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SYLLABUS
BA9227 BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS
UNIT – I INTRODUCTION 9
Business Research – Definition and Significance – the research process – Types of
Research – Exploratory and causal Research – Theoretical and empirical Research
– Cross –Sectional and time – series Research – Research questions / Problems –
Research objectives – Research hypotheses – characteristics – Research in an
evolutionary perspective – the role of theory in research.
RESEARCH 9
Research report – Different types – Contents of report – need of executive
summary chapterization – contents of chapter – report writing – the role of
audience – readability –comprehension – tone – final proof – report format –
title of the report – ethics in research –ethical behaviour of research – subjectivity
and objectivity in research.
TOTAL:45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS
RESEARCH TYPES
1. Basic Vs Applied:
Basic means the investigation of problems to further and develop existing
knowledge. It is mainly concerned with generalization and formulation of
theories. Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed basic research. E.g.
Physics, astronomy. Similarly, studying the behavior of individual to make some
generalization about their social learning, memory pattern, and intelligence level
are also examples of fundamental research.
5. Laboratory research:
The emphasis in laboratory research is on controlling certain variables in such
as to observe the relationship between two or three other variables.
7. Exploratory research :
The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypothesis
rather than their testing. The major emphasis is on the discovery of ideas and
insights. It is more flexible and highly informal.
8. Historical research :
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9. Panel Research
Panel methods are broader than descriptive than descriptive research.
These methods are normally used in sales forecasting by measuring consumer
preferences for various products measuring audience size and character for
media programmes, testing new products and product concepts and testing any
variable in a firm’s marketing mix. Generally the survey is valid for one time
period, which is known as study period and they do not reflect changes
occurring over time.
RESEARCH PROCESS
Review of Literature
Developing Hypothesis
Research Design
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Sample Design
Data Collection
Analysis of Data
Hypothesis Testing
Interpretation
Report Preparation
1. Review Of Literature
It is a stage in which the researcher makes himself familiar with all the
previous studies and their findings relevant to his field of work. He learns the
methodology and approach developed by these past studies. He evaluates the
conclusion of the previous studies in the light of the data he has collected. He
questions these conclusions and tries to develop the alternative, possible better
conclusions.
3. Research Design
Research design is a description of conceptual structure within which
the research will be conducted. Here the researcher indicates the method of
data collection the skills at the command of the researcher, the execution plan
collection of data, the time and other resources available the financial
implication etc,
4. Sample Design
The researcher has to make a careful selection of a few elements from
the population and then study them intensely and reach conclusion, which can
be safely applied to the population. The selection of sample is a very important
task. The researcher should determine the size of sample, the method of
sampling, the test of sample etc.
5. Collecting Data
The researcher at this stage should clearly spell out the sources of data
for his work. He could use both primary as well as secondary data. While the
former refers to the data collected for the first time by the researcher himself
from the informants or the sample respondents specifically for his work. The
latter means the data already, published or unpublished & available for use.
The quality of data collected will ultimately decide the findings of the research
work and so the researcher should arrange for surprise checks and controls
over the collection of field data.
6. Analysis Of data:
Once the data are collected they should be classified and tabulated.
Then the analysis of the data should be undertaken. At this stage, the
researcher should select the tools of analysis, which are consistent with the
objectives of the study. The tendency to carry out irrelevant analysis should be
avoided. He should be strong in reasoning, drawing inferences and reaching
conclusions.
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7. Testing Hypothesis:
After analyzing the data as stated above the researcher is in a position
to test the hypothesis, if any he had formulated earlier. Statistician has
developed various tests such as chisquare test, t-test, F- test for the purpose.
The hypothesis may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests,
depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. The test result may
result in either accepting the hypothesis to start with , generalization
established on the basis of data may be stated as hypothesis to be tested by
subsequent researches in time to come.
9. Report Preparation:
Finally the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done
by him. Writing of report must be done with great care. The report should
clearly indicate the justification of the study, period of study, sample size,
sources of data, tools of analysis, bibliography, review of past studies etc. It
should also have a separate chapter on results and discussions where the
researcher would report all his findings and give his interpretations. Care
should be taken to incorporate relevant tables, diagrammed etc at the
appropriate places.
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts
be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to
permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement,
keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield
results that are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural
design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance
and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
6. Conclusion should be confined to those justified by the data of the research
and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced
has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
HYPOTHESIS
• It is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be
tested. At the elementary level it may be mere hunch, guess, and
imaginative data, which becomes the basis for action or investigation.
– Lundberg
CHARACTERISTIC OF HYPOTHESIS
• Clarity:
The hypothesis must be conceptually clear. When the researcher attempts to
establish relationship among various facts and translates these relationships into
concepts he succeeds in formulating the hypothesis. Hence when a hypothesis is
conceptually clear it provides a clear direction to the researcher.
• Specific:
The hypothesis should be very specific and not a general statement. It should
not be ambiguous and it should be clearly stated. It is wiser to construct a hypothesis
in simple language than resorting to flowery and confusing terminology.
• Testable:
It should be testable with the available technique of analysis. Even while
formulating a researcher should ascertain the relevant techniques with which it could
be tested.
• Linked To Theory
Hypothesis should facilitate establishing relationship with a body of theory.
Therefore when the hypothesis is formulated the researcher should conform whether it
is related to any existing theory or not.
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• Consistent
It should be consistent with a most known facts ie it must be consistent with a
substantial body of established facts. It should be one which judges accept as being
the most likely.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS:
• Crude Hypothesis:
A crude hypothesis is formed to initiate the process of research. When the
researcher is commencing his research work he needs some guidelines or focus. For
this purpose he might develop a hypothesis based on the available evidence or data.
• Refined hypothesis:
Hypothesis that state the existence of empirical uniformities, hypothesis that are
concerned with complex ideal types and hypothesis that are concerned with complex
ideal types and hypothesis that are concerned with the relation of analytical variables.
• Working hypothesis
It is formed in the process of verifying the relationship among various variables
included in research. It provides useful guideline to the researcher in determining the
nature of data to be collected, volume of data required, the sample technique to be
used analytical tools to be selected etc.
• Statistical hypothesis
Statistical hypothesis are those, which are formulated based on the sample data
or facts. They serve the usual purpose of testing any expected relationship among
variables. Once these hypotheses are tested or verified the conclusion about the
population is drawn.
• Null hypothesis
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• Alternative hypothesis
It is a statement, which is accepted after the null hypothesis is rejected based on
the test results.
After deciding the level of significance the next step in hypothesis testing is to
determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The choice generally remains
between normal distribution and the t-distribution.
SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS
RESEARCH DESIGN
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis
of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure. In fact the research design is the conceptual structure within
which research is conducted. it constitutes the blueprint for the collection
measurement and analysis of data. In keeping the above stated design decisions one
may split the overall research design into the following parts;
1. The sampling design: Which deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study.
2. The above observational design: which relates to the conditions under which the
observation is to be made?
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3. The statistical Design: which concerns with the question of how many items are to
be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed.
4. The operational design : which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling , statistical and observational design can be carried out.
research problem in its historical perspective. It must state the need for studying it.
Statement Of the problem: The research problem should be defined pointing out its
core nature and its importance. The issue relating to the problem may also be stated.
This statement gives direction to the research process.
Review Of previous studies: There may be previous studies on the selected theme.
A review of available literature will bring out information on them. The primary
aspects of those studies may be briefly described and the gaps pointed out.
