CHEMISTRY 2

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• Phase – homogenous part of the system in constant with other
parts of the system but separated from them by well-defined
boundary
• Condensed phase – solids and liquids; particles interact strongly
• Atoms – basic unit of chemical element
• Molecules – A group of atoms bonded together
• Intramolecular forces – any force that binds together the atoms
making up a molecule or compound; “within”
• Intermolecular forces (IMF) – forces which mediate interaction
between molecules

Kinetic molecular theory

1. All mater is made up of tiny particles.
2. These particles are in constant motion.
3. The speed of particles is proportional to temperature
4. Solids, Liquids, and Gases differ in distances between the particles,
in the freedom of motion of particles and in the extent to which the
particles interact

PARTICLES SOLID LIQUID GAS

1 2 3

DISTANCE

Vibrational &
MOVEMENT Vibrational Transitional
Rotational

Tightly-packed, Close together, Well-separated,

ARRANGEMENT
regular pattern no regular pattern no regular pattern

EMPTY SPACE 1 2 3
Ranking is in ascending order

NOTE:
o Gases and Liquids are both fluid because of their ability to flow.

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Types of Intermolecular Forces
1. Dipole-dipole Interaction
o Separation of Charge
o Ionic and polar: the greater the electronegativity, the greater
the dipoles
o Explained through the Coulomb’s Law

2. Hydrogen Bonding
o Special type of dipole-dipole (Very strong)
o F, O, N bonded to H
o Important in biological systems

3. London Dispersion Forces (Van der Waal Forces)

o Nonpolar molecules
o The greater the mas, the greater the LDF
o Happen because of instants when the charge around an atom is
not symmetrical (temporary poles)
o London Force (Fritz London in 1930) ; Johannes van der Waals

NOTES:
o Polarizability – the extent to which a dipole moment can be
produced in a molecule
o The larger the amount of electrons and the larger or more diffused
the electron cloud in the atom or molecule, the greater its
polarizability
o The more atoms that make up the molecules, the stronger the
dispersion forces

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 POLAR VS. NONPOLAR
Polar
Asymmetrical
Uneven distribution of electric
charges; One end is more – or
more + than the other end
One of the ligands is the most
electronegative
Presence of lone pairs of
electron in the central atom
Not the same atom
Different terminal points
2 nonmetal atoms that have diff.
electronegativities (e.g. HCL)
3
Nonpolar
Symmetrical
Electric Charges are uniformly
distributed; two nuclei attract
the shared electrons equally
The central atom is the most
electronegative
Absence of lone pairs of
electron in the central atom
Same atom except for:
C → H and Cl → N
Same terminal points
2 nonmetal atoms that have the
same electronegativity (e.g. H2)
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
Surface Tension
o Resistance to an increase in surface area
o Amount of energy required to stretch or increase the surface of
a liquid by a unit area
o Water striders can walk on water because of high surface tension
o ↑ IMF ↑ Surface Tension

Capillary Action
o Tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or be drawn into
small openings, involving two forces:
▪ Cohesion – type of attraction between same molecules
▪ Adhesion – type of attraction between different molecules

o Determines the shape of the meniscus

Cohesion > Adhesion Adhesion > Cohesion
(Convex) (Concave)

e.g. Mercury (Hg) e.g. Water (H2O)

Cohesion = Adhesion (straight line)

e.g. Distilled water in silver container

Viscosity
o Measure of fluid’s resistance to flow
o Expressed in units of Centipoise
o ↑ Viscosity ↓ Rate of flow
o ↑ IMF ↑ Viscosity
o ↑ Present OH ↑ Viscosity
o ↑ Present C ↑ Viscosity

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Vapor Pressure
o Gas is in equilibrium with liquid when the rate of condensation
equals the rate of evaporation:

Molecules escape during Molecules have no escape

evaporation; no equilibrium during evaporation; equilibrium

o Equilibrium vapor pressure – exerted by the gas in equilibrium

with a liquid in a closed container at a given temperature
o Independent of:
▪ Amount of liquid
▪ Surface area of the liquid in contact of gas
o Dependent in temperature
o ↑ Temperature ↑ Vapor Pressure
o ↑ IMF ↓ Vapor Pressure

Molar Heat of Vaporization

o The energy required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a given
temperature; ↑ IMF ↑ Molar Heat of Vaporization

