Curso Preparacion Materiales and Processes For NDT

“CURSO DE PREPARACION NIVEL III”
MATERIALES AND
PROCESSES FOR NDT
TECHNOLOGY
“CAPITULO 2”
Introduction to Manufacturing Technology
insptenda@gmail.com Tlfs 00 58 414 4330883 Realizado por : Ing. Carlos Miranda

Webster defines "manufacture" as "to make by hand, by machinery, or by other agency; to produce by
labor, especially now with division of labor and usually by machinery."
Such a definition is all-inclusive. It covers the making of foods, drugs, textiles, chemicals, and, in
fact, everything made usable or more usable by the conversion of shape, form, or properties of
natural materials.
Special interests have developed in the mechanical and industrial phases of industry concerned with
the making of durable goods of metals and plastics. The majority of metals and some other materials
fall in a class that is often referred to as engineering materials.
Characteristic of this group are the properties of relatively high hardness, strength, toughness, and
durability.
Glass, ceramics, wood, concrete, and textiles, although they may compete with metals in many
applications, have usually been excluded from these structural materials because of a difference in the
combination of properties, a difference in processing requirements, and a difference in type of goods
produced.
The list of so-called engineering materials continues to grow with the addition of new metallic
combinations, plastics, and even materials that have been previously excluded from the list, as they
are developed with better properties or used in new applications.
Present interpretation of the term engineering materials includes most metals and those plastics that
are solids and have reasonable strength at room temperature.
This book will be concerned with these materials and the processes that are used to shape
them or change their properties to a more usable form.
Realizado por : Ing. Carlos Miranda insptenda@gmail.com Tlfs 00 58 414 4330883
HISTORY
The growth of industry in the United States is typical of industrial development throughout the
world. Early settlers were concerned primarily with food and shelter.
Most manufactured goods were imported but some manufacturing was done in the family units.
Eventually, as conditions were stabilized, efficiency improved and excess goods were available
for sale and trade. The factory form of industry finally resulted, under control of single families.
Some of these still exist but most have changed to corporate enterprises under ownership
of many individuals.
Early Manufacturing.
The first manufacturing was devoted mainly to agricultural and military needs. One
of the earliest industrial operations to grow to large size was the reduction of ore to metal. By
its very nature, particularly for ferrous metals, this process is not adaptable to very small
operations. The trend in this industry to increasing size has continued to the present.
A few very large corporations produce nearly all of the basic metals, even though there are
many small fabricators.

Interchangeability. The Civil War and the expanding frontier created much incentive for the
manufacture of firearms. Many will remember that the first example of true interchangeability
and the development of better transportation following the Civil War resulted in
rapid growth of production goods. Many of the products were considered luxuries at the time
but since have become necessities to the modern life style.
Importance of Manufacturing. Manufactured products are an integral part of everyone's life,
but most persons do not realize the great amount of investment and labor that makes those
products possible. Realization
comes with thought that almost every activity, regardless of field, is in some way dependent on
hardware produced by the manufacturing industry. Approximately 25% of the gross national
income is spent for manufactured goods and about the same proportion of the United States'
working force is employed in the manufacturing industry.

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONSHIPS
COMPETITION IN INDUSTRY
In the American way of life, the profit motive is the root of most business, including
manufacturing.
The system presumes direct competition, so that if a number of companies are engaged in the
manufacture of similar products, the sales volume will be in proportion to the produs2t quality,
promotional activities, service policies, and price. The cost of manufacturing
therefore becomes of prime importance, for the company that can produce at the lowest cost
and maintain quality can spend more for sales activities, can'sell at a lower cost, or can make a
larger profit per sale than competitors in a less fortunate position.
For this reason industry is continually engaged in a battle to lower production costs and to gain
this favored position.

Direct Competition Limited. Because of the complexity of the overall manufacturing operation,
many decisions are, of necessity, rather arbitrary. For nearly all products, there are many
alternatives of design, materials, and processing that will satisfy the function the product is to
have. For many products, direct sales-price comparisons are not adequate, for different
demands for similar products made of different materials or having different designs may exist.
The purchaser is truly the final decision-maker. Which makes advertising and sales promotion a
most important phase of the business.
Adequate time is often not available to study the effect of a design on the market or to
investigate all the possible processes of manufacture, particularly for new products.
Sometimes, to determine the exact material that would serve best even for a fixed design
is too time consuming. In any case, reasonable decisions must be made, and when absolute
knowledge is not available, they are based on past experiences of similar nature. Because of
the interrelationships existing in manufacturing, accurate decisions will depend not only on
exact knowledge of a specific area but also on knowledge of interaction from related areas.

