resistor.
When a switch is pressed, this pin is connected to Ground.
3.5.2 Pin Configuration
Table. 3.2 Pin Configuration
Pin No. Pin Name Description
1 Gnd Ground terminal of Module
2 +5v Positive supply terminal of Module
3 VRx Voltage Proportional to X axis
4 VRy Voltage Proportional to Y axis
5 SW Switch

3.5.3 Features
 Two independent Potentiometer: one for each axis (X and Y)

 Auto return to center position
 Low weight
 Cup-type Knob
 Compatible to interface with Arduino or with most microcontrollers
3.5.4 Technical Specifications
 Operating Voltage: 5V
 Internal Potentiometer value: 10k
 2.54mm pin interface leads
 Dimensions: 1.57 in x 1.02 in x 1.26 in (4.0 cm x 2.6 cm x 3.2 cm)
 Operating temperature: 0 to 70 °C
3.5.5 Internal Structure
The below image is the internal diagram of a Joystick Module. It consists of

two Potentiometer, each for one axis (X and Y). Both 10k potentiometer are independent
to move in their particular direction. SW (Switch) pin is connected to a push button
internally.
Fig. 3.21 Internal Structure of Joystick

Where Joysticks Are Used?
When we listen the word “Joystick” we think of Game controllers. If we talk about
Electronics there are many useful of application of Joystick. These type of module are
mostly used in Arduino based DIY projects and Robot Control. As we know, the module
gives analog output so it can be used for feeding the analog input based on direction or
movement. It can also be connected to a movable camera to control its movement.
How to Use Joystick?
We can use a Joystick Module with Arduino, Raspberry Pi and any other Micro-
controllers. We just have to connect the axis Pins VRx and VRy to the ADC Pins of the
micro-controller. If you want to use the switch then connect it to the digital Pin of the
Micro-controller. Follow the below block diagram to connect Joystick Module with
Microcontroller.
Fig. 3.22 Joystick Interfacing with Microcontroller

As used in many projects, the interfacing diagram of Joystick Module with the
Arduino is given below. It helps you to connect the joystick Module with Arduino and get
the analog output based on the direction of movement of Joystick Knob.
After Interfacing Joystick Module with the Arduino, we will get the analog output.
The output range is fixed for each direction. The below image shows, the value of analog
output for X and Y axis based on the movement of Joystick Module in all four directions
(+X, -X, +Y, -Y). You will also get some analog value when moving the knob diagonally
. Fig. 3.23 Joystick Interfacing with Ardunio

Table 3.3 Connecting Joystick with Arduino Uno
Joystick Module 1,2 Arduino Atmega
Vcc 5V
GND GND
VRx A4(Joystick 1), A6(Joystick 2)
VRy A5(Joystick 1), A7(Joystick 2)
Fig. 3.24 Default Values of Joystick
3.5.6 Application
 Camera Pan/Tilt Control

 Game Input/Control
 Robot Control
 Analog Input of Parameters
 Widely use in DIY projects

3.5.7 2D-model
Fig. 3.25 2D-Model of Joystick
3.6 SERVO MOTOR DRIVER
3.6.1 Introduction
A servo motor is one of the widely used variable speed drives in industrial
production and process automation and building technology worldwide. Although servo
motors are not a specific class of motor, they are intended and designed to use in motion
control applications which require high accuracy positioning, quick reversing and
exceptional performance. Servo motors are interfaced with microcontrollers with help of
drivers. Driver is device which takes input from processing system and then delivers power
to load connected to it. Robolab Technologies has designed driver to drive 4 servo motors.
This board is dedicated for interfacing servo motors with controller.
3.6.2 Hardware used in board:
1) TIP2955
2) Re-limited, Male and Female Berg Strip connectors

