Radio Wave Propagation: Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves when

they are transmitted, or propagated from one point on the Earth to another, or into
various parts of the atmosphere.
When dealing with radio signals, Transmission –Reception takes 3 forms:
•Line of Sight
•Ground Wave
•Sky-Wave

What are the factors that affect the propagation of radio waves? [17] 3
Write down the various factors influencing the magnitudes of the space and
surface waves. [14] 4
The magnitude of the space wave and surface wave both are influenced by the
following factors:
i) The resistivity and dielectric constant of the earth.
ii) The frequency of the wave
iii) The height of the transmitting and receiving antennas
iv) The earth’s curvature
v) The distance between the transmitting and receiving antennas.
vi) The variation of refractive index of earth’s atmosphere with height.
Briefly describe the variation of electron density with height in the ionosphere
during day and night time. [17] 4
What is ionosphere? Describe various ionized layers. [14] 6
Ionosphere: The upper part of the atmosphere where ionization is appreciable is
known as ionosphere. The ionized region consists of free electron positive ions and
negative ions.
Characteristics of Different Ionized Region:
D-region:
D-region is the lower-most region of the ionosphere and is located in the height range
of 50 to 90 km. this layer is present only during the day light hours and disappears
at night because the recombination rate is highest. The ionization density is
maximum at noon and its electron density is ranging from 104 to 106 per cube
centimeter.
Normal E-region: E-region lies just above the D-region in the height range of 90 to
140 km. E-region is densely ionized which acts as mirror for turning em waves back
to earth by reflection or refraction. During night hours E-region remains weekly
ionized and during day light hours its heights remains practically constant. The day
to day variation are not much. The electron density of E-region ranges from
105 𝑡𝑜 4.5 × 105 during day and from 5 × 103 𝑡𝑜 104 at night. It is maximum at
noon in summer and increases with increased solar activity. E-layer is most useful
layer for long distance radio propagation during day light hours.
Sporadic E-region (𝑬𝒔 ):
Besides more stable regions like 𝐷, 𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 in the ionosphere there exists an
anomalous ionization termed as sporadic E-region (𝐸𝑠 ). Presence of 𝐸𝑠 -region is
very much irregular. The occurrence of 𝐸𝑠 layer is quite unpredictable and it may be
observed both in day and night hours.
𝑭𝟏 , 𝑭𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑭 Region or Appleton:
The region of the ionosphere lying between 140 km to 400 km from earth surface is
called F-region or layer. It is the uppermost ionized region and is the only region
which always remain ionized irrespective of hours of day or seasons of the years.
F-layer facilitates long distance sky wave propagation of radio signals during night
hours. During day, sometimes after sunrise, the F-region is found to split up into two
layers called 𝐹1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹2 .
𝐹1 is the uppermost region situated height range of 140 to 250 km. its behavior is
like 𝐸-region (normal). The electron density ranges from 2 × 105 𝑡𝑜 4.5 × 105 . 𝐹1 -
layer follows Chapman’s law.
𝐹2 is the uppermost region situated height range of 250 km to 400 km in the day
having highest electron density of all the ionospheric layers. If falls to 300km at
night where it combines with 𝐹1 layer.
The electron density of 𝐹2 layer is ranging from 3 × 105 𝑡𝑜 2 × 106 . 𝐹2 -layer does
not follow Chapman’s law.
G-Region:
The upper limit of the ionosphere is not known but region further away from 400km
is known as “G-region”.
What is meant by fading of radio signal? Explain different types of fading. [17] 3
What happens to signals higher in frequency than the critical frequency of F2 layer?
[17] 1
Mention the types of radio wave propagation. Prove that in ionosphere,
𝒇𝒄 = √𝟖𝟏𝑵𝒎 . where the parameters have their usual meanings. [16] 4
Why radio wave bents downwards while propagating through ionosphere? [15]3
𝟖𝟏𝑵
Deduce the expression of refractive index of ionized region 𝝁 = √(𝟏 − ) [11]
𝒇𝟐
Explain why radio wave bends downward from ionospheric layer. [11]

When an electromagnetic waves passes through the ionosphere, the electric field of
the wave exerts a force on the electrons in the ionosphere. The electrons then
oscillate sinusoidally along path parallel to the electric field of the wave, thus
constituting an a.c. current proportional to the velocity of vibration.