Boiling point
o Temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the external
pressure (vapor pressure = pressure acting on the surface)
o ↑ IMF ↑ Boiling point
o ↑ Altitude ↓ Atmospheric pressure ↓ Boiling point

Summary
As the strength of Intermolecular forces increases:
↑ Surface Tension ↑ Viscosity
↑ Molar Heat of Vaporization ↑ Boiling Point

↓ Vapor Pressure ↓ Rate of evaporation

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Water (H2O)
o Composes 50% - 75% of the human body
o Composes 75% - 80% of the Earth’s surface
o Can dissolve both bases and acids (universal solvent)
o Cannot dissolve lipids and nonpolar substances
o At sea level, water boils at 100 °C or 212 °F
o At sea level, water freezes at 0 °C or 32 °F
Hydrophilic Hydrophobic
Water loving; dissolves in water Water hating
e.g. nutrients, minerals e.g. fats, oils, waxes

PROPERTIES OF WATER
1. Cohesion
o Water striders can walk on water
o Cohesion-Adhesion Theory: Water can move up a plant and
evaporate into the air, even against the forces of gravity
2. High Specific Heat
o Amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature
by 1 °C
o Since water has the highest specific heat for all natural liquids, it
resists temperature change (heating and cooling)
3. High Heat of Vaporization
o Amount of energy required to convert 1g of substance from
liquid to gas.
o In order to evaporate, water’s hydrogen bond must be broken.
o Water vapor forms a global “blanket” which warms the Earth
o Heat radiated from the sun and surface of the Earth is absorbed
and held by the vapor
4. Water is less dense as a solid
o Ponds do not freeze from bottom up
o Ice floats and forms and form an insulating layer for the life below

Homeostasis – to maintain a steady state despite changing conditions

Water is important because:

a. Makes a good insulator d. Coolant
b. Resist temp changes e. Ice protects against temp
c. Universal solvent extremes (insulates)

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Properties of Solid
Volume and shape Fixed
Density High
Compressibility Cannot be compressed
Motion of molecules Minimal; Vibration in place

TWO GENERAL TYPES OF SOLIDS

1. Crystalline Solids
o Arranged in fixed geometric patterns
o Regular repeating three-dimensional structure (crystal lattice)
o When heated, attractive forces are broken down by the same
amount of energy; thus, crystals become liquids as specific temp
o E.g. salt and water

2. Amorphous “Shapeless” Solids

o No regular arrangement of particles (atoms vibrate in a more
random arrangement)
o When heated, they tend to melt over a wide range of temp
o Super-cooled liquids (e.g. rubber bands table books)

Types of Crystals
1. Metallic Crystals
o Made from atoms that readily lose electrons
o No atoms in the crystal would readily gain electrons
o Repulsion happens to delocalize electrons

2. Ionic Crystals
o Made of cations (+) and anions (-)
o Ionic bonding (e.g. NaCl, NH4ClO3, NH4HSO4)

3. Molecular Crystal
o Made up of atoms such as in noble gases or molecules
o Held together by a mix of H bonding, dipole-dipole, & LDF

4. Covalent Network Crystals

o Made up of atoms in which each atom is covalently bonded to
nearest neighbor (includes metalloids in pure substance)
o E.g. Graphite, Diamond, SiO2 (Quartz sand)

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 Properties of Crystals

Covalent
Metallic Ionic Molecular
Network
Melting
High High Low Very High
point

Electrical Good Poor in Poor Poor in Solid &

Conduction (semiconductor) Solid State (Insulator) Molten State

Heat
Good Good
conduction

Hard & Soft and

Hardness Brittle Hard
Brittle Brittle

Examples of Crystals

Cu Ni Pb Ag
Metallic
Al Zn Pt W

NaCl CsCl BaSO4 KF

Ionic
KMnO4 Ba(OH)2 NH4ClO3 NH4HSO4

H2O CO2 C12H22O11 Noble gases

H BOND DISPERSION F. H BOND DISPERSION F.
Molecular
STRONGEST IMF
NH3 SO2 S8 HBr
H BOND DIPOLE-DIPOLE DISPERSION F. DIPOLE-DIPOLE

C BN SiO2 Ge
GRAPHITE AND
BORON NITRIDE QUARTZ SAND GERMANIUM
Covalent DIAMOND
Network As Sb Te Po
ARSENIC ANTIMONY TELLURIUM POLONIUM

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Phase Change
o Caused by loss and gain of heat energy

Endothermic Reaction – within or internal; absorption of heat energy

o Melting o Vaporization o Sublimation

Exothermic Reaction – external or outside; release of heat energy

o Freezing o Condensation o Deposition
o Perspiration

TWO WAYS A SUBSTANCE USES ADDED HEAT:

1. The added heat increases the kinetic energy of the particles and the
particles move faster.
2. The added heat is used to break attractive forces between particles.