3) LED
4) Capacitors and Normal and Power Resistors
5) LM7806 Voltage Regulator
6) Slider Switch
3.6.3 Hardware Connections:
1)Servo 4 Motor Driver board to Microcontroller:
A servo motor is a linear or rotary actuator that provides fast precision position
control for closed-loop position control applications. Unlike large industrial motors, a servo
motor is not used for continuous energy conversion. Servo motors have a heavy speed
response due to low inertia and are designed with small diameter and long rotor length.
Servo motors work on servo mechanism that uses position feedback to control the speed
and final position of the motor. Internally, a servo motor combines a motor, feedback
circuit, controller and other electronic circuit.
Working: This driver is able to drive 4 servo motors. We need drivers to drive motors
because microcontroller alone cannot provide such large amount of current. The 6 pin re-
limited connector available on the board is used to feed PWM pulses generated from
microcontroller to servo motors. TIP2955 IC is pnp transistor used for current boosting
purpose. LM7806 regulator IC provides only 1.5A current which is not sufficient to drive
4 servo motors. This transistor is used in output stage of voltage regulator circuit.
Power Connections:
1) Battery Connections: 2 pin re-limited connector and phoenix connector is used to

connect power supply with driver board.
2) LED Indicator: LED is used to indicate power connection with board.
3) Input connections: 6 pin re-limited connector is used to give inputs to driver board.
4) ON/Off Switch: Slider switch is used for this purpose.

Fig. 3.26 Servo Motor Driver
A servo drive is a special electronic amplifier used to power electric servo

mechanisms. It monitors the feedback signal from the servomechanism and continually
adjusts for deviation from expected behavior.
The servo drive is a kind of controller to control the servo system. Its function is
similar to the frequency effect on ordinary AC motor, which belongs to a part of the servo
system and is mainly applied in high-accuracy positioning system. Generally, the servo
motor is controlled by three ways, location, speed and torque, so as to realize high precision
positioning of transmission system. [5]

Fig. 3.27 Servo motor driver

3.6.4 Working principle
The servo driver adopts digital signal processor (DSP) as the control core, an realize
the complex control algorithm, digitization, networking and intelligent. The power device
generally adopts intelligent power module (IPM) as the driving circuit of the core design.
IPM integrated drive circuit with over-voltage and over-current, overheating, under voltage
fault detection and protection circuit. The soft start circuit is also added in the major loop,
so as to reduce the impact on the drive in the start-up process.
First, the power drive unit is rectified by the three-phase full bridge rectifier circuit
to input the three-phase electric or municipal power, and the corresponding DC power is
obtained. The three-phase power or electric supply after rectifying can drive the AC servo
motor through three-phase sine PWM voltage source inverter frequency conversion. The
whole process of the power drive unit can be simply described as the process of AC-DC-
AC. The main topology of the rectifier unit (AC-DC) is the three-phase full bridge
uncontrolled rectifier circuit.
3.6.5 Control methods of servo drive
Servo drive generally has three control methods: position control mode, torque
control mode and speed control method.
 The position control mode can determine the rotational speed generally
through the external input pulse frequency and the rotation angle by the
number of pulses. Some servo systems can assign velocity and displacement
directly by means of communication. Because the position mode can control
the speed and position strictly, it is generally used in the positioning device.

 Torque control mode is assigned by the external analog input or direct address
to set the external output torque of motor shaft. The torque can be changed by
changing the setting of the analog immediately and the corresponding address
value can be realized by the change of communication mode. The main
application has strict requirement for the material on stress in the winding and
unwinding device, such as winding device or fibre optic equipment. The
setting of the torque should be changed at any time according to the radius of
the winding so as to ensure that the force of the material does not change with
the change of the winding radius.
 Speed mode can have control for the rotation speed through the input of the
analog quantity or the pulse frequency. The outer loop PID with the upper
control device can be positioned. But the position signal of the motor or the
position signal of the direct load should be sent to the upper feedback for
calculation. The position mode also supports direct load loop detection
position signal. At this moment, the coder at the motor shaft end can only
detect the motor speed and the position signal is provided by the detection
device directly of the final load end. The advantage of this method is that it
can reduce the error in the intermediate transmission process and increase the
positioning accuracy in the whole system. [5]
3.6.6 Features of Servo Motors
The servo motor is specialized for high-response, high-precision positioning. As a
motor capable of accurate rotation angle and speed control, it can be used for a variety of
equipment.
Table 3.4 Connecting Servo Motor Driver L293D with Arduino Atmega
MG996 and SG90 Servo Motor Arduino Atmega 2560

Vcc 5V
GND GND
O/p A8, A9, A10, A11, A12, A13 for all 6
servos.