PERSONNEL
Several kinds of workers are needed in any manufacturing operation. Some work directly with the
product, and some are only indirectly connected with the product but are more concerned with the
organization producing the goods. Those directly connected with the product include the designer,
those responsible for choosing the processes, establishing control over the operation, and supervising
the manufacturing, and the machine and equipment operators who perform the actual work of
converting raw material into useful objects. Each of these, to function effectively in his job, must have
varying degrees of knowledge concerning the product requirements, the material properties, and the
equipment limitations. Most jobs directly connected with the product call for specific knowledge in
depth concerning certain phases of the work and more general knowledge of related areas.
Products, from the simplest single part items to the most complex assemblies costing millions of
dollars each, go through a series of chosen steps of manufacture as they proceed from raw material
to completed useful products. In order to conserve energy, material, time, effort, and to reduce cost,
it is necessary at each stage of product development that qualified personnel examine the processed
material to insure that the final product has the quality and reliability expected from the design. A
large part of the manufacturing effort therefore is in addition to modifying material and adding to the
product development. Essentially all products require a degree of inspection of the material to see
that it conforms to the requirements that provide a high quality product. Although not normally
classed as direct labor, sales personnel usually must have complete familiarity with the product and
its manufacture. They are called upon to recommend, compare, troubleshoot, and even install a
product.
Indirect.
Other personnel are only indirectly connected with the product or the manufacturing
operation.
These include most workers in administration, accounting, finance, purchasing, custodial
service, and other support areas. The personnel who . work in these areas may be highly skilled
or trained in their own field. They do not need extensive technical knowledge of the product or
its manufacture. However, they may still make decisions that are far-reaching in effect on the
products. Therefore, they do need broad understanding of the product and the manufacturing
facility.

NOMENCLATURE
The ability of personnel from one area of manufacturing to discuss and understand problems
with people from another area will depend directly on their knowledge of the nomenclature
used in the area of concern. A designer, to discuss intelligently with a production man the
effects of various design changes on the method and cost of production, must be able
to understand and use the language of the production man. In most cases, he needs to know at
least the names of the various machines and tools that might be used and have some
understanding of their capabilities.
In the final analysis, the problems of the production of a product become the problems of the
machine and equipment operators. The loyalty, cooperation, and respect for supervision of
these operators, necessary for the proper solution of production problems, can be gained only
when a full understanding exists between the two groups. Of necessity, this understanding must
be based on suitable language, including proper terminology, even to the point of using local
terms and nicknames when appropriate. Similarly, NDT personnel must communicate with
production and other personnel.

SUBJECT MATTER
Even with the limitations that have been placed on the term manufacturing processes for use in
this text, many possible variations of content and organization of subject matter exist. The
principal objective of this text will be to present a broad discussion of the materials used in
manufacturing and the principal processes by which these materials are made into
usable products. The subject of materials and manufacturing processes is truly a single subject
when the orientation of discussion is toward the end product that must be manufactured to
fulfill some function.
Although the attempt has been made in this book to show this singleness of subject matter, it is
still necessary to treat specific areas as specific topics. Similarly, manufacturing plants are
normally divided into areas in which the equipment and personnel concentrate
on particular manufacturing operations. For example, a foundry may produce only iron castings
of a certain weight range because of specialized experience and equipment.

MATERIALS
An understanding of materials is important to any manufacturing procedure. One or more materials
are required for any product, and most can be processed in a number of different ways. However, for
many materials, the processing possibilities are very limited, and the process may be dictated by the
particular material chosen.
Properties. The practical 'differences between various materials is in their properties or combinations
of properties. Compared to many other materials, steel is hard and strong and may be chosen as a
manufacturing material for these reasons. Steel is elastic to some extent. However, if elasticity is the
important property of interest, it may be necessary to choose a material like rubber for the
application. An intelligent comparison of materials depends on precise meanings of the terms used
and an understanding of how properties are defined and measured. Some properties are defined by
tests, such that the results may be used directly as design data. For example, from a standard tensile
test, the modulus of elasticity of a material may be determined, and a designer can use this value to
predict accurately the deflection of a certain-size beam under known loads. On the other hand, many
properties are defined no less specifically but in a more arbitrary manner, which makes the use of
the test results for calculation difficult or impossible.
However, the tests still provide the opportunity for accurate comparisons with data obtained from
similar tests from other materials. For example, hardness measurements may give an indication of
relative wear resistance for different materials, or hardness numbers may correlate with tensile
strength for a given material, but the number values can seldom be used directly in computation for
design loads.
Property Variations.
Each elemental material has at least some properties different from those of all other elemental
materials. Some or all of the properties of an element may be changed by the addition of even
small parts of another element. In many cases the properties obtained from the combination
will he better than those of either element alone. In a similar manner, the properties of
elements or combinations can he varied by the type of treatment given the material.
The treatments that affect properties are often intentionally selected for this purpose.
However, the properties are no less affected, often in an undesirable way, by the processes
being used with the objective of shaping the material. Sufficient knowledge of the relationship
between the properties and the processing of materials may permit the improvement of the
properties as a natural result of the processing for a different main objective. Reducing
the cross-sectional size during the shaping of most metals results in an increase in hardness and
strength that may be undesirable if the metal must undergo further deformation processing. In
maily cases, this increase in hardness and strength that occurs as a result of the processing can
be beneficial and part of the product design.