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Scope of the study: A complete study of any problem is well high non- manageable,
since it would entail an overwhelming mountain of data. Therefore the scope and
dimension of the study should be delimited with reference to the topical scope- breath
and depth, geographical area to be covered , reference period , the type of institution
Objective Of the study: The specific objectives of the study should be stated clearly.
These refer to the questions to which the researcher proposes to seek answers through
the study.
Conceptual model: This section is the heart of the research plan. This is where the
researcher formulates and develops the structure of relationship among the variables
he is investigating.
Hypothesis: These are logically deduced from the theoretical framework above. They
refer to the anticipated outcome or possible answers to the research questions. they
should be conceptually clear , specific and simple.
Operational definition OF concepts: The major concepts used in the title of the study ,
its objectives , the investigative questions and the hypothesis should be identified.
Each of them should be defined in operational terms pertinent to the measurement
criteria or operations.
The significance of the study: It is important to point out the relevance and
significance of the investigation. A careful statement of the value of the study and the
possible applications of its findings helps to justify its importance and social
relevance.
Reference Period: This depends on the nature of the study and availability of data.
The period should be longer- say five or 10 years – if the study aims to make a trend
analysis of an activity like production or sale or profitability.
Sampling Plan: If the study requires collecting primary data from the field the
universe must be deliberated, and the methods of sampling to be used for drawing the
sample from the universe and the sample size must be stated.
Tools for gathering data; In this section the tools to be used for gathering data-
interview schedule /guide , questionnaire or check list etc. are listed and each of them
described. the tools chosen should be appropriate to the methods to be adopted for
gathering data.
Plan of Analysis: The statistical techniques proposed for data collection and analysis
should be explained clearly with its suitability in the research.
Time budget: The time period required for each stage of work and the total time
duration of the study are specified.
Financial Budget:
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The should include an estimate of the expected costs of the project under major
categories like salary, printing and stationary , postages , travel expenses ,
computation , secretarial & typing.
Exploratory Studies:
The major purpose of exploratory studies are: the identification of problems , the
more precise formulation of problems and the formulation of new alternative courses
of action. The design of exploratory studies is characteristics by great flexibility and
ad-hoc versatility. By definition the researcher is involved in investigating an area or
subject about which he or she is not sufficiently knowledgeable to have formulated
detailed research questions and /or to state hypothesis about it. In short the researcher
seeks to gain familiarity and /or achieve new insights into the problems situation. For
a given problem the results of an exploratory study may indicate that further research
can be reduced and /or certain aspects of the larger study can be eliminated. An
exploratory study is conducted in the following situations;
To design a problem for investigation & to formulate hypothesis
To determine the priorities for further research.
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Descriptive Studies:
Descriptive research design is concerned with the research studies with a focus
on the portrayal of the characteristics of a group or individual or a situation. The main
objective of such studies is to acquire knowledge. For example to identify the use of a
product to various groups a research study may be undertaken to question whether the
use varies with income, age, sex, or any other characteristics of population. Similarly
such studies are used to examine the characteristics of the corporate sector or
consumer behavior etc.
Descriptive research is a marked by the prior formulation of specific research
question. The investigator already knows a substantial amount about the research
problem, perhaps as a result of an exploratory study before the project is initiated.
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Thus the investigator should be able to define clearly what it is that he or she wants to
measure and to set up appropriate and specific means for measuring it.
• Ability Of researcher: Not every researcher is gifted with all the qualities
required for conducting good research. A study which is highly analytical
would call for knowledge about the analytical tools and the interpretation
ability. Similarly an experimental research would require a special
temperament. Hence depending upon the potential and ability of the researcher
the research design would be prepared.
UNIT – II
Advantage:
1. The researcher can manipulates the independent variable
2. Control group serves as a comparison to assess the existence and potency of the
manipulation.
3. The contamination from extraneous variable can be controlled more effectively.
4. The convenience and cost of experimentation are superior to other methods.
5. The experimenter can assemble combination of variables for testing .
6. Repeating an experiment with different subject group and condition is possible.
7. Researcher can use naturally occurring events.
Disadvantages:
1. The laboratory experiment is artificial
2. Generalisation from non-probability samples can poses problems.
3. The experimentation can outrun the budget.
4. It is mostly effectively targeted at present or immediate future problems.
5. It is concerned with the study of people.
6. There is limits to the types of manipulation and control that are ethical.
CONDUCTING AN EXPERIMENT:
In this step researcher will a) Select variable that are the best
operational concepts. b) Determine how many variables to test c ) Select or
design appropriate measures for them.
VALIDITY IN EXPERIMENTATION:
Validity refers to the extent to which the conclusions drawn from the
are true experiment
I- Internal validity :
Refers to the extend to which the research design accurately identifies casual
relationship.
a) History
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When extraneous factors that enter the experiment process between the first
and later manipulation affect measure of the dependent variable.
b) Maturation :
Changes in the dependent variable based on the natural function of time and
not attributed to any specific event.
c) Testing
When learned understanding gained from the first treatment and measure of
the dependent variable distort future treatment and measurement activities.
d) Instrumentation :
Contamination from changes in measurement processes observation technique
and measuring instruments
e) Selection Bias:
Contamination created by inappropriate selection or assignment process of
test subject to experimental treatment groups
f) Statistical Regression:
Contamination created when experiment group are selected on the basis of
their extreme response or scores.
g) Mortality :
Contamination due to changing the composition of the test subjects in the
experiment.
h) Ambiguity :
Contamination from unclear determination of cause effect relationship
II - External Validity :
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Refer to the extent to which a casual relationship found in a study can be expected
to be true for the entire target population.
a) Treatment Vs Treatment
When test subject in different treatment groups are exposed to different amount of
manipulations.
b) Treatment Vs Testing
When the premeasurement process sensitizes test subject to respond in an
abnormal manner to treatment manipulation.
c) Treatment Vs Selection
Generalising the results to other categories of people beyond those used in the
experiment
d) Treatment Vs Setting
Generalising the results to other environment beyond the one used in the
experiment.
e) Treatment Vs History
Using the existing functional relationship to predict future phenomenon
outcomes.
Refers to the extent to which the variables under investigation are completely
and accurately identified prior to hypothesizing any functional relationships.
a) Inadequate pre-operationalization of variable
Contamination due to inadequate understanding of the complete make-up of the
independent and dependent variable included in the experimental design.
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c) Mano-method bias
Contamination due to assessing multi-attribute treatment manipulation using
single item measuring instrument.
d) Hypothesis –guessing
Contamination by test subject believing they know the desired functional
relationship relationship prior to the manipulation treatment.
e) Evaluation Apprehension:
Contamination caused by test subjects being fearful that their actions or response
will become known to others.
f) Demand Characteristic:
Contamination created by test subjects trying behind the experiment thus
abnormal socially acceptable responses or behaviour.
g) Diffusion Of treatment
Contamination due to test subject discussing the treatment and measurement
activities with individual yet to receive the treatment.
a) Principle of Replication :
According to this principle the experiment should be repeated more than once.
So each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By this
statistical accuracy of the experiment can be increased. This aims for increase in
accuracy with which effects and interactions can be estimated.
b) Principle of Randomisation
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Training Effect = Y- X
Training Effect = Y- Z
Level of Level of
Performance No Training Performance [Z]
Control Group
[A]
In previous design extraneous variable was not controlled . But in this method
the effect of such variable are minimized by providing a number of repetitions for
each treatment. Each repetition is technically called a replications. In this design
sample is taken randomly from the population available to conduct experiments and
randomly assigned to four experimental & four control groups. Generally equal
number of items are put in each group so that the size of the group is not likely to
affect the results of the study. Due to repetitions the results are more reliable and
population differences is also reduced as it is randomized.