Fig. 3.28 Interfacing Servo motor with Arduino
3.7 DC MOTOR
A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that converts direct
current electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common types rely on the forces
produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal mechanism,
either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the direction of current flow
in part of the motor.
DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered from
existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can be
controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by changing the
strength of current in its field windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and
appliances. The universal motor can operate on direct current but is a lightweight motor
used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger DC motors are used in propulsion of
electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in drives for steel rolling mills. The advent of power
electronics has made replacement of DC motors with AC motors possible in many
applications.
A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an electromagnetic field

aligned with the center of the coil. The direction and magnitude of the magnetic field

produced by the coil can be changed with the direction and magnitude of the current
flowing through it. A simple DC motor has a stationary set of magnets in the stator and an
armature with one or more windings of insulated wire wrapped around a soft iron core that
concentrates the magnetic field. The windings usually have multiple turns around the core,
and in large motors there can be several parallel current paths. The ends of the wire winding
are connected to a commutator. The commutator allows each armature coil to be energized
in turn and connects the rotating coils with the external power supply through brushes. [9]
3.7.1 Principle of DC Motor
This DC or direct current motor works on the principal, when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque and has a tendency to move.
This is known as motoring action. If the direction of current in the wire is reversed, the
direction of rotation also reverses. When magnetic field and electric field interact, they
produce a mechanical force, and based on that the working principle of DC motor is
established.
Fig. 3.29 Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule
The direction of rotation of this motor is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule, which
states that if the index finger, middle finger and thumb of your left hand are extended
mutually perpendicular to each other and if the index finger represents the direction of

magnetic field, middle finger indicates the direction of current, then the thumb represents
the direction in which force is experienced by the shaft of the DC motor.
Fig. 3.30 DC Motor working overview [9]
Here in a DC motor, the supply voltage E and current I is given to the electrical port
or the input port and we derive the mechanical output i.e. torque T and speed ω from the
mechanical port or output port as shown in the fig
The input and output port variables of the direct current motor are related by the
parameter K.
[5]
3.7.2 Types of DC Motors
Direct current motors are named according to the connection of the field winding
with the armature.
There are 3 types:
 Shunt wound DC motor.

 Series wound DC motor.
 Compound wound DC motor.

Fig. 3.31 DC Motor
3.8 MOTOR DRIVER IC (L293D)
A motor driver is an integrated circuit chip which is usually used to control motors
in autonomous robots. Motor driver act as an interface between Arduino and the motors.
The most commonly used motor driver IC’s are from the L293 series such as L293D,
L293NE, etc. These ICs are designed to control 2 DC motors simultaneously. L293D
consist of two H-bridge. H-bridge is the simplest circuit for controlling a low current rated
motor. We will be referring the motor driver IC as L293D only. L293D has 16 pins.
The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 is
designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5 V to 36
V. The L293D is designed to provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600-mA at
voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. Both devices are designed to drive inductive loads such as
relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar stepping motors, as well as other high-current/high-voltage
loads in positive-supply applications.
All inputs are TTL compatible. Each output is a complete totem-pole drive circuit,
with a Darlington transistor sink and a pseudo-Darlington source. Drivers are enabled in
pairs, with drivers 1 and 2 enabled by 1,2EN and drivers 3 and 4 enabled by 3,4EN. When
an enable input is high, the associated drivers are enabled and their outputs are active and
in phase with their inputs. When the enable input is low, those drivers are disabled and their
outputs are off and in the high-impedance state. With the proper data inputs, each pair of
drivers forms a full-H (or bridge) reversible drive suitable for solenoid or motor
applications.