NOTE: During phase change, there is no change in temperature.

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Phase Change
𝑞 = 𝑚 △ 𝐻𝑓𝑢𝑠 = 𝑚 △ 𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 = 𝑚 △ 𝐻𝑠𝑢𝑏

Heat Change
𝑞 = 𝑚𝑆 △ 𝑇
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝

Molar Heat for Water (H2O)

△ 𝑯𝒇𝒖𝒔 △ 𝑯𝒗𝒂𝒑 △ 𝑯𝒔𝒖𝒃
Solid → Liquid Liquid → Gas Solid → Gas

6.01 𝐾𝐽 40.8 𝐾𝐽 46.81 𝐾𝐽

𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙

0.334 𝐾𝐽 2.267 𝐾𝐽 2.601 𝐾𝐽

𝑔 𝑔 𝑔

Specific Heat of Water (H2O)

SOLID LIQUID GAS
2.06 𝐽 4.184 𝐽 2.02 𝐽
𝑔 °𝐶 𝑔 °𝐶 𝑔 °𝐶

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Phase Diagrams
o Graphical representation of the physical states of substance under
different conditions of temperature and pressure

Features of Phase Diagrams:

1. Three (3) Areas
o Solid Phase: ↓ Temperature ↑ Pressure
o Liquid Phase
o Gas Phase: ↑ Temperature ↓ Pressure

2. Three (3) Curves – boundary; two phase changes are at equilibrium

o Melting and Freezing Curve
o Vaporization and Condensation Curve
o Sublimation and Deposition Curve

3. Two (2) points

o Triple point - all 3 phases of a substance coexist at equilibrium
o Critical point - critical temperature + critical pressure
▪ Critical temperature - a gas cannot be liquefied
▪ Critical pressure - pressure required to liquefy a gas at its
critical temperature
NOTE:
o Beyond the critical point, supercritical fluid exists.
o Negative slope of melting curve (e.g. H2O) indicates that its liquid
form is denser than its solid form

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Solution
o A special type of homogenous mixture composed of two or more
substances

Solvent - substance that does the dissolving; reagent in bigger amount

Solute - substance to be dissolved; reagent in smaller amount

Concentration Expression
Let number of moles be n

Mole fraction (X)

Ratio of the number of moles of one component of a mixture to the total
number of moles of all components
𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑨 𝒏𝒂
𝑿= =
𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒏𝒂 + 𝒏𝒃 + 𝒏𝒄 + ⋯

Molality (-m)
Ratio of the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒍
−𝒎 =
𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑲𝒈

Molarity (M)
Number of moles of solute per L of solution
𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝑴=
𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑳

Percent by Mass (% m/m)

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
%𝒎/𝒎 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

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Stoichiometry
o Relationship between the relative quantities of substances taking
part in a reaction or formation of a compound.

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Steps in Solution Formation
1. Expanding of solute particles (Endothermic Reaction)
2. Expanding of solvent particles (Endothermic Reaction)
3. Merging of solute and solvent particles (Exothermic Reaction)

Enthalpy of Solution
△H = amount of heat absorbed or released during a reaction at constant
pressure

Endothermic Process Exothermic Process

Breaking of bonds Forming of bonds

Surroundings get cooler Surroundings get warmer

Substance gets warmer Substance gets cooler

NOTE: If the exothermic mixing exceeds the endothermic expansion,

there will be a net exothermic heat of solution.