Population Population
Random Selection
Random Selection
Sample
Random assignment
Group 1 E
Group 2 E
Group 3 E
Group 4 E
Group 5 C
Group 6 C
Group 7 C
Group 8 C
Very Low Very Low Very Low Very Low Very Low
I.Q I.Q I.Q I.Q I.Q
Student A B C D E
Form 1
Form 2
Form 3
Form 4
Form 5
I II III IV V
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
Fertility Level
7) Factorial Design
It is used in experiment where the effects of varying than one factor be
determined.
are assigned at random to each treatment just like Random design. Means of different
cells represent the mean scores for the dependent variable. The column means
represent the effect for treatments without taking in account of control variable. The
row means represent the effect for levels without regard to treatment. Thus we can
study the main effect of treatments as well as the main effect of levels. It is also
possible to examine the interactions between treatment and levels, whether they are
independent of each other nor they are not so.
Training
Training
40 B
A
30
20
10
A B
Experimental Variable
Treatment A Treatment B
C.V. 2 C.V. 2 C.V. 2 C.V. 2
Level 1 Level 2 Level 1 Level 2
Control Level I
Variable Level II
MEASUREMENT
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Data Type
Data classifications employ the real numbers system. The most accepted basis for
scaling has three characteristics.
1) Numbers are ordered
2) Differences between numbers are ordered.
3) Number series origin
1) Nominal Data
Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in
order to label them. It provides convenient ways of keeping track of people object
and events. The counting of members in each group is the only possible arithmetic
operation when a nominal scale is employed. Chi-square test is the most common
test of statistical significance that can be utilized and for the measure of
correlation , the contingency co-efficient can be worked out .
2) Ordinal Scale
It places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the
scale equal in terms of some rule. A rank order represents ordinal scales and are
frequently used in research relating to qualitative phenomenon. It have no absolute
values and the real differences between adjacent ranks may not be equal. All that
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can be said that one person is higher or lower on the scale than another but more
precise comparisons cannot be made.
3) Internal Scale
It has the power of nominal and ordinal data plus one additional strength. It
incorporates the concept of equality of interval. The intervals are adjusted in terms
of some rule that has been established as a basis for making the units equal.
Interval units are equal only in so far as one accepts the assumptions on which the
rule is based .eg Centigrade and Fahrenheit temperature scales Mean, standard of
deviation is appropriate measures . The generally used test for statistical
significance are the “T” test “F” test & other parametric test are the statistical
procedures of choice.
4) Ratio Scale
Ratio scale has an absolute or true zero of measurement. The term “absolute
zero” is not as precise. We can conceive of an absolute zero length and also
absolute zero of time. It represents the actual amount of variables. Geometric &
harmonic mean can be used as measures of central tendency & coefficient of
variation may also be calculated.
1) Validity
It is the extend to which difference found with a measuring tool reflect true
differences among respondents being tested. The difficulty in meeting this test is
that usually one does not know what the true difference
a) Content Validity
Degree to which extent content of the item adequately represents the universe
of all relevant items under study.
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b) Criterion Validity
Degree to which the predictor is adequate in capturing the relevant aspects of
the criterion.
i) Concurrent Validity
Description of the present criterion data is available at same time as predictor
Scores.
ii) Predictive Validity
Prediction of the future criterion is measured after the passage of time.
c) Construct Validity
It tries to answer the question what accounts for the variance in the measure.
Attempt to identify the underlying construct being measured and determine how well
the test represents them.
2) Reliability
It is concerned with estimates of the degree to which a measurement is free of
random or unstable error. A measure is reliable to the degree that it supplies
consistent results.
a) Stability
A measure is said to be stable if you can secure consistent results with
repeated measurement of the same person with the same instrument.
b) Equivalence
Degree to which alternative forms of the same measure produce same or
similar results.
c) Internal consistency :
Degree to which instrument items are homogenous and reflect the same
underlying construct.
3)Practicality
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b) Convenience test
Degree to which the measuring instrument is easy to administer.
c)Interpretability
Degree to which the person other researcher is able to interpret the results
SCALING
It is a procedure for the assignment of numbers to a property of objects in order in
order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in
question.
Scaling Techniques :
I - Rating scale:
It involves qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a thing or
of traits of a person. Here we judge an object in absolute terms against some
specified criteria There is no rules with points of scales ,in practice 3 to 7 points
scales are generally used.
There are various types of rating scale;
a) Simple category scale :
It has two responses eg YES, NO. This scale is particularly useful for
demographic question or where dichotomous response is adequate.
e) Likert Scale –
It is a mostly used summated rating scale. It consists of statements that express
either a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the object of interest. The
respondent is asked to agree or disagree with each statement. Each response is
given a numerical score to reflect its degree of attitude favorableness and the
scores may be totaled to measure the respondent’s attitude. This data provides
interval data.
f) Semantic differential
It helps to measure the psychological attitude. It is used in marketing
problems, political issues, and personalities. This method consist of bipolar rating
scales, usually with seven points by which one or more respondents rate one or
more concepts on each scale item. It produces interval data. The total set of
response provides a comprehensive picture about the respondent rating and object
which is measured.
g) Numerical Scale
It has equal intervals that separate their numeric scale points. The verbal
statement serve as the labels for the extreme points. It is often five point scale .
The scale provides absolute & relative measure of the subject.
h) Multiple rating scale:
It is similar to numerical scale, but differs in two ways 1) It accepts a circled
response from the rater 2) The layout allows visualization of the results. The
advantage is that a mental map of the respondent evaluation is evident to both the
rater and the researcher. This scale produces interval data.
Ranking Scales
In this the subject directly compares two or more objects and makes choices
among them. The respondents were asked to select one as best or most preferred.
a) Paired –comparison
In this respondent can express attitudes clearly by choosing between two
objects.
c) Comparative Scales
Another version of the preceding scale would label the categories “excellent”
,”very good” , “Good”, “fair” and “poor”. Thereby eliminating the implicit
comparison. The problem with comparative scale is that the reference point is
unclear and different reference points or standards.
SCALE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
2) That the statements need be such that they discriminate not merely between
extremes of attitude but also among individual who differ slightly.
1. Arbitrary Scale;
It is developed on ad hoc basis and are designed largely through the
researcher’s own subjective selection of items. The researcher select few statement or
item which he believes are appropriate to a given topic and it is include in measuring
instrument.. Then people are asked to check in a list for their opinion.
Merits:
1. It is easy to develop quickly with less expense.
2. It can be designed highly specific and adequate
3.
Demerits ;
1. It is not reliable
2. It rely on researcher’s insight and competence.
Merits
1. It appropriate when we measure single attitude.
2. It is very reliable method
Demerits
1. It is costly method
2. Judge own attitude may reflect in arrangement
5. Then arrange these scores & find out with those statements which have a high
discriminating power. This way we determine which statement consistently co
relate with high favorability & which with low favorability.
6. Only those statements that correlate with total test, should be retained in the
final statement. And others must be removed.
Merits:
1. it is easy to construct in comparison to differential scale.
2. It is more reliable.
3. Each statement in this is given a test for discriminating ability, so it permits the use
of only those statements that have direct relationship to the attitude being studied.
4. We can study how responses differ between people & how response differ between
stimuli.
5. It takes less time to construct.
Demerits:
1. In this method we can examine whether respondents are more or less favorable to
the topic, but we can’t tell how much or less they are.