On the L293, external high-speed output clamp diodes should be used for inductive
transient suppression.
A VCC1 terminal, separate from VCC2, is provided for the logic inputs to minimize
device power dissipation. The L293and L293D are characterized for operation from 0°C to
70°C.
Fig. 3.32 Motor driver [8]
3.8.1 Specifications
 Supply voltage range 4.5V to 36V

 600-mA output current capability per driver
 Separate input logic supply
 It can drive small DC-geared motors, Bipolar stepper motor
 Pulsed current 1.2-A Per Driver
 Thermal Shutdown
 Internal ESD Protection
 High -Noise-Immunity Input

Fig. 3.33 L293D Pin configuration
The L293D is a 16 pin IC, with eight pins, on each side, dedicated to the controlling
of a motor. There are 2 INPUT pins, 2 OUTPUT pins and 1 ENABLE pin for each motor.
L293D consist of two H-bridge. H-bridge is the simplest circuit for controlling a low
current rated motor. [6]
3.8.2 Pin No. - Pin Characteristics
 1 - Enable 1-2, when this is HIGH the left part of the IC will work and when
it is low the left part won’t work.
 2 - INPUT 1, when this pin is HIGH the current will flow though output 1
 3 - OUTPUT 1, this pin should be connected to one terminal of motor
 4,5 - GND, ground pins
 8 - VCC2, this is the voltage which will be supplied to the motor.
 16 - VCC1, this is the power source to the IC. So, this pin should be supplied
with 5 V.


 13,12 - GND, ground pins
 9 - Enable 3-4, when this is HIGH the right part of the IC will work and when
it is low the right part won’t work.
3.8.3 Working principle
The L293D IC receives signals from the microprocessor and transmits the relative
signal to the motors. It has two voltage pins, one of which is used to draw current for the
working of the L293D and the other is used to apply voltage to the motors. The L293D
switches it output signal according to the input received from the microprocessor. For
Example: If the microprocessor sends a 1(digital high) to the Input Pin of L293D, then the
L293D transmits a 1(digital high) to the motor from its Output Pin. An important thing to
note is that the L293D simply transmits the signal it receives. It does not change the signal
in any case.
The L293D is a 16 pin IC, with eight pins, on each side, dedicated to the controlling
of a motor. There are 2 INPUT pins, 2 OUTPUT pins and 1 ENABLE pin for each motor.
L293D consist of two H-bridge. H-bridge is the simplest circuit for controlling a low
current rated motor.
The Theory for working of a H-bridge is given below.
H-bridge is given this name because it can be modelled as four switches on the
corners of ‘H’. The basic diagram of H-bridge is given below:
Fig. 3.34 H- Bridge

In the given diagram, the arrow on the left points to the higher potential side of the
input voltage of the circuit. Now if the switches S1 & S4 are kept in a closed position while
the switches S2 & S3 are kept in an open position meaning that the circuit gets shorted
across the switches S1 & S4. This creates a path for the current to flow, starting from the
V input to switch S1 to the motor, then to switch S4 and then the exiting from the circuit.
This flow of the current would make the motor turn in one direction. The direction of
motion of the motor can be clockwise or anti-clock wise, this is because the rotation of the
motor depends upon the connection of the terminals of the motor with the switches. For
simplicity, assume that in this condition the motor rotates in a clockwise direction.
Now, when S3 and S2 are closed then and S1 and S4 are kept open then the current
flows from the other direction and the motor will now definitely rotates in counter-
clockwise direction. When S1 and S3 are closed and S2 and S4 are open then
the ‘STALL’ condition will occur (The motor will break).
Table 3.5 Connecting Motor Driver L293D with Arduino Uno

Motor Driver L298 Arduino Atmega
A (+) D2 (M1, M2), D5 (M3, M4)
Enable (En) D3 (M1, M2), D6 (M3, M4)
B (-) D4 (M1, M2), D7 (M3, M4)
The below figure 3.35 represents the interfacing of motor driver L293D with Arduino
Atmega
Fig. 3.35 Interfacing Motor Driver with Arduino

3.9 POWER DISTRIBUTION BOARD
This is general purpose board which is used to supply the power to different
electronic components by the means of wires. These boards are used in applications where
number of electronic components are required for the functioning. There are variety of
design available in the market used for different purpose.
Fig. 3.36 Power distribution board
A power distribution board is a component of an electrical system. It separates

the power supply into several circuits in an enclosure. It provides each circuit with
its protection system by using a fuse or circuit breaker.
3.10 BATTERY
A battery is a device that produces electrons through electrochemical

reactions and consists of one or more electrochemical cells, which transform stored
chemical energy directly into electrical energy. When an external load connects to a
battery, electrons cross from the negative to the positive terminal, creating an electrical
current. This current may power a motor, a light bulb, a clock, a computer and a cell phone
etc. Battery flow speed is determined by the battery’s internal resistance and outside load.
[3]