PROCESSES
Manufacturing consists of converting some raw material, which may be in rough,
unrefined shape, into a usable product. The selection of the material and the
processes to be used seldom can be separated. Although in a few cases some unusual
property requirements dictate a specific material, generally a wide choice exists in
the combination of material and
processing that will satisfy the product requirements.
The choice usually becomes one of economic comparison. In any case, a material is
usually selected first, sometimes rather arbitrarily, and a process must then be
chosen. Processing consists of one or many separate steps producing changes in
shape or properties, or both.

Shape Changes. Shape changing of most materials can be accomplished with the material in
one of several different forms or states: liquid, solid, or plastic. Melting of a material and
control of its shape while it solidifies is referred to as casting. Reshaping of the material in the
plastic or semisolid forin is called molding, forging, pressworking, rolling, or extrusion.
Shaping by metal removal or separation in the solid state is commonly performed to produce
product shapes. If the removed material is in chip form, the process is machining. The joining
of solid parts by welding usually involves small localized liquid areas that are allowed to solidify
to produce a complete union between solid parts.
Energy Form. The material condition and the energy form used to effect these shape changes
may vary. As noted, the material may be in a liquid, solid, or plastic form. The energy may be
supplied in the form of heat, mechanical power, chemical reaction, electrical energy, or, as in
one of the newest procedures, light. In nearly every instance, one principal
objective is shape changes, but usually part of the energy is consumed in property changes,
particularly in those processes involving state changes or solid deformation. Different materials
react differently to the same energy system, and the same materials react
differently to different energy systems.

Process Effect on Properties. Many concepts and fundamentals in reference to materials are
common to different kinds of processes. When studied in conection with the material, these
concepts , then, can be applied regardless of the kind of process by which the material is
treated. T he metallurgical changes that take place during solidification during casting are of
the same nature as those that take place in fusion welding.
Auxiliary Steps . The completion of a product for final use generally includes the various
finishing procedures apart from basic shape-changing processes. The dimensions and
properties that are produced by any process are subject to variation, and, in practically
all cases, some inspection of nondestructive type is necessary for controlling the process and for
assuring that the final product meets certain specifications as to size and other properties. As
one of the final steps, or sometimes as an intermediate step, control of properties
by heat treatment or other means may be necessary. The final steps may also require surface
changes for appearance, wear properties, corrosion protection, or other uses. These steps may
involve only the base material or may require the addition of paints, platings , or other coatings.
Few finished products are constructed of single pieces of material because of the impracticality
of producing them at a reasonable cost. Also, it is frequently necessary that properties that can
be obtained only from different materials be combined into a single unit. The result is that
most manufactured articles consist of assemblies of a number of separate parts. The joining of
these parts can be accomplished in many ways, with the best method being dependent on all
the factors of shape, size, and material properties involved in the particular design.
ECONOMICS
The private ownership systems of business and industry in the United States are profit
motivated. In a competitive market, the manufacturer who makes the most profit will be the
one who has the best combination of design, materials choice, and manufacturing processes.
Ultimately, most decisions become a compromise between the most desirable from a design,
life, and function standpoint and the most practical from a production and cost standpoint.
Design.
The designer must not only know the functional requirements of the product but also have
some knowledge of the probable market demands for various levels of quality and appearance.
He certainly must be familiar with the mechanical properties of the various materials he might
choose.
Less obvious at times is the importance of the part the designer plays in the selection of
manufacturing processes. If the designer designates a sheet-metal housing; for a radio,
obviously, the housing cannot he a plastic molded part or a die casting. If he specifies certain
tolerances, these not only may dictate that a certain dimension be achieved by machining but
also may even dictate the specific type of machine to be used. C'lt-au-ly then, in every case, the
designer's choices of materials, shapes, finishes, tolerances, and other factors restrict the
possible choices to be made in the manufacturing process. The designer may also specify the
NDT criteria, thus influencing the choice of NDT.
Choice of !Materials. Engineering materials, metals and others, have properties that vary over
wide ranges with many overlaps . Costs also vary widely, but the cheapest material suitable for
the product does not necessarily insure the product will have the lowest cost.
For example , a lower cost steel substituted for another may satisfy the functional requirements
of the product but may lead to increased inspection costs, thus decreasing or eliminating the
margin of necessary profit.