2. The interval between strongly agree & agree may not be equal to the interval
between agree & undecided.
3. Often the total score of an individual respondent has little clear meaning since the
given score can be secured by a variety of answer pattern.
Procedure;
1. The layout in clear terms the issue we want to deal in our study.
2. Develop a number of items relating the issue and to eliminate by inspection the
items that are irrelevant or those that happen to be extreme items.
3. Pre-test the items whether the issue at hand is scalable. The respondent are asked to
record their opinion on all items ranging from ‘strongly agree to strongly disagree.
The score like 5 -1 was assigned. If there is 5 items in all , total, score can be from
75- 15.
4. Respondent opinionnaires are then arrayed according to total score for analysis and
evaluation. If the responses of an item form a cumulative scale, its response category
scores should decrease in an orderly fashion. After analyzing the preset results , a few
items may be chosen.
5. Then total scores for the various opininnoires and to rearray them to reflect any
shift in order resulting from reducing the items.
Merits;
1. It assures that only a single dimension of attitude is measured.
2. Researcher’s subjective judgment is not allowed to creep in the development
of scale since the scale is determined by the replies of respondent.
3. It can be appropriately be used for personal ,telephone or mail surveys.
Demerits:
1. It is very tedious & complex in preparation.
2. Conceptually is more difficult in comparison to other scaling methods.
3. It very a reliable source for assessing attitudes of persons towards complex
objects.
5. Factor Scales:
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b) Multidimensional scaling
It is characterized as a set of procedures for portraying perceptual or affective
dimension of substantive interest. It is used when all the variables are to be analysed
are happened to be independent. Through MDS techniques one can represent
geometrically the locations and interrelationship among a set of points.
Merits:
1. It is used in psychological survey.
2. It is used to measure the perceptual structure of a set of stimuli and cognitive
processes underlying the development of this structure.
3. It is an important measurement tool for attitude.
Demerits:
1. It is complicated in calculation.
It is laborious in collection of data & analysis.
Items essentially are statements that are relevant of the construct. The greater
the number of initial items generated. The better the final scale will be. The items
that are developed should not be too long nor should they pose any reading
difficulty to the respondent.
Experts are people who have worked one are currently working on the
phenomenon that is being studied. They can give inputs on the relevancy clarity
and conciseness of the items. Based on the experts’ evaluation the initial pool of
items is modified.
The various scales such as the likert scale, semantic differential scale,
Thurston and associative scale has already been discussed should be selected. The
type of attitudinal scale to be used has to be decided quite early, because the
wording of the items varies with each scale format.
Certain items are added to the scale in order to improve the scales validity and
also to detect certain flaw in it.
Once it has been determined which construct related items are to be included
in the scale, the next step is to administer the scale to an initial sample. This is
done to check the validity of the items.
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The ultimate quality that is sought in an item is high conctation with the true
score of the latent variable that is being measured. The properties that the items of
a scale should possess are high interconctation, high item scale conctation high
item variance, a mean close to the center of ht range of possible scores, and a high
coefficient alpha.
The larger the scale, the greater the reliability but shorter scales are easier he
respondent to answer. Hence balance has to be struck between briefly and
reliability and the optimal scale length have to be determined.
SAMPLING DESIGN
• Population
A population is an identifiable total group of aggregation of elements.
For Example: People, Products, Organizations, Physical Entities that are of
interest to the researcher and pertinent to the specified information problem.
• Element:
An element is a person or object from which data and information are sought.
• Sampling units:
Are the target population elements available for selection during the sampling
process.
• Sampling frame:
After defining the target Population the researcher must assemble a list of all
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2. Measurability:
A sample design should enable the computation of valid estimates of its
sampling variability normally this variability is expressed in the form of standard
errors in surveys.
3. Practicality:
This implies that the sample design can be followed properly in the survey as
it also refers to simplicity of the design.
4. Economy:
It implies that the objectives of the survey should be achieved with minimum
cost and effort.
ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING:
LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING:
1. When the information is needed on every unit in the population such as
individual, dwelling units a business establishment a sample survey cannot be
of much help for it fails to provide information on individual count.
2. Sampling gives rise to certain errors of these errors are too large, the results of
the sample survey will be of extremely limited use.
3. While in a census survey it may be easy to check the omissions of certain units
in view of complete coverage this is not so in the case of a sample survey.
UNIT III
DATA COLLECTION
Data refers to information or facts. Often researcher understands by data only
numerical figure. It also includes descriptive facts, non-numerical information,
qualitative and quantitative information. Data could be broadly classified as:
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Primary Data:
It is known as the data collected for the first time through field survey. Such data are
collected with specific set of objectives to assess the current status of any variable
studied. Primary data are generally information gathered or generated by the
researcher for the purpose of the project immediately at hand. When the data are
collected for the first time, the responsibility for their processing also rests with the
original investigator.
Secondary data
It refers to the information or facts already collected. Such data are collected with the
objective of understanding the past status of any variable.
Secondary data can be obtained internally ie within the firm or external from one or
more outside agencies.
Sources
I. Internal Sources
A. Accounting Record
Sales Invoice
Sales record
Cost detail
Level of profit
Advertisig expenditure
Budget etc.
B. Sales force Report
Marketing information
Customers opinion
Competitor information
AreaWise Sales
C. Internal Expert
Experts working in the company like product manager, marketing
research
managers, public relation personnel and advertising personnel etc.
57
C. Miscellaneous
Company history
Company background
Market share
Pamplet
Prospectus
Annual General Body Meeting Report.
Organization manual, chart.
Organisation report.
External Sources
i) Publication of (Government)
a. Reserve Bank of India Bulleting
b. Census Report
c. Registrar general of India
d. Central Statistical organization
e. Director general of commercial intelligence
f. Minisry of commerce & industry
g. Economic Advisor Office
h. Ministry of Agriculture
i. Labour Bureau.
ii) Non-government Publication
a. Private agencies
b. Stock –exchange directories
c. Chamber of commerce
d. Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce
e. Associate Chamber of commerce & Industry Of India
f. Indo- Amercian Chamber of Commerce etc
g. Promotion
h. Market Research & Statistical Bureau
collect and tabulate marketing information on a continuing basis. Report based on the
marketing information collected by such organization is sent periodically to clients
who are subscribers. Apart from syndicated services a number of research agencies,
offer and customized research services to their clients.
iv) Technical and trade journals
v) Books, magazines & newspapers
vi) Reports prepared by research scholars universities economists etc in diff fields
vii) Public records and statiscits, historical documents and other sources of published
information
viii) Various publications of foreign government or of international bodies and their
subsidiary organizations.
2. Suitability of Data
The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily
be found suitable for one enquiry may not necessariyly be found suitable in
another enquiry. Hence if the available data are found to be unsuitable. The
researcher should not use them.
3. Adequacy of Data
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4. Continuity of Data
This is another problem in using secondary data. For eg, the format used for
providing some date may not be consistently followed by the source. Depending
upon the page constraints or availability of material the data presentaion ina format
is decided. So frequent change in the format would only add to confusion to the
people using the data from such sources.
SPECIAL SOURCES
contrast your ides. The places where these resources are stored are known as
websites.
3. Home Page
Access to a website is through its home page. The home page, which has
links to other pages in the site, is similar to a title or contents page. Although
they often contain publicity for a company or institution they are an excellent
way of navigating the site.
4. Search Tools:
It often referred to as search engines, are probably the most important
way of searching the internet for reviewing the literature on your research
subject as they enable you to locate the most current and up to date items.