Fig. 3.37 Battery
3.10.1 Specifications
Table 3. 6 Specifications of Battery
Battery Chemistry =Lithium Iron (LiFePO4)
Approximate Lifespan =2000 full recharge cycles
Nominal Voltage =12.8 Volts
Maximum Current =20 Amps
Maximum Output Power =256 Watts
Motors at Peak Power =10
Low Battery Performance =Motors output 100% power
Capacity =14 Wt
Weight =0.77 lbs (350 g)
=1.82”Wx6.31"Lx1.18"H
Dimensions

3.11 JUMP WIRES

A jump wire is normally used to interconnect the components of a breadboard or
other prototype or test circuit, internally or with other equipment or components, without
soldering. [9]
Fig. 3.38 Jumping wires

3.12 USB CABLE
Fig. 3.39 Universal Serial Bus (USB)
A Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a common interface that enables communication

between devices and a host controller such as a personal computer (PC). It connects
peripheral devices such as digital cameras, mice, external hard drives and used to transfer
data.

3.13 WHEELS
Wheeled robots are robots that navigate around the ground using motorized wheels
to propel them. This design is simpler than using treads or legs and by using wheels they
are easier to design, build, and program for movement in flat, not-so-rugged terrain. They
are also better controlled than other types of robots. Disadvantages of wheeled robots are
that they cannot navigate well over obstacles, such as rocky terrain, sharp declines, or areas
with low friction. Wheeled robots are most popular among the consumer market; their
differential steering provides low cost and simplicity. Robots can have any number of
wheels, but three wheels are sufficient for static and dynamic balance. Additional wheels
can add to balance; however, additional mechanisms will be required to keep all the wheels
in the ground, when the terrain is not flat diameter wheels give the robot low torque but
high velocity. [6]
Types of wheels:
a) 2 wheeled Robot
b) 3 wheeled Robot
c) 4 wheeled Robot
d) 5 or more wheeled Robot
Here in the project, we use 4-wheeled robot.

4-Wheeled robot:
4-wheeled robots may be of two types: differentially steered or two wheels powered
by a single source and a powered steering for other two wheels. In the case of differentially
steered wheels, the robot direction may be changed by varying the relative rate of rotation
of the two separately driven wheels. If both the wheels are driven in the same direction and
speed, the robot will go straight. Otherwise, depending on the speed of rotation and its
direction, the center of rotation may fall anywhere in the line joining the wheels.
The center of gravity in this type of robot has to lay inside the triangle formed by the wheels.
It too heavy of a mass is mounted to the side of the free rotating wheel, the robot will tip
over.

Fig. 3.40 Wheels
Fig. 3.41 Axial rotation of wheels [6]
3.14 ACRYLIC SHEET
Acrylic sheet is a material with unique physical properties and performance

characteristics. It weighs half as much as the finest optical glass, yet is equal to it in clarity
and is up to 17 times more impact resistant. Cast acrylic sheet is made in over 250 colors,
in thicknesses from .030" to 4.25' and can transmit ultraviolet light or filter it out, as
required.
Aircraft manufacturers use Cast Acrylic sheet in jets and helicopters. Because of its
light and energy transmission properties architects find Cast acrylic sheet ideal for
skylights, sun screens, fascia panels and dome structures. [5]

