A Look Into the Forces That Hold Molecules Together.

Kenneth G. Poczekaj

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HS-PS1-3: Plan and conduct an investigation to gather evidence to compare the structure of substances
at the bulk scale to infer the strength of electrical forces between particles.

Science and Engineering Practices:

Plan and conduct an investigation individually and collaboratively to produce data to

serve as the basis for evidence, and in the design: decide on types, how much, and
accuracy of data needed to produce reliable measurements and consider limitations on
the precision of the data (e.g., number of trials, cost, risk, time), and refine the design
accordingly.

Disciplinary Core Ideas:

PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter.

The structure and interactions of matter at the bulk scale are determined by electrical
forces within and between atoms.

PS2.B: Types of Interactions

Attraction and repulsion between electric charges at the atomic scale explain the
structure, properties, and transformations of matter, as well as the contact between
material objects. (secondary)

Crosscutting Concepts:

Patterns: different patterns may be observed at each of the scales at which a system is
studied and can provide evidence for causality in explanations of phenomena.

Objectives

1. Students will be able to differentiate intramolecular and intermolecular forces from one another
(this lesson will not cover the different types of intermolecular forces such as dipole-dipole).

2. Students will be able to identify molecular, covalent (network covalent), and ionic structures at
the symbolic, macroscopic and particulate level.

3. Students will be able to use boiling and melting points, vapor pressure, and surface tension to
compare relative strength between substance particles.

4. Students will be able to conduct an experiment to determine the type of bonds present in
multiple different substances (Table salt, graphite, solid water, etc.) using boiling and melting
points, vapor pressure, and surface tension.

5. Students will be able to use previously mentioned experiment to compare relative strength
between substance particles of similar structures (two molecular substances like water and
ethanol using vapor pressure).

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Requisite Knowledge

The learner is able to:

• Identify the difference between an atom, molecule, ion, and electrons.

• Identify valence electrons and their abilities to form bonds.
• Describe the basic atomic model.
• Distinguish the physical states of matter and their processes (Melting, Vaporization, Freezing,
Condensation, Sublimation, Deposition).
• Describe basic bond theory.
• Describe polarity.
• Determine the relative properties of elements from the periodic table (e.g., metals and
nonmetals, electronegativity, etc.).
• Students will be able to differentiate between covalent and ionic bonds.

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Safety Considerations and Precautions

Chemical Signal GHS-US Classification

Word/Hazard
Acetone Danger Flammable liquids (C-2)
Serious Eye Damage/Eye Irritation (C-2A)
Specific target organ toxicity (single exposure) (C-3)
Isopropyl Alcohol Danger Flammable liquids (C-2)
Serious Eye Damage/Eye Irritation (C-2A)
Specific target organ toxicity (single exposure) (C-3)
Silicon Dioxide N/A Not Classified
Deionized Water N/A Not Classified
Sodium Chloride N/A Not Classified
Vanillin Warning Eye irritation (C-A)
Acute aquatic toxicity (C-3)
Chronic aquatic toxicity (C-3)
*These values were obtained through the SDS provided by http://www.labchem.com/documents-
reports/sds.html

Physical Hazard
Hot Plate Burns
Fire
Electrical Shock
Glassware Scrapes/Cuts/Lacerations
Burns (if heated)
Fire (if heated)

Proper safety instruction will be administered before every demonstration and lab. Student will
be required to wear goggles at all times during laboratory experimenting and will be required to wear
heat resistant gloves while handling heated materials. All spills and broken equipment/glassware will be
reported to the teacher immediately and proper cleaning/disposal procedures will be followed. Any
injury will be reported immediately to the teacher and proper protocol will follow according to the
injury. In case of a fire, proper protocol and procedure will follow. All liquid chemicals may be safely
poured down the drain. All solid waste will be collected in a solid waste container to be recycled for
future use. Address the safety sections within each activity for more details.