5. Book marking
Once you have found a useful internet site, you will need to note its
address. This process termed bookmarking uses the internet browser to note the
address so that you will be able to access it again directly.
2. There is greater scope for researcher bias creeping in unless the research
investigator is fair to the respondent and methods of data collection the result
of the study will not be reliable.
3. Sample selection is yet another problem.
1. Questionnaire :-
In this method to pre-printed list of questions arranged in sequence is used
to elicit response from the informant.
2. Interview :
This is a method in which the investigator and the respondent meet and
questions raised are answered and recorded. this method is adopted when
personal opinion or view point are to be gathered as a part of data.
3. Observation:
A method which requires familiarity and experience, in this method
the observer applies his sense organs to note down whatever that he could
observe in the field and relate these data to explain some phenomena.
4. Feedback
In the case of some of the consumer goods, the supplier or the
manufacturer send the product along with a pre-paid reply cover in which
questions on the product and its usage are raised and the customer is required to
fill it up and send.
note down the detail of stock movement, availability of items etc which give
valuable information.
6. Schedule
This method of data collection is very much like the questionnaire with
little difference which lies in the fact that schedules are being filled in by the
enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.
7. Warranty Card
Warranty Card are usually postal sized card which are used by dealers
of consumer durables to collect information regarding their products. The
information sought is printed in the form of question on the warranty cards
which is placed insided the package along with the product with a request to the
consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.
9. Pantry Audit
Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basker of
goods at the consumer level. The investigators stay at the consuming point and
observe the purchasing behavior or the people like price response, quality
consciousness, response to price & incentive schemes, who take buying decision,
credit facility required.
m. Pictorial Technique
* Thematic Apperception Test:
It consist of a set of pictures that are
shown to respondents who are asked to describe what they think the
pictures represent.
• Rosenzweig Test :
This test uses a cartoon format wherein we have
a series of cartoons with words inserted in balloon’s above.
The respondent is asked to put his own words in an empty
balloon space provided for the purpose in the picture.
• Rorschach Test
It consists of ten cards having prints of ink
blots. The respondents are asked to describe what they
perceive in such inkblot, and responses are interpreted on the
basis of pre-determined psychological framework.
• Holtzman Inkblot Test
It consists of 48 inkblot cards, which are based
on color movement, shading and other facts involved in inkblot
perception.
• Tomkins- Horn Picture Arrangement Test
It consist of twenty five plates each containing
three sketches that may be arranged in different ways to portray
a sequence of events. The respondent is asked to arrange them
in a sequence.
• Play Technique
In this the respondents are asked to act out a
situation in which they have been assigned various roles. The
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OBSERVATION METHOD
66
TYPES
1. Structured Observation
When observation takes place strictly in accordance with a plan or a
design prepared in advance, it is called structured observation. In such a type the
observer decided what to observe what to focus on, who are all to be observed
etc.
2. Unstructured Observation
In this type of observation there is no advance designing of what, how,
when, who etc of observation. The observer is given the freedom to decide on the
spot, to observe everything that is relevant.
3. Participant Observation
In this, the observer is very much present in the midst of what is
observed. He is physically present on the spot to observe and not influencing the
activities. It will help him to continuously observe and not everything that is
happening around him.
and does involve himself in any activities taking place. He is present only to
observe and not to take part in the activities.
5. Controlled Observation
In this case, the observer performs his work in the environment or
situation, which is very much planned or designed or set.
6. Uncontrolled Observation
The observer is at freedom to observer whatever is taking place around
him in the natural set up.
MERITS:-
1. The scope for bias is very much minimized.
2. The current scenarios in which anything is happening, notices & explained.
3. As there is no need to get any reply or details from the respondent observation
does not required any co-operation of the respondents.
4. This is a fairly reliable method.
5. Whenever respondent are illieterate or incapable of answering any question it
is only method of data collection available.
LIMITATION:
1. This is a relatively costly method of data collection, because the observer has
to be present on the spot to observer whatever is happening.
2. Training an observer is the additional cost to be incurred.]
3. The scope for the biases of the observe interfering in what is observed and
understood is high.
4. It could be noticed that what is observed may bring out only part of the facts.
5. It may not be possible to observe what is targeted.
6. There is a lot of scope for the observer to get distracted by function.
7. The observer can effectively establish link among whatever he has observed to
give a meaningful interpretation.
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INTERVIEW
Interview method involves direct or indirect meeting of the respondent by
the researcher. The researcher determines the questions to be raised at the time of
interview and then elicit the response for them. The reply given is either written
down in a notebook or recorded in audio or videocassette.
TYPES OF INTERVIEW
1. Direct Interview
In this type of interview, the interviewer and the interviewee meet
personally either with prior appointment or not. This method requires a interviewer to
ask questions in a face to face contact to the other person or persons.
a. Structured Interview
In this type of interview the person
collecting information decided in advance the nature, scope, questions
to be asked the persons to be contacted etc in advance. At the time of
interview no deviation is made from the questions to be asked.
b. Unstructured Interview
In this type of interview, interview is conducted on the
spot without any preparation or advance information to the respondent.
It does not follow a system of pre-determined questions standardized
techniques of recording information. The interviewer has much
freedom to ask in case of need supplementary questions or at time he
may omit certain question of the situation so required.
c. Focused Interview
In this type of interview the object of the interviewer is
to focus the attention of the respondent on a specific issue or point.
The interviewer has the freedom to plan the interview and conduct it
they way wants it. The interviewer on the spot decides all the question
sequence, wording of questions etc.
d. Clinical Interview
The clinical interview is concerned with broad
underlying feeling a motivations or with the course of individuals life
experience.
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e. Non-Directive
In this interviewer’s function is simply to encourage the
respondent to talk about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct
questioning.
f. Telephonic Interview
This method of collecting information consists
in contacting respondent on telephone itself. It is not a very widely
used method but play, important part in industrial survey. There is no
scope for physical presence of both the partial to the interview.
Merits :
1. Interview enables personal contact with which factual information could be
obtained.
2. the interviewer can guide the respondent to understand the question and suitably
rephrase or modify the question.
3. The non response in this category of data collection is low
4. Spontaneous reply of the respondent can be obtained which would truly reflect
their opinion.
5. Interviewer has the flexibility to handle the interview to collect relevant
information.
6. The interviewer can combine observation with interview so that a lot of
additional information about the environment, nature, behavior and attitude of
the respondent could also be noted.
7. The interviewer can be persuasive to obtain the response of the respndent while
this may not be possible in the case of questionnaire method of data collection.
8. The interviewer can adopt himself better by using the language with which he
can reach the respondents better and the educational level of the respondent.
9. it is also possible to obtain personal information which will not be revealed
through questionnaire.
Demerits:
1.This method presupposes the existence of rapport between the respondent and
the interviewer.
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10. The interviewer should be alert and intelligent with presence of mind to keep
the interview focused on the subject matter.
QUESTIONNAIRE
A questionnaire is te sheets of paper containing questions relating to certain
specific aspect regarding which the researcher collects the data. The questionnaire is
given to the informant or respondent to be fitted up. This method of data collection is
quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries.
Merits:
1. It involves lesser cost as questionnaire could be send by post to a wide area.
2. It does not interfere with the respondent while answering the question.
3. The bias of the investigator is completely eliminated.
4. Respondents are given sufficient time to fill up the questionnaire.
5. If respondents cannot be reached personally, questionnaire is the alternative
method available.
6. This method is useful when the sample size is very large.
7. if the questionnaire is designed properly with instructions then the training,
supervising and controlling the investigators is saved.