Expansion and Contraction: Cast acrylic sheet responds to temperature changes by

expanding or contracting at a far greater rate than glass.
Fig. 3.42 Acrylic Sheet
Flexibility: Cast acrylic sheet is much more flexible than glass or many other building
materials. When using large sheets for windows, it is important that rabbets or channels be
deep enough to provide support against high winds.
Chemical Resistance: Cast acrylic sheet has excellent resistance to attack by many
chemicals. It is affected, in varying degrees, by benzene, toluene, carbon tetrachloride,
ethyl and methyl alcohol, lacquer thinners, ethers, ketones and esters.
Electrical Properties: Cast acrylic sheet is an excellent insulator. Its surface resistivity is
higher than that of most plastics.
Light Transmission: Colorless Cast acrylic sheet has a light transmittance of 92%. It is
clearer than window glass and will not turn yellow. Cast acrylic sheet is also available in a
large variety of transparent and translucent colors.
UV Light Resistance: Clear acrylic sheet resists ultraviolet light degradation. Each acrylic
sheet has a ten-year-limited warranty against yellowing and loss of light transmission.
Optical Clarity: Acrylic sheets have excellent light transmission. Clearer than glass! Will
not yellow after prolonged sun exposure.
Weather Resistance: Despite heat, cold, sunlight, and humidity acrylic sheet maintains its
original appearance and color.

Safety: Shatter-resistant, earthquake safe, and burglar-resistant. Increase safety with

windows glazed of acrylic.
Light Weight: Even with its strength and durability, acrylic sheet is only half the weight
of glass.
3.15 NUTS AND BOLTS OR SCREWS
A nut is a type of fastener with a threaded hole. Nuts are almost always used in
conjunction with a mating bolt to fasten multiple parts together. The two partners are kept
together by a combination of their threads friction, a slight stretching of the bolt,
and compression of the parts to be held together.
In applications where vibration or rotation may work a nut loose, various locking
mechanisms may be employed: lock washers, jam nuts, specialist adhesive thread locking
fluid such as Loctite, safety pins or lock wire in conjunction with castellated nuts, nylon
inserts (nylon), or slightly oval-shaped threads.
Square nuts, as well as bolt heads, were the first shape made and used to be the most
common largely because they were much easier to manufacture, especially by hand. While
rare today due to the reasons stated below for the preference of hexagonal nuts, they are
occasionally used in some situations when a maximum amount of torque and grip is needed
for a given size: the greater length of each side allows a spanner to be applied with a larger
surface area and more leverage at the nut.
The most common shape today is hexagonal, for similar reasons as the bolt head:
six sides give a good granularity of angles for a tool to approach from, but more corners
would be vulnerable to being rounded off. It takes only one sixth of a rotation to obtain the
next side of the hexagon and grip is optimal. However, polygons with more than six sides
do not give the requisite grip and polygons with fewer than six sides take more time to be
given a complete rotation. Other specialized shapes exist for certain needs, such as wing
nuts for finger adjustment and captive nuts for inaccessible areas.
A bolt is a form of threaded fastener with an external male thread. Bolts are closely
related to screws. A screw is a type of fastener, in some ways similar to a bolt, typically
made of metal, and characterized by a helical ridge, known as a male thread. Screws are
used to fasten materials by digging in and wedging into a material when turned, while the
thread cuts grooves in the fastened material that may help pull fastened materials together

and prevent pull-out. There are many screws for a variety of materials; those commonly
fastened by screws include wood, sheet metal, and plastic.
Fig. 3.43 Screws and Nuts

CHAPTER 04
SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

A software is a set of instructions and associated documentation that tells a

computer what to do or how to perform a task or it mean all the software on a computer,
including the applications and the operating system.
The software’s used in this project are Arduino IDE and an android application which is
used to send Bluetooth commands to the Bluetooth transceiver.
4.1 ARDUINO
The Arduino Integrated Development Environment (IDE) contains a text editor for
writing code, a massage, a text console, a toolbar with buttons for common functions and
a series of menus. It connects to the Arduino and Genuine hardware to upload programs
and communicate with arduino.
The software is also provided with general libraries which can be used within any
programs and provide extra functionality for use in sketches. The libraries can be included
in a program by the use of “#include” pre-processor directive. A list of libraries are
available in the library manager of Arduino. [7]
4.2 ARDUINO IDE
Arduino is a prototype platform based on an easy-to-use hardware and software. It
consists of a circuit board, which can be programed and ready-made software called
Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment), which is used to write and upload
the computer code to the physical board. [7]
The key features are:
 Arduino boards are able to read analog or digital input signals from different
sensors and turn it into an output such as activating a motor, turning LED
on/off, connect to the cloud and many other actions.
 You can control your board functions by sending a set of instructions to the
microcontroller on the board via Arduino IDE.
 Unlike most previous programmable circuit boards, Arduino does not need an
extra piece of hardware (called a programmer) in order to load a new code onto
the board. You can simply use a USB cable.

 Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified version of C++, making it

easier to learn to program. Finally, Arduino provides a standard form factor
that breaks the functions of the microcontroller into a more accessible package.
Fig. 4.1 Arduino IDE [7]
4.3 INSTALLATION OF ARDUINO IDE
How to set up the Arduino IDE on our computer and prepare the board to receive the
program via USB cable. [7]
Step 1:
First you must have your Arduino board and a USB cable. In case you use Arduino UNO,
Arduino Duemilanove, Nano, Arduino Mega 2560, or Diecimila, you will need a standard
USB cable (A plug to B plug), the kind you would connect to a USB printer as shown in
the following image.

Fig. 4.2 USB cable

Step 2: Download Arduino IDE Software.
You can get different versions of Arduino IDE from the Arduino Official Website.
You must select your software, which is compatible with your operating system (Windows,
IOS, or Linux). After your file download is complete, unzip the file [7].
Fig. 4.3 Arduino Zip file [7]

Step 3: Power up your board.
The Arduino Uno, Mega, Duemilanove and Arduino Nano automatically draw
power from either, the USB connection to the computer or an external power supply. If you
are using an Arduino Diecimila, you have to make sure that the board is configured to draw
power from the USB connection. The power source is selected with a jumper, a small piece
of plastic that fits onto two of the three pins between the USB and power jacks. Check that
it is on the two pins closest to the USB port.[7]
Connect the Arduino board to your computer using the USB cable. The green power LED
(Labelled PWR) should glow.
Step 4: Launch Arduino IDE.
After your Arduino IDE software is downloaded, you need to unzip the folder.
Inside the folder, you can find the application icon with an infinity label. Double-click the
icon to start the IDE
Fig. 4.4 Unzip Arduino files [7]

Step 5: Open your first project.
Once the software starts, you have two options:
 Create a new project.

 Open an existing project example
To create a new project, select File --> New
Fig. 4.5 Creating new project [7]
Step 6: Select your Arduino board.
To avoid any error while uploading your program to the board, you must select the
correct Arduino board name, which matches with the board connected to your computer.
Go to Tools -> Board and select your board [7]

CHAPTER 5
FLOWCHAR AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

5.1 FLOWCHART
Fig. 5.1 Flowchart

5.2 CIRCUIT DIAGAM
Fig. 5.2 Circuit Diagram
EXPLANATION
The above figure 5.2 refers to the circuit diagram and the working of this robot is as follows.
 Firstly, the switch of the battery is turned ON to activate the robot and then the
program is loaded into the processor.
 Then later, when we make any gestures like moving our elbow joints up and down,
then by the help of potentiometers connected to the elbow joints, the slider of the
potentiometer rotates and this cause a variation in resistance.
 The variations in resistance are sent to arduino atmega 2560 through wires which
then rotates the servo motor in particular angle accordingly by using a map function
which maps the analog potentiometer values to angle values for servo motor.
 Thus, when the servo motors rotate, the mechanism is in such a way that it lifts the
robotic arms connected to the servo motors.
 When we need to lift some heavy objects, we take the help of joystick module which
helps us to close and open the grippers which indirectly means rotates the mini servo
motor in particular angle by which the grippers open and close by which holding of
objects is done.

 While the grippers are holding the objects, we can once again move our elbows by
which lifting of arms will be performed and then the objects are lifted.
 With the help of joystick module, we can drive the motors and the robot can be
carried to anywhere we want and can place the objects.
 The main application of this robot finds in industries where the lifting of heavy
objects can take place. For example, in cargo loading and un-loading.

CHAPTER 6
RESULTS

Fig. 6.1 Robot Prototype
The above figure 6.1 refers to the final output of the robot. We can observe all the
connections are made as per the circuit diagram (refer 5.2). We can observe that a
Potentiometer is connected to Servo motor which controls the Servo motor only when
Potentiometer varies according with hand movement an object. The Joystick is used to
control the direction of robot and Movement.
Fig. 6.2 Robot Body Parts

The above figure 6.2 refers to the Acrylic Sheet and the materials required for
building body parts of the robot are shown. For more information about Materials refer
Chapter 3.

CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION

7.1 ADVANTAGES
• This robot will not have any delay in sending the commands from sensor because
of wired communication. The existing system has delay as a drawback.
7.2 APPLICATIONS
• This robot will help to lift heavy objects which cannot be lifted by humans.
7.3 CONCLUSION
• Finally, our robot helps to lift the heavy objects which cannot be lifted by normal
people by mimicking the actions made by us.
• This robot can be easily controlled or driven to where ever required with ease
because it is controlled by joystick.
7.4 FUTURE SCOPE
• This robot can be further extended by adding a GPS sensor by which the robot can
go fully wire-less.
• By creating algorithms which automatically tells the robot to lift the objects and
place them in particular order when a destination or a source is reached.
7.5 REFERENCES
[1]. WWW.Robolab technologies.in
[2]. Jin Xu, Guang Chen and Ming Xie School of Mechanical & Production
Engineering Nanyang Technological University.
[3]. Sandhya Devi, R.S. Dr. Vijay Kumar, V.R. and Sridevi, international journal
of current research.
[4]. Su Naing Myint, Min Min Oo, International Journal of Industrial Electronics
and ElectricalEngineering, Volume-4, Issue-12(Dec, 2016).
[5]. Dr. Rohini R. Mergu1 Netra R. Kurle2 Malakavva C. Tellur3 Chetana
S.Kshirsagar4 International Journal for Scientific Research & Development| Vol.
5, Issue 02, 2017 | ISSN(online): 2321-0613.

[6]. Harmeet Singh, Chetan Anand, Vinay Kumar, Ankit Sharma international
journal of engineering and computer science Issue: Vol 3 No 05(2014).
[7]. Jahnvi nimble, priyanka bhegade, snehal surve, priya chaugule International
Journal of Advances in Electronics and Computer Science, ISSN: 2393-2835
Volume-3, Issue-3, Mar.-2016.
[8]. R.Kannadasan, A.Krishnamoorthy, N.PrabakaranK.Naresh, V.Vijayarajan,
G.Sivashanmugam School of Computing Science and Engineering, Vellore
Institute of Technology.

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Bio-mimetic Portable Robotic Arms

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, GNIT 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS

But what exactly is a robot?

As strange as it might seem, there really is no standard definition for a robot.

A robot has these essential characteristics:

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Well it is a system that contains sensors, control systems, manipulators, power

1.2 APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTICS

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 Cobots (collaborative robots).

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1.3 EXISTING SYSTEM

1) H. S. Yoon, J. Soh, Y. J. Bae and H. S. Yang, “Hand gesture recognition using

1.4 PROPOSED SYSTEM

Fig. 1.1 Proposed System

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2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig. 2.1 Block Diagram

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3.1 ARDUINO ATMEGA 2560

Fig. 3.1 Arduino Atmega 2560

3.1.1 Product Overview

The Arduino Mega 2560 is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega2560

● Microcontroller: Microchip ATmega2560

● Operating Voltage: 5 Volt

● Input Voltage: 7 to 20 Volts

● Digital I/O Pins: 54 (of which 15 provide PWM output)

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● Analog Input Pins: 16

● DC Current per I/O Pin: 40 mA

● DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA

● Flash Memory: 256 KB of which 8 KB used by bootloader

● Clock Speed: 16 MHz

Fig. 3.2 Arduino Pinout

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The power pins are as follows:

3.1.6 Input and Output

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of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip.

in the same location as the I2C pins on the Duemilanove.

There are a couple of other pins on the board:

The Arduino Mega2560 has a number of facilities for communicating with a

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Mega2560. While it is programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an

3.1.10 Physical Characteristics and Shield Compatibility:

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3.2 ARDUINO SHIELD

Fig.3.3 Arduino shield

3.2.1 Shield Form Factor

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3.2.2 Applications of Arduino Shield

Fig.3.4 Servo Motor Working Principle

3.3.1 Types of Servo Motor

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3.3.2 DC Servo Motor

Fig.3.5 DC Servo Motor

3.3.3 AC Servo Motor

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Fig.3.6 AC Servo Motor

3.3.4 Positional Rotation Servo Motor