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Scientific Background

Intramolecular forces are the forces within a molecule such as covalent or ionic bonds.
Intermolecular forces are the attractions between two or more separate molecules. While both
influence the physical properties of the compound, intermolecular forces tend to be more easily
observed as less energy is usually required to break intermolecular forces that intramolecular forces.
Ionic and covalent bonds are two different intramolecular bond types between atoms. The
covalent bond uses sharing of electron pairs between atoms to balance out the attractive and repulsive
forces between atoms. This type of bond is generally found between two nonmetal atoms. Meanwhile,
the ionic bond uses a complete transfer of valence electron(s) between the atoms forming two
oppositely charged ions which are then held together by their electrostatic attraction. This type of bond
is generally found between a nonmetal and a metal atom.
It is important to understand that there are three levels of representation in chemistry; the
symbolic, the macroscopic, and the particulate level. A student must be able to identify concepts at all
three levels in order fully understand these concepts. For instance, table salt as we know it exists as a
white crystalline structure. At the symbolic level we refer to it as NaCl, Na+ and Cl-, as well as sodium
chloride. At the particulate scale we can see that the solid is a series of continuous bonds between
sodium ions and chloride ions within the solid form. When dissolved in water, these ions are separated
by the polar interactions of water where the partial positive charge of the hydrogen in water interacts
with the chlorine ions and the partial negative charge of the oxygen in water interacts with the sodium
ions.
As for covalent structures and solids we can observe these structures at the macroscopic scale
and see graphite or diamond crystals. These solids are formed by continuous covalent bonds between
carbon atoms. At the symbolic level, these structures would only be referred to as carbon despite being
so different to the naked eye. This is due to the different ways in which the carbon atoms have bonded
to one another.
When observing molecular structures, we use water, sugar, and acetone as examples. These
visible structures we see are mainly held together by intermolecular forces between the same
molecules. Water, for instance, creates hydrogen bonds between other molecules helping it hold its
shape. In order for these molecules to undergo a physical change, the strength of the intermolecular
forces must be overcome. When heat is applied to solid water, eventually enough energy is transferred
to turn the solid into a liquid state. If even more heat is applied, the liquid will vaporize. So, how does
this translate to the particulate and symbolic state? For water, we can represent a single molecule as
H2O. Water is also a polar molecule which means it contains a partial positive and a partial negative
charge. The partial negative charge of one water molecule interacts with the partial positive charge of
another water molecule. The physical state of the water then is based off of the number of molecules
that are able to have these interactions.
There are many ways to measure the strengths of both intramolecular and intermolecular forces
within and between atoms/molecules. Some of these include boiling point, melting point, vapor
pressure, and surface tension. Many solids melt when enough energy is added to the system changing
the physical state from a solid to a liquid. Many liquids vaporize when enough energy is added to the
system changing the physical state from a liquid to a gas. These two phase changes can be measured

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using the boiling point (the point at which a liquid begins to vaporize) and the melting point (the point at
which a solid begins to melt). At the microscopic level, when energy is put into a system, the more
excited and active the molecules become making it harder to maintain bonding interactions, thus
changing to a physical state corresponding to that energy level. When observing surface tension, one
can measure how surface of fluids is elastic and works to minimize surface area by testing objects’
abilities to float or by how it fills a container. Vapor pressure is the equilibrium pressure of the gaseous
and liquid/solid form of a compound as the compound vaporizes within a closed system. A compound
with weaker molecular forces will vaporize more easily/readily and will have a greater vapor pressure
than a compound with stronger molecular forces under the same conditions.

Misconceptions

• Ionic compounds contain molecules. (Pérez J, 2017)

o By aiding in the understanding of the ionic lattice structure at the symbolic level, the
students should be able to see that a solid ionic compound merely contains ionic
subunits, but no actual molecules which interact with one another.
o This will be addressed during the Engage discussion, the Explore illustrations, and the
Explain illustrations/lecture/discussion.
• Macroscopic properties of substances are the same as the particulate, atomic, and/or molecular
properties of the same substance. (Pérez J, 2017)
o By demonstrating intermolecular forces and aiding the understanding of the differences
between intramolecular and intermolecular forces, students should be able to
distinguish, for instance, that a molecule containing covalent bonds does not form
covalent bonds with other molecules of the same species.
o This will be observed during the Engage worksheet and then addressed throughout the
remainder of the lesson.

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Engage (Day 1)

• Overview and Objectives: “What is water? What is it composed of? What holds it
together?” A discussion with the students regarding those three questions will look into
prior knowledge and assess misconceptions. After the discussion, students will be given a
worksheet (worksheet #1) that revisits materials learned in earlier lessons and introduces
the concept of molecular solids and intermolecular forces. This will then be followed by a
discussion regarding the worksheet. Students will then be able to identify molecular,
covalent, and ionic structures at the symbolic, macroscopic, and particulate level.

o Discussion: 10-20 minutes

o Worksheet: 10 minutes
o WS Discussion: 10 minutes

• Materials and Set-Up:

o Worksheet #1

• Safety: No demonstration or lab during today’s lesson. Make sure you are healthy and
make good choices.

• Procedure: At the start of class, ask the students “what is water?” Allow them time to think
of answers as the instructor writes all of the answers on the board (whether correct or
incorrect). Now guide the class if answers have not already been given with “what is it
composed of?” followed by “what holds the atoms together?” Once these questions are
completed, allow the students some time to talk amongst themselves to determine which
answers on the board best illustrate the question at hand or if they are able to come up with
new answers. Allow the class to answer the questions again. Following this discussion,
hand out worksheet #1 and allow students 10 minutes to answer the questions with each
other. This worksheet is not to be graded on correctness but on completion and
participation in the following discussion. As the students are completing the worksheet,
help them by answering questions, but do your best to let them try to answer the questions
on their own. The final question is meant to illicit incorrect answers to allow for a transition
into molecular solids. Once the class has had time to complete the worksheet, go over it
with the class asking students for their answers. With the last question, humor answers of
ionic and covalent solid and at the end simply answer “it is neither of those, any idea what
makes it different?” Collect the worksheets at the end of the class period.