8. Confidentiality is ensured as the respondents directly send the filled up
questionnaire to the researcher.
Demerits:
1. It is always found that the response rate in questionnaire is very poor compared
to using schedules.
2. Bias of the respondent cannot be determined easily.
3. Only if the respondent is educated questionnaire could be used for collecting
information.
4. Follow up of non-response or unfilled questionnaire only adds to the cost and
time.
5. There is no scope for giving any clarification to the respondent in case of need.
6. Accuracy of response cannot be ensured.
7. A lot of care is required to design and structure a questionnaire. Hence unless a
scholar is good at drafting a questionnaire, this method cannot be adopted for
data collection.
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TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
QUESTIONNAIRE
STRUCTURED
INTERVIEW
1. Structured Questionnaire
It pose definite, concrete and preordained questions.
Additional questions may be thought of and asked only when some
clarification is needed or additional information is sought from the respondent.
Answers to these question are normally very precise without any vagueness &
ambiguity.
not restricted, his replies to the questions, and his answers may be free and
spontaneous
4. Unstructured Questionnaire
These contain a set of questions that are not structured in
advance. It gives sufficient scope for a variety of answers. It is used mainly
for conduction interview. Its merit is flexibility. It aims to secure the
maximum possible information from the respondent.
5. Pictorial Questionnaire
In a pictorial questionnaire alternative answer in the form of
pictures are given and the respondent is required to tick the picture concerned
to indicate his selection. This type of questionnaire is useful for illiterate and
less knowledgeable respondent.
1. General Form
The questionnaire can either be structured or unstructured
questionnaire. The form of the question may be either closed or open, but
should be stated in advance and not constructed during questioning. The
question is presented with exactly the same wording and in the same order to all
respondents.
2. Question Sequence
The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly moving meaning
thereby that the relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to
the respondent with question that are easiest to answer being put in the
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beginning. The opening questions should be such to arouse human interest after
that questions that are really vital to the research problem and a connecting
thread should run through successive questions.
PILOT STUDY:
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Scope for This is not possible as the There is a lot of scope for the
78
Field control This is not possible as the There is good scope for
& testing. questionnaire is filled by the controlling editing and
respondent himself monitoring information on the
field itself
Bias in There is no way to test the extent of If the investigator is trained and
information bias of the information given by the experienced then there is very
collected respondent. little scope for bias in
information content.
1. Nature, Scope and Object of enquiry: This constituted the most important
factory affecting the choice of a particular method. The method selected should
be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted by the researcher.
Probability samples are characterised by the fact that, the sampling units are
selected by chance. In such case, each member of the population has a
known, non-zero probability of being selected. However, it may not be true
that all sample would have the same probability of selection, but it is possible
to say the probability of selecting any particular sample of a given size. It is
possible that one can calculate the probability that any given population element
would be included in the sample. This requires a precise definition of the target
population as well as the sampling frame.
This is the most important and widely used probability sampling technique. They
gain much significance because of their characteristic of being used to frame the
concepts and arguments in statistics. Another important feature is that it allows each
element in the population to have a known and equal probability of selection.
This means that every element is selected independently of every other element.
This method resembles lottery method where a in a system names are placed in a
box, the box is shuffled, and the names of the winners are then drawn out in an
unbiased manner.
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Simple random sampling has a definite process, though not, so rigid. It involves
compilation of a sampling frame in which each element is assigned a unique
identification number. Random numbers are generated either using random number
table or a computer to determine which elements to include in the sample. For
example, a researcher is interested in investigating the behavioural pattern of
customers while making a decision on purchasing a computer. Accordingly,
the researcher is interested in taking 5 samples from a sampling frame containing 100
elements. The required sample may be chosen using simple random sampling
technique by arranging the 100 elements in an order and starting with row 1 and
column 1 of random table, and going down the column until 5 numbers between 1
and 100 are selected. Numbers outside this range are ignored. Random number tables
are found in every statistics book. It consists of a randomly generated series of digits
from 0 – 9. To enhance the readability of the numbers, a space between every 4 digit
between every 10 row is given.
The researcher may begin reading from anywhere in the random number table,
however, once started the researcher should continue to read across the row or down a
column. The most important feature of simple random sampling is that it facilitates
representation of the population by the sample ensuring that the statistical conclusions are
valid
Stratified Sampling
a) It requires division of the parent population into mutually exclusively and exhaustive
subsets;
b) A simple random sample of elements is chosen independently from each group or subset.
Therefore, it characterises that, every population element should be assigned to one and
only
Stratum and no population elements should be omitted. Next, elements are selected from
each stratum by simple random sampling technique. Stratified sampling differs from quota
sampling in that the sample elements are selected probabilistically rather than based on
convenience or on judgmental basis.
Strata are created by a divider called the stratification variable. This variable divides
the population into strata based on homogeneity, heterogeneity, relatedness or cost.
Sometimes, more than one variable is used for stratification purpose. This type of
sampling is done in order to get homogenous elements within each strata and, the
elements between each strata should have a higher degree of heterogeneity. The number of
strata to be formed for the research is left to the discretion of the researcher, though,
researchers agree that the optimum number of strata may be 6.
Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population.
Therefore, while inferring to the population, results could not be reported plus or minus the
sampling error. In non-probability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from
the population remains unknown However, we cannot come to a conclusion that sampling
error is an inherent of non probability sample.
Convenience Sampling
Convenience samples are sometimes called accidental samples because the elements
included in the sample enter by „accident‟. It is a sampling technique where samples are
obtained from convenient elements. This refers to happening of the element at the right
place at the right time, that is, where and when the information for the study is being
collected. The selection of the respondents is left to the discretion of the interviewer. The
popular examples of convenience sampling include (a) respondents who gather in a church
(b) students in a class room (c) mall intercept interviews
without qualifying the respondents for the study (d) tear-out questionnaire included in
magazines and (e) people on the street. In the above examples, the people may not be
qualified respondents, however, form part of the sample by virtue of assembling in the
place where the researcher is conveniently placed.
Convenience sampling is the least expensive and least time consuming of all sampling
techniques. The disadvantage with convenience sampling is that the researcher would
have no way of knowing if the sample chosen is representative of the target population.
Judgment Sampling
The distinguishing feature of judgment sampling is that the population elements are
purposively selected. Again, the selection is not based on that they are representative, but
rather because they
can offer the contributions sought. In judgement sampling, the researcher may be well
aware of the characteristics of the prospective respondents, in order that, he includes the
individual in the sample. It may be possible that the researcher has ideas and insights
about the respondent‟s requisite experience and knowledge to offer some perspective on the
research question.
Quota Sampling
Snowball sampling
UNIT IV
MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS
I . UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS
It focus on the level coverage and distribution (variance)) of a single variable
UNIVARIATE TECHNIQUE
DEPENDENT
INDEPENDENT
INDEPENDENT T-TEST
Chi-Square SIGN
WILCOXON Z-TEST
RANK-SUM TEST
MCNEMAR ANOVA
K-S
ANOVA COCHRANQ
DEPENDENT
PAIRED TEST
MULTIVARIATE TECHNIQUE
YES NO
YES NO
ONE SEVERAL
MULTI- CANONICAL
MULTIPLE MULTIPLE VARIATE ANALYSIS
REGRESSION DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS OF
VARIANCE
LATENT
NON METRIC STRUCTURE
METHODS ANALYSIS
1. Exploratory Variable
Explanatory variables are called external or exogenous variables. If x a
considered t be the cause of y, then x is the explanatory variable (or) causal or
independent variables.