Let an electric field of value

𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 volts/meter … … … . . . . (1)
is acting a cubic meter of space in the ionosphere.
Force on each electron is,
𝐹 = −𝑞𝑒 newton … … … … … … … . … … (2)
𝑑𝑣
⇒ 𝑚 = −𝑞𝑒
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
⇒ 𝑚∫ 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑞∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑞
⇒ 𝑣 = − ∫ 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑚
𝑞𝐸𝑚
⇒ 𝑣=− (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡)
𝑚𝜔
𝑞
⇒ 𝑣=( ) 𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 … … … … … … . . … . (3)
𝑚𝜔 𝑚

If 𝑁 be the number of electron (electron density) per cubic meter, then the
instantaneous current constituted by these 𝑁 electrons moving with instantaneous
velocity 𝑣 is given by
𝑖𝑖 = −𝑞𝑣𝑁
 𝑁𝑞 2
⇒ 𝑖𝑖 = − ( ) 𝐸𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 … … … … … . . … . (4)
𝑚𝜔
Which shows this current 𝑖𝑖 lags behind the electric field 𝑒 = (𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡) by 90°.
Besides this inductive current, there is usual capacitive current 𝑖𝑐 .
𝑑
𝑖𝑐 = (𝜖0 𝑒)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
⇒ 𝑖𝑐 = 𝜖0 (𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡
⇒ 𝑖𝑐 = 𝜖0 𝐸𝑚 𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 … … … … … … . (5)
The total current 𝑖 that flows through a cubic meter of space is given by,
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑖𝑐
𝑁𝑞 2
⇒ 𝑖 = 𝜔 [𝜖0 − ] 𝐸𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 … … … … … . . (6)
𝑚𝜔 2
The effective value of dielectric constant, in accordance with Eqn. (6), is given by
𝑁𝑞 2
𝜖 = [𝜖0 − ] … … … … … … … . (7)
𝑚𝜔 2
The refractive index of ionized region is given by,
𝜇 = √𝜖𝑟 … … … … … … … … … … … . . (8)
Where 𝜖𝑟 is the relative dielectric constant w.r.t. vacuum or air.
𝜖
𝜇=√
𝜖0

𝑁𝑞 2
⇒ 𝜇 = √[1 − ] … … … … (9) [using Eqn. (7)]
𝜖0 𝑚𝜔 2
Substituting the values of 𝑞, 𝑚 and 𝜖0 we get,
81𝑁
𝜇 = √[1 − ] … … … … … … . (10)
𝑓2

Where, 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 in KHz, 𝑁 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 in electrons/cc

Study of Eqn. (10) shows that, real values of refractive index will always be less
than unity. The deviation on the refractive index from unity increases as the
electron density 𝑁 increases and as the frequency 𝑓 reduces.
If 𝑓 2 < 81𝑁, then the refractive index becomes imaginary which means under
such condition the radio waves are attenuated at this frequency and ionosphere is
not able to transmit or bend the radio wave.

The phase velocity of a radio wave in its travel through an ionized layer is
inversely proportional to the square root of the dielectric constant.

𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = … … … . (11)
𝜇 𝜇
Hence, the phase velocity in ionosphere is always greater than the velocity of light.
The edge of the wave front lying in the region of higher electron density advances
faster than the remaining part of the wavefront lying in the region of lower electron
density. The path of travel of the wave, being normal to the wavefront, therefore
bends.