Quantity. The number of a product that is made can have more influence on the cost than the design
or the type of material used. Most manufacturing processes involve both a get-ready, or setup cost,
and a production cost. The setup cost can range from nothing to many thousands of dollars,
depending on the type of process and the amount of special tooling needed. The actual production
time for each product is usually inversely related to the setup cost.
Quality. Quality costs money. Higher quality implies longer life, better finishes, better materials,
quieter operation, and more precision. These factors all involve greater costs that may be justified by
market demand. If not justified, competition will satisfy the demand with lower quality at lower cost.
Inspection . Inspection also costs money to perform, but, in another sense, like advertising, it pays;
in fact, it is essential to assure better quality product output and to improve customer relations.
Modern technology has produced much inspection equipment needed for nondestructive testing.
However, proper application of inspection methods and interpretation of their test indications is not
possible without relying upon qualified nondestructive test personnel.
Capable individuals are needed to provide input to the decision processes regarding the integrity and
serviceability of the test objects, stemming from the indirect indications provided by nondestructive
tests.
Such persons must have an adequate background of knowledge concerning the materials and
manufacturing technologies involved in their specific industries, and the service conditions to which
their products will be subjected, in order to make valid decisions.

ORDER
The enormous quantity of knowledge available about manufacturing processes can be discussed
in varying degrees of depth and coverage. The following chapters of this book have been chosen
with the hope that the order will seem logical and conducive to maximum learning. The
Discussion does not go into great detail in the belief that for the purpose of this book broad
knowledge of the overall manufacturing system is more important than the development of
depth in any special but restricted area.
Materials. As has been indicated in this chapter, the properties of materials are very important
and cannot be divorced from the manufacturing processes.
The first topic of discussion will therefore be properties, with their definitions, which generally
consist of a description of the test procedure used to measure the property, followed by the
fundamentals of metallurgy as they apply to the commonly used manufacturing materials and
processes. The properties of specific materials will be discussed only as theyaffect the process
choice and as the process affects them.
Processes. The major processes of casting, deformation shaping, welding, machining, and
finishing will be discussed with an emphasis in length and depth commensurate with their use
and importance to NDT personnel. The experiences of many individuals frequently leads to a
belief that one area of manufacturing is more important than others, but the interrelationships
are such that no one area can exist alone, and the importance of any process in an individual
case is entirely dependent upon its relation to the product with which it is associated.
Contactos
• Ing. Carlos Miranda 58- 414-433.08.83
carlosmirandandt@gmail.com
insptenda@gmail.com
Lulimar Diaz 58-424-627.91.49
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“CURSO DE PREPARACION NIVEL III”

insptenda@gmail.com Tlfs 00 58 414 4330883 Realizado por : Ing. Carlos Miranda

Realizado por : Ing. Carlos Miranda insptenda@gmail.com Tlfs 00 58 414 4330883

Realizado por : Ing. Carlos Miranda insptenda@gmail.com Tlfs 00 58 414 4330883

Realizado por : Ing. Carlos Miranda insptenda@gmail.com Tlfs 00 58 414 4330883

Realizado por : Ing. Carlos Miranda insptenda@gmail.com Tlfs 00 58 414 4330883

Realizado por : Ing. Carlos Miranda insptenda@gmail.com Tlfs 00 58 414 4330883

Realizado por : Ing. Carlos Miranda insptenda@gmail.com Tlfs 00 58 414 4330883

Realizado por : Ing. Carlos Miranda insptenda@gmail.com Tlfs 00 58 414 4330883

Realizado por : Ing. Carlos Miranda insptenda@gmail.com Tlfs 00 58 414 4330883

Realizado por : Ing. Carlos Miranda insptenda@gmail.com Tlfs 00 58 414 4330883

Realizado por : Ing. Carlos Miranda insptenda@gmail.com Tlfs 00 58 414 4330883

Realizado por : Ing. Carlos Miranda insptenda@gmail.com Tlfs 00 58 414 4330883

Realizado por : Ing. Carlos Miranda insptenda@gmail.com Tlfs 00 58 414 4330883

Lulimar Diaz 58-424-627.91.49

Pagina Web: En Construcción www.INSPTENDA.com

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