2. Criterion Variable
These are called endogenous variables. In the above stated case y is called as
criterion (or) dependent resultant variable.
5. Dummy Variable
This term is used in a technical sense and is useful in algebraic
manipulations in the context of multivariate analysis
TECHNIQUES
I. MULTIPLE REGRESSION
When there are two or more than two independent variables, the equation
describing such a relationship is the multiple regression equation. In this situation the
results are interpreted as
Y= a + b1 x1+ b2 x2
Application:
Limitation
The knowledge of a regression coeffient and it’s t-value can suggest the extent
of association or influence that an independent variable has on the dependent
variable.
The regression coeffient will reflect the impact of the omitted variable on the
dependent variable.
The model is based on collected data that represent certain environmental
conditions.
The model is limited by the methodology associated with the data collection
including the sample size and measures used.
not only the values of the discriminate coefficient but also their positive or
negative signs that are equally relevant.
• Given a certain minimum vale of Z and credit worthiness, it should be clear that
the higher the values of the independent variable provided the discriminate
coefficient are positive, the more chances there are for the individual to be
classified under this category.
Application:
Used to identify variables that contribute to differences in the a priori defined
groups with the use of discriminate functions. It classify objects into one or more
groups that are already defined.
Inputs:
Variables values for the independent variable and dependent variable.
Output:
It provide the characteristics of the discriminate fuction., such as the variables that
contribute to each discriminate fuction. The significance of the fuction is also given.
Statistical Tests:
The significance of the discriminant fuction and the variables are evaluated
through through an F-statistic.
Limitation :
It is similar to regression analysis such as intervariable correlations in the model,
correlation of variables with the omitted variables,and change of environment
condition.
The assumption of the discriminant analysis has to be tested and it is often
possible that the assumption of equal variance –covariance matrices of the
Independent variable in each group is not met.
second factor. This goes on repeatedly in search of one factor after another. This
method is very difficult in comparison to the other methods.
Merits:
1. The technique of factor analysis is quite useful when we want to condense and
simplify the multivariate data.
2. the technique is helpful in pointing out important and interesting that were there all
the time, but not easy to see from the data alone
3. The technique can reveal the latent factors that determine relationship among
several variables.
4. the technique may be used in the context of empirical clustering of products, media
or people ie., for providing a classification for providing a classification scheme
when data scored on various rating scales have to be grouped together.
Application :
It is used to identify underlying dimensions or constructs in the data and to reduce
the number of variables by eliminating redundancy.
Inputs :
Usually a set of variables values for each individual or object in the sample.
Output ;
The factor loadings ie correlation between the factors and the variables are used to
interpret the factors.
Key assumptions:
The list of variables are complete and adequate for each factor.
Limitation
1. It involves laborious computations involving heavy cost burden.
2. the results of a single factor analysis are considered generally less reliable.
3. It can be used only when researchers has good knowledge and experience in
handling.
4. It is highly subjective process.
5. No statistical tests are regularly employed in factor analysis.
I. Hierarchical Clustering
a. Single Linkage
It is based on the shortest distance. It finds the two individual
separated by the shortest distance and places them in the first cluster and places
them in the first cluster. Then the next shortest distance PS found and either a
third individual joins the first wo to form a cluster or a new two individual cluster
is formed. The process continues until all individual are in one cluster. This
procedure is also referred to as the nearest neighbor approach.
b. Complete Linkage
This procedure is similar to singly linkage except that the
clustering criterion is based on the longest distance. For this reason, it is
sometimes referred to as the farthest neighbor approach. The distance between
tow clusters is the longest distance from a point in the first cluster to a point in the
second clusters.
c. Average Linkage
It start out the same as single linkage and complete linkage but the
clustering criterion is the average distance from individuals in one clusters to
individuals in another such technique do not use extreme values as do single
linkage or complete linkage and partitioning is based on all members of the
clusters rather than on a single pain of extreme members.
d. Ward’s Method
It is based on the loss of information resulting from grouping
objects into clusters as measured by the total sum of square deviation of every
object from the mean of the cluster to which the object is assigned. As more
clusters are formed the total sum of squared deviations increases. At each stage in
the clustering procedure the error sums of square is minimized over all partitions
obtainable by combining tow clusters from the previous stage. This procedure
tends to combine clusters with a small number of observations. It is also biased
toward producing clusters with approximate the same number of observations.
e. Centroid Method
In the centroid method the distance between the group centroid is
measured. The centroid is the point whose co-ordinates are the means of all the
observations in the cluster when two clusters combine a new cluster is computed.
Thus cluster centroids migrate or move as the clusters are combined.
2. Parallel Threshold
This method is similar to the proceeding one except that severe cluster
centers are selected simultaneously and objects within the threshold level are
assigned to the nearest center. The threshold level can then be adjusted to admit
fewer or more objects to the cluster.
3. Optimizing
This method modified the previous two procedures in that objects can later
be reassigned to clusters by optimizing some overall criterion measure. Such as
the average within cluster distance for a given number of cluster.
Number of Clusters
1. The analyst can specify the number
2. He can specify the level of clusering with respect to the clustering criterion.
3. Determine the number from the pattern of clusters, the program generates.
4. The rate of total withing group variance to between gruopd variance can be
plotted against the number of cluster.
1. Application
Cluster analysis is used to group variables, objects or people
2. Input
It is any valid measure of similarity between objects such as correlations
3. Output
The output is the formation of clusters.
4. Key assumptions
The basic measure similarity on which the clustering is based is a valid
measure of the similarity between the objects.
There is theoretical justification for structuring the objects into clusters.
Advantages:
1. Main use of cluster analysis in marketing is market segmentation
2. It provides better understanding of buyers behaviour.
3. It can also be used in the development of potential new products.
4. It helps for reducing a large mass of data into meaningful aggregate which are far
more manageable than a large number of individual observation.
Limitation
1. the lack of specificity has resulted into several methods of cluster analysis
2. cluster analysis lacks standard statistical tests
3. It requires a good deal of computational time almost as much as factor analysis
needs.
When the researcher has two criterion variables (dependant variable) and
multiple predictors variables (independent varible) canonical correlation analysis is an
appropriate statistical technique. Multiple regression analysis investigates the linear
relationship between a singly dependant or criterion variable and multiple independan
variables. Canonical correlation is a extension of multiple regression. It focuses on the
relationship between two sets of interval scale variables.
For eg. The relationship between the performance of a brand (measured as
sales, marker share, growth in sales, proft etc) and marketing-mix variables (price,
promotion, distribution, advertising etc) can evaluated through canonical analysis.
Application
Suppose we wish evaluate the assocation between a set of export-interest
variable (criterion set) and some firm characteristic (predictive set) e want to know how
several from characteristic such as willingness to export (y1) and level of interest on
seeking government assistance (y2) influence export interest behavior. Computing the
canonical correlation assesses the relationship between the y-set and x-set of variable.
Canonical correlation can be defined as the correlation between the linear
combination of the dependant variables and the linar combinations of the independent
variables.
Calculations of the canonical correlation maximize the correatlion between
two linear combinations for eg. The linear combination for firm characteristics might
and the linear combination for the export interest variables might be
Application
Canonical analysis is a technique to assess relationship between multiple
dependant and multiple independent variables.
Input
The inputs are the variables value for both the dependant and the
independent variables.
Output
It helps to assess relationship between the linear composites of the dependant
variable s with linear composite of the independent variables.
Statistical Test
The significance of canonical function and the variable are evaluated with an
F- Statistic.