Exothermic Solution Formation

△H1 + △H2 < |-△H3|

Endothermic Solution Formation

△H1 + △H2 > |-△H3|

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The Energy Terms for Various Types of Solutes & Solvents
P = polar NP = nonpolar

△H1 △H2 △H3 △H sol’n Outcome

P solute Solution
Large Large Large (-) Small
P solvent Forms

NP solute No
Small Large Small Large (+)
P solvent Solution

NP solute Solution
Small Small Small Small
NP solvent Forms

P solute No
Large Small Small Large (+)
NP solvent Solution

Solubility
o Maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given volume
of solvent

Factors Affecting Solubility

1. Nature of solute and solvent

2. Temperature (effect on solid and gas solutes)

Most solids: ↑ Temperature ↑ Solubility
except e.g. Ce2(SO4)3

Gases: ↑ Temperature ↓ Solubility

e.g. Boiled water tastes flat because less 02 gas dissolved

3. Pressure (solubility of gas in liquid)

Gas on gas-liquid solution: ↑ Pressure ↑ Solubility

NOTE: Stirring does not affect solubility; it only affects rate of diffusion

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Colligative Properties
o Properties of solution that depends on the concentration of solute
particles but not on the identity of solute

1. Vapor Pressure Lowering

Solute molecules block solvent molecules on the surface in increasing
the vapor pressure.

2. Boiling Point Elevation

Solute molecules block solvent molecules in boiling.

3. Freezing point depression

Solute molecules block solvent molecules in forming a lattice
structure.

Ionic Solutes
o When dissolved in water, dissociates into cations and anions:
e.g. NaCl → Na+ + Cl-
o Has a greater effect on colligative properties than molecular solutes

Molecular solutes
o When dissolved in water, remains the same substance
e.g. Sugar (C12H22O11) remains sugar
o Has a weaker effect on colligative properties than ionic solutes

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 Thermochemistry
Study of heat change in chemical reactions

System - specific part of the universe that is of interest in the study

Open System Closed System Isolated System

Exchange of
Exchange of energy Nothing
mass and energy

Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Law of Conservation of Energy
In an isolated system, energy can neither be created not destroyed.
It can only be transformed from one kind to another.

2. Entropy (degree of disorder)

The entropy of any isolated system always increases. The entropy of
the universe (the ultimate isolated system) only increases and never
decreases.

3. Absolute Zero (0K or -273°C)

The entropy of a system at absolute zero is typically zero and is
determined only by the number of different ground states it has.

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 Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions

o Heat - transfer of thermal energy between two bodies that are at

different temperatures; total energy of all the molecular motion
inside that object

o Temperature - measure of the average heat or thermal energy of the

molecules in a substance

Endothermic Process Exothermic Process

Gives off heat

Heat must be supplied to the
transfers thermal energy from
system from the surroundings
the system to the surroundings

Hproducts > Hreactants Hproducts < Hreactants

△H > 0 (+) △H < 0 (-)

energy + 2HgO (s) → 2Hg (l) + O2 (g) 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (l) + energy

energy + H2O (s) → H2O (l) H2O (g) → H2O (l) + energy

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 Thermochemical Equations
o Enthalpy (H) is used to quantify the heat flow into or out of a system
in a process that occurs at constant pressure.
△H = heat given or absorbed during a reaction at constant pressure
△H = H (products) – H (reactants)

o Specific heat (s) - amount of heat (q) required to raise the temp of
one gram of the substance by 1°C

o Heat capacity (C = ms) - amount of heat (q) required to raise the

temperature of a given quantity (m) of the substance by 1°C

o Heat (q) Absorbed or Released

q = ms△t q = C△t △t = tfinal - tinitial

Rules of Thermochemical Equations:

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 Chemical Kinetics
Study of how fast chemical reactions occur

o Speed of a reaction - change in concentration with time.

The Collision Model

o In a chemical reaction, bonds are broken and new bonds are formed.
o Molecules can only react if they collide with each other.
o Molecules must collide with the correct orientation and with enough
energy to cause bond breakage and formation.

Orientation of Molecules

NOTE: Double bonds contain negatively-charged electrons

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Activation Energy (Ea-)
o Minimum amount of energy required for reaction
o Enough energy: activated complex becomes products
o Not enough energy: activated complex goes back as reactants

Energy Profile

Factors that affect the Rate of Reaction

1. Temperature
↑Temp ↑Kinetic Energy ↑Amount of Effective Collision ↑RR

2. Concentration of Reactants
↑Concentration ↑Frequency of Collision ↑RR

3. Catalyst - substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction

without itself being consumed
↓ Activation Level ↑Effective Collision ↑RR

4. Surface Area of a solid Reactant

↑Surface Area ↑Parts exposed ↑Frequency of Collision ↑RR

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Rates of Reaction
Reaction rate is the change in the concentration of a reactant or a
product with time (M/s).