If 𝑁𝑚 is the maximum electron density of an ionospheric layer, for vertical

incidence the highest frequency that can be reflected back by the ionosphere is one
for which refractive index 𝜇 becomes zero.
81𝑁𝑚
0 = √[1 − ]
𝑓𝑐2
∴ 𝑓𝑐 = √81𝑁𝑚 … … … … … … … (12)

Discuss in brief, the principle of ground wave propagation. [16] 4

Discuss in brief, round the clock electron density variation of earth's atmosphere
with increasing height. [16] 3
Define: -i) Virtual height, ii) Critical frequency. [15] 2
Virtual Height: The virtual height is the height that a wave would reach if it
travelled with the speed of light in a straight line through the ionosphere and was
then reflected as though from a mirrorlike surface.
𝑐𝑇
𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, ℎ =
2
Critical Frequency: The Critical frequency of an ionized layer is the highest
frequency that is reflected by the layer at vertical incidence.

Explain Chapman theory of layer formation. [15] 6

Why radio wave bents downwards while propagating through ionosphere? [15] 3
Write down the various factors influencing the magnitudes of the space and surface
waves. [14] 4
What is ionosphere? Describe various ionized layers. [14] 6
What is skip distance? [14] 1
Skip Distance: The minimum distance from the transmitter at which a sky wave of
given frequency is returned to earth by the ionosphere is called “skip distance”.
For flat earth, skip distance is given by,
𝑓𝑀𝑈𝐹 2
𝐷𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑝 = 2ℎ√( ) −1
𝑓𝑐
Describe the various types of radio wave propagation. [13] 5
Types of Radio Wave Propagation:
Propagation of radio waves from the radiating antenna to the receiving antenna
may take place in one of the following ways.
1. Ground Wave Propagation
(i) Surface wave propagation
(ii) Space wave propagation (Tropospheric propagation)
2. Sky Wave Propagation
Ground Wave Propagation:
A ground wave can be divided into two components- a surface wave and a space
wave.
Surface wave propagation:
A surface wave is a wave that is guided along the surface of the earth and around
its bends and curvature. It is vertically polarized i.e. electric field vectors of e.m.
waves are vertical w.r.t. ground. Ground wave / surface wave propagation is
strongest at the Low and Medium frequency ranges (30KHz to 3 MHz range).
Space wave propagation (Tropospheric propagation):
The space wave is that part of the radio wave which travels from the transmitting
antenna to the receiving antenna through the space i.e. the earths troposphere.
(Troposphere is a portion of earth’s atmosphere extending upto first 15km from the
earth’s surface). The space wave consists of two components namely (i) the direct
wave and (ii) the ground reflected wave. Space wave propagation is used for
frequencies above 30 MHz (i.e. for television, frequency modulation broadcast
etc.) (VHF, UHF and Microwaves).
Sky Wave Propagation:
A sky wave signal is one that is radiated by the antenna into the upper atmosphere
where it is bent or reflected back to the earth. The bending of the signal is caused
by a region in the upper atmosphere known as the ionosphere. Such a propagation
of radio wave is called “Sky Wave Propagation” or “Ionospheric Propagation”.
The em waves of frequency lower than 3MHz, are not transmitted through
ionosphere whereas waves of frequency higher than 3MHz will be sent back to the
earth. Frequencies much higher than 3MHz penetrate the ionosphere and thus are
unaffected by the ionosphere. (Sky wave propagation range is 2 MHz - 30MHz).
(Ionosphere situated between 50km to 400km above earth surface).

Why the surface wave is vertically polarized?

As a surface wave passes over the ground, the wave induces a voltage in the Earth.
The induced voltage takes energy away from the surface wave, thereby weakening,
or attenuating, the wave as it moves away from the transmitting antenna. To reduce
the attenuation, the amount of induced voltage must be reduced. This is done by
using vertically polarized waves that minimize the extent to which the electric field
of the wave is in contact with the Earth. When a surface wave is horizontally
polarized, the electric field of the wave is parallel with the surface of the Earth and,
therefore, is constantly in contact with it. The wave is then completely attenuated
within a short distance from the transmitting site. On the other hand, when the
surface wave is vertically polarized, the electric field is vertical to the Earth and
merely dips into and out of the Earth's surface. For this reason, vertical polarization
is vastly superior to horizontal polarization for surface wave propagation.