LIMITATIONS
UNIT - V
RESEARCH REPORT
Objectives of a Report:-
1. Reports provide information to those who are in need of it.
2. It provides information for planning and co-ordination o business activities.
3. Reports give information to investors speculators, government, customers and the
people at large.
4. This provides base to formulate alternative proposals relating to an issue.
5. Reports acts as an a historical document to take decision in future.
6. Report normally presents facts and suggestions to an enquiry.
7. It acts as a tool in conducting performance appraisal.
8. An effective report should be simple, clear, brief and should be based on reliable
factual information.
1. Precision
In a good report the writer is very clear about the exact purpose of writing
it. Precision gives a kind of unity an coherence to the report and makes it a valuable
document.
2. Accuracy Of Facts
The scientific accuracy of facts is very essential to a good report since reports
invariable lead to decision-making, inaccurate facts may lead to disastrous decisions.
3. Relevance
The facts presented in a report should be not only accurate but relevant also.
While it is essential that every fact included in a report has a bearing on the central
purpose it is equally essential to see that nothing relevant has escaped inclusion.
4. Reader-Orientation
A good report is always reader oriented while drafting a report it is necessary
to keep in mind the person who is going to read it.
5. Objectivity of Recommendation
If recommendation are made at the end of a report, they must be impartial and
objective. They should come as a logical conclusion to investigation and analysis.
They must not reveal and self interest on the part of the writer.
6. Simple and Unambiguous Language
A good report is written in a simple, unambiguous language. It is a kind of
scientific document of practical utility, hence it should be free from various forms of
poetic embellishment.
7. Clarity
A good report is absolutely clean clarity depends on proper arrangement of
facts. The report writer must process systematically.
8. Brevity
A report should be brief. It is not difficult to define brevity in absolute terms
nor can brevity be laid down as a rule. All that can be said is that a good report is as
brief as possible.
9. Grammatical Accuracy
The grammatical accuracy of language though listed at last in the
characteristics of a good report is of fundamental importance. It is one of the basic
requisites of a good report as of any other piece of composition.
Output
1. Summary of results (executive summary)
2. Nature of the Study
3. Objectives, hypothesis
4. Data types, & analysis
5. Tools of analysis
6. Methodology – sample design, size, selection.
7. Data – Sources, characteristics & limitation
8. analysis of data & presentation of findings.
9. Conclusions
10. Bibliography
11. Technical apprentices
12. Index
The order presented may vary in different reports even the different sections
outlined above will not always be the same, nor will all these sections appear in any
particular report.
b. Popular Report
The popular report is one, which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness. The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical details and liberal use of charts
and diagrams. Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings over an
occasional cartoon is the characteristic feature of the popular report.
Outline
1. The findings and their implication.
2. Recommendation for action
3. Objective of the study
4. Methods employed
5. Results
6. Technical appendices.
There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be
prepared, the only important thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on
simplicity and policy implications from the operational point of view avoiding the
technical details of all sorts to the extent possible.
c. Oral Presentation
This type of reporting takes place in public viva voce examination. The
researcher would present the details of his work orally. He may use different
methods of presentation like overhead projector , slide projector, simple presentation
on board, printed matter etc.
2. Procedure
The subject matter of a report can be arranged either logical sequence or
chronologically.
3. Layout
Keeping in view the objective and nature of the problem, the layout of the
report should be thought of and decided and accordingly adopted eg. Technical,
popular
4. Quotations
It should be placed in quotation marks and double spaced forming an
immediate part of the text. But if a quotation is of a text. But if a quotation is of a
considerable length then it should be single-spaced and indented at least half an inch
to the right of the normal text margin.
5. The footnotes
The footnote serve two purpose viz., the identification of materials used in
quotations in the report and the notice of materials not immediately necessary to be
body of the research text but still of supplemental value. In other words, footnotes
are meant for cross-references, citation of authorities and sources, acknowledgement
and elucidation or explanation of a point of view. It should always be kept in view
that footnote is neither an end nor a means of the display of scholarship. The modern
tendency is to make the minimum use of footnotes for scholarship does not need to be
displayed.
6. Documentation Style
Regarding documentation, the first footnotes reference to any given works
should be completed in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the
edition used. Such documentary footnotes follow a general sequence. The common
order may be described as under.
10. Bibliography
Bibliography should be prepared and appended to the research report as
discussed earlier.
in simple language, avoiding expression such as “it seems”, “there may be”
and the like.
4. Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main
findings and such the report must provide a ready availability of the findings.
For this purpose, charts, graphs and the statistical tables may be used for the
various results in the main report in addition to the summary of important
findings.
5. The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be appropriate
and in accordance with the objective of the research problem.
6. Appendices should be enlisted in respected of all the technical data in the
report.
7. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must of a good report and must
necessarily be given.
8. Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as such must be
prepared and appended at the end.
9. Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean, whether typed or
printed.
10.Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various constraints
experienced in conducting the research study may also be stated in the report.
3. END MATTER
• Bibliography
• Appendices : a) Questionnaire b) Statistical table.
• Glossary of terms
• Index.
1. Title Of The Page
The title page must give the title of the research project. It must give
information about who prepared it, who supervised it, who sponsored it, date on
which it was presented and place where it was presented.
2. Certificate From The Guide
Normally this is issued and signed by the guide/supervisor stating that the
theses is the contribution made by the scholar and that the the guide has provided
only general guidance in shaping the work.
4. Foreword
It is generally given by a person whim the researcher think is highly a
expert on the pursued research project.
5. Preface
It gives a general introduction to the project and says a few words about its
importance. The researcher express his gratitude to others, he puts his signature,
place and date at the end of the preface.
6. Table Of Content
The chapters, sections and other headings used in the report and the pages
on which each of them is found
7. List Of Tables
All the tables used to present the data must be given along with the pages
on which they appeared in the report.
8. List Of Figures
All the figures, charts, diagrams, pictures etc given within the report must
be indicated along with the pages on which they have appeared.
9. List Of Appendixes
In this part of the contents the scholar would specify items included under
the appendixes. He would indicate the items in serial order, its title and the page
number where it is found eg. Govt policy, questionnaire etc.
10. Acknowledgement
In this page, the scholar expresses his gratefulness to all those who have
helped him in the course his research work.
12. Hypothesis
These are the assumptions the researcher holds regarding the problem.
the fact for a period of 10 years or is it focusing on the current status alone must
be indicated.
19. Methodology
It deals with the research design to be used, data collection methods to be
used. Sampling techniques to be used, field work to be carried out, analysis and
interpretation to be done.
21. Scope
What aspects are to be covered in the research are to be highlights in brief
in the section of methodology.
25. Findings
Here results and findings are given and discussed. The information which
have bearing on the objectives of the research should be included in the report.
26. Recommendation
The recommendation must not be made just on assumption basis. The
resources of the company to which recommendation are being made must be kept
in mind. It should not be a very expensive proposition which company cannot
implement owing to lack of funds. The recommendations must be such that could
be implemented.
27. Appendices
The information which is not directly related to the main body of the
research report should be included in the appendices for those readers who want
to go in depth of certain aspects of the research work.
28. Bibliography
It will contain the details of journal and books used and referred in the
course of the study. The details like, name of the book, author name, title of the
book; publisher’s name, year of publication, place of publication and edition are
all provided.
29. Index
It refers to an alphabetical list of name of author or subject matter
provided at the end of research reports. It enables the reader to locate the author
of subject matter easily.
30. Glossary
It refers to the definition of the technical terms used in the report.