For the reaction A  B there are two ways of measuring rate:

(1) the speed at which the reactants disappear
(2) the speed at which the products appear

Rate = ∆[A]/∆t
Most Common Units… Rate = M/s
Where Molarity (M) = moles/Liter

Changes in concentrations of the reactants and/or products is inversely

proportional to their stoichiometric proportions.

2N2O5(g)  4NO2(g) + O2(g)

Rate = −½ ∆ [N2O5]/∆t = ¼ ∆[NO2]/∆t = ∆[O2]/∆t

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Rate Law
o Refers to the equation that gives reaction rate as a function of
reactant concentrations
o Rate laws are always determined experimentally.
o Reaction order is always defined in terms of reactant (not product)
concentrations.
o The order of a reactant is not related to the stoichiometric
coefficient of the reactant in the balanced chemical equation.
o The overall concentration dependence of reaction rate is given in a
rate law or rate expression.

Rate = k [A]m [B]n

o [A] & [B] represent the reactants.
o The exponents m and n are called “reaction orders”.
o The proportionality constant k is called the rate constant.
o The overall reaction order is the sum of the reaction orders: m + n

Order of Reactions
o A reaction is zero order in a reactant if the change in concentration
of that reactant produces no effect.
o A reaction is 1st order if doubling the concentration causes the rate
to double.
o A reaction is 2nd order if doubling the concentration causes a
quadruple increase in rate.
o A reaction is 3rd order if doubling the concentration leads to 23 (or 8
times) the rate.

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 Acid Base
Arrhenius H+ and H3O+ sources OH- sources

Bronsted-Lowry Proton donors Proton acceptors

Lewis Electron pair acceptor Electron pair donor

The reversible reaction contains two acids and two bases. We think of
them in pairs (conjugate pairs):

Members of a conjugate pair differ from each other by the presence or

absence of the transferrable hydrogen ion.

Amphoteric Substances
o Substances that can act either as acid or a base
o Most common example is H20

Amphiprotic substances
o Both accept and donate protons

All amphiprotic are amphoteric but not all amphoteric are amphiprotic.

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pH (Potential of Hydrogen)
o measure of acidity or alkalinity of water soluble substances

NOTE: A change of 1 pH unit represents tenfold (10x) change in the

acidity of a solution.

Pure water (H2O)

o Has a pH of 7 at room temperature (25 °C)
o Has a pH of 6.14 at 100 °C
o Considered neutral since [H+] = [OH-]
H2O → H+ + OH-

Strong Acids and Bases

pH = -log [ H3O+ ] [ H3O+ ] = 10-pH

pOH = -log [ OH- ] [OH-] = 10-pOH

pH + pOH = 14.0

Water Constant (Kw) = [H+] [OH-] = 1 x 10-14

NOTE: Acids and bases are classified as strong or weak based on the
degree to which they ionize in water.

Strong Acid or Strong Base

o Completely ionizes in aqueous solution (strong electrolytes)
o E.g. Hydrochloric Acid (HCl), Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

Weak Acid or Weak Base

o Slightly ionizes in aqueous solution (weak electrolytes)
o Ethanoic Acid (CH3COOH), Ammonium Hydroxide (NH4OH)

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Acid Dissociation Constant (Ka)
o Ratio of the concentration of the dissociated form of an acid to the
concentration of the undissociated form
o Dissociated form = [H3O+] [Anion]
o Directly proportional to the strength of Acid (↑Ka ↑ Acid Strength)

Computation for Weak Acids

[𝐻3 𝑂 + ] [𝐴− ] [𝐻𝐵 + ] [𝑂𝐻 − ]
𝐾𝑎 = 𝐾𝑏 =
[𝐻𝐴] [𝐵]

𝐾𝑤 = 𝐾𝑎 × 𝐾𝑏 = 10 × 10−14

[𝐻3 𝑂+ ]𝑒𝑞
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
[𝐻𝐴]𝑂

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