----------------------------------------
The surface wave is vertically polarized because horizontal electric field
components, being in contact with earth, suffer energy losses and thus at any
considerably distance from antenna, only the vertical component of the field is left.
If the surface wave is horizontally polarized, then the attenuation will be higher
than vertically polarized wave.
Give a brief idea on Sommerfeld equation. [13] 4
What do you mean by virtual height and critical frequency of an ionospheric layer?
[13] 2
Define the terms used in radio wave propagation: [11]
(i) Super refraction
(ii) Duet propagation
Discuss the classification of radio wave propagation. [11]
𝟖𝟏𝑵
Deduce the expression of refractive index of ionized region 𝝁 = √(𝟏 − ) [11]
𝒇𝟐
Explain why radio wave bends downward from ionospheric layer. [11]
Explain single hop and multihop transmission. [11]

When electromagnetic wave travels from one place to another place it shows some
common behavior. Such as:
It obeys Inverse square law
1
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝
(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)2

power density = electric field intensity or strength × magnetic field intensity or strength

Electric field intensity is inversely proportional to the distance

1
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

➢ At the source (transmitting antenna), the magnitude of two components of

em wave are equal i.e. the magnitude of electric field and magnetic field are
equal.
➢ At the far field, the relative magnitude of two components of em wave are
equal i.e. the relative magnitude of electric field and magnetic field are
equal.
 Ranges of Radio Waves
BAND Frequency Wavelength
100 km- 10 km
VLF 3 KHz -30 KHz

LF 30 KHz -300 KHz

Radio Frequency
(RF)

MF 300 KHz - 3MHz

HF 3MHz – 30 MHz

VHF 30 MHz – 300 MHz

UHF 300 MHz – 3 GHz

Microwaves

SHF 3 GHz- 30 GHz

Millimeter- EHF 30 GHz-300 GHz

wave
Waves below 300 MHz are often called radio frequency (RF) waves. Ultrahigh
frequency (UHF) and superhigh frequency (SHF) waves (300 MHz to 30 GHz) are
called microwaves. Often the boundary between RF waves and microwaves is set to
1 GHz. The microwave range is further subdivided into bands according to
waveguide bands, as shown in Table 1.2. Extremely high frequency (EHF) range is
called the millimeter-wave range and the frequency range from 300 GHz to 3,000
GHz the submillimeter-wave range.

When Electromagnetic waves travel from one place to another place, they show
these common behaviors:
Radio propagation is a term used to explain how radio waves behave when they are transmitted,
or are propagated from one point on the Earth to another.
In free space, all electromagnetic waves (radio, light, X-rays, etc.) obey the inverse-square law
which states that “the power density of an electromagnetic wave is proportional to the inverse of
the square of is the distance from the source.”
1
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝
(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)2

1
𝜌𝑃 ∝
𝑑2

The far-field magnitudes of the electric and magnetic field components of electromagnetic
radiation are equal, and their field strengths are inversely proportional to distance.
The power density per surface unit is proportional to the product of the two field strengths.

Why the electron density in Ionosphere is not uniform/ why Ionosphere is

stratified:
The ionization in the ionosphere is not uniform throughout but is stratified i.e. in the
form of layers.
This stratification results because of differences in the chemical composition and
physical properties of the atmosphere at the different heights and also unequal
abilities of different gases in absorbing solar radiations of different frequencies.

✓ Earth is considered as almost Semiconducting materials.

 ✓ Extremely high frequency is used in Line of sight communication/ Direct
communication. [e.g. SHF, EHF]
✓ Very low frequency is used in surface communication
✓ For space wave propagation, the phase difference between direct component
& reflected component should be low as much as possible.

Reactance
Reactance is the property of resisting or impeding the flow of ac current or ac
voltage in inductors and capacitors. Note particularly we speak of alternating
current only ac, which expression includes audio af and radio frequencies rf. NOT
direct current dc.This leads to inductive reactance and capacitive reactance.
Reactance
Resonance
Resonance occurs when the reactance of an inductor balances the reactance of a
capacitor at some given frequency. In such a resonant circuit where it is in series
resonance, the current will be maximum and offering minimum impedance. In
parallel resonant circuits the opposite is true.