• Assessment: Students will be assessed formatively through use of questioning throughout

the class period as well as with a worksheet. Students will not be graded on this worksheet.

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Explore (Day 1-2)

• Overview and Objectives: “What is different about the physical state of water and other
compounds?” The students will be introduced to molecular compounds and
inter/intramolecular forces through a discussion and an investigation. Students will be able
to differentiate between intermolecular and intramolecular forces. Students will be able to
identify molecular, covalent, and ionic structures at the symbolic, macroscopic and
particulate level. Students will be able to conduct an experiment to determine the type of
bonds present in multiple different substances (Table salt, silicon dioxide, vanillin) using
melting points, and solubility.

o Opening discussion: 5 minutes

o Solid illustrations: 5 minutes
o Water illustrations: 5 minutes
o Pre-Lab discussion/Safety: 5-10 minutes
o Lab investigation: 30-40 minutes

• Materials and Set-Up:

For instructor:
o PowerPoint slides #1
o 1 vial of crystal salt, silicone dioxide, and vanillin respectively that is able to be seen
by all students.
o Boiling chips
o Vanillin Waste jug
o Silicon Dioxide Waste jug

Each group will have:

o 3 100mL beakers filled a quarter of the way with crystal salt, silicone dioxide, and
vanillin respectively labeled 1, 2, and 3.
o 1 bottle of DI water
o 3 empty 100mL beakers
o 1 empty 250mL beaker
o 3 test tubes
o 1 test tube rack
o 1 ring stand
o 1 test tube clamp
o 1 glass stir rod
o 1 Hot plate
o 1 pair of metal beaker tongs
o 1 pair of heat resistant gloves
o Thermometer
o Scoopula
o ‘My Bonds are Stronger’ handout (each student)

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• Safety: The hot plate will reach high temperatures as will the beakers and compounds
within the beakers. Glass looks the same when hot or cold. Beware of electrical shock
when using the hot plate especially when water is nearby. Handle all glassware with the
beaker tongs while wearing heat resistant gloves. Do not let the students touch the
beakers. Goggles should be worn for this and all labs. Avoid shoving vanillin into students’
eyes and make sure they don’t eat it because it smells nice. All vanillin solution and melted
vanillin should be disposed of in a container marked “vanillin waste” and all silicon dioxide
solid remaining should be put into the container marked “silicon dioxide waste.” Solid salt
and salt solutions may be dumped down the drain. Students should be asked to not dispose
of any material during or after this lab allowing the instructor a better opportunity to recycle
materials.

• Procedure: “We learned that solid water is neither an ionic solid nor a covalent network
solid, so what is it? It is actually a molecular solid. What makes it different?” Show
students illustrations of an ionic solid, a covalent network solid, and water as a solid. Allow
students a chance to write down observations on each illustration and determine what
might be different. Next, show an illustration of water molecules in all three states and ask
what is happening when moving from a solid to liquid and liquid to gas. Next, begin the
investigation. “Up here I have three solids and each is a different type of solid we have
learned about.” Show vials to students. “Let’s see if we can determine ways to figure out
which is which using heat and solubility.” Hand out laboratory worksheet (My Bonds are
Stronger) to students. Explain the safety section above to students. Allow the students to
begin their lab while walking around the room helping and observing (mostly making sure
they don’t burn themselves or do other silly student things).

• Assessment: Students will be assessed formatively through use of questioning throughout

the class period, their ability to identify the type of solid that corresponded to their each
number beaker, and their explanations on how they determined this.

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Explain (Day 3)

• Overview and objectives: “Why do certain compounds melt more easily than others?”
Students will gain clearer knowledge on intermolecular forces and how they differ from
intramolecular forces through discussion of their previous investigation and lecture.
Students will be able to differentiate intramolecular and intermolecular forces from one
another. Students will be able to use boiling and melting points, vapor pressure, and
surface tension to compare relative strength between substance particles.

o Discuss previous investigation: 10 minutes

o Intermolecular forces lecture: 30 minutes
o Final explanations/Manometer: 10 minutes

• Materials and Set-up

For instructor:
o PowerPoint slides #1, #2
o *Simple Manometer

• Safety: Don’t throw the glass flask of the manometer around and try not to hit students
with the manometer (they are probably more fragile than the manometer). Otherwise
there are no real safety concerns, unless somebody starts acting out…

• Procedure: Start the class by having the students discuss their results from their last
experiment. “So, which substances were able to dissolve in water? Why do you think that
is?” Match students’ answers and ideas with previous illustrations (PowerPoint slides #1). If
needed hint towards bond strength. “Which substances were you able to melt? Why do
you think that is?” Allow the students some time to discuss with their classmates then
answer the questions. Again, hint at bond strength or the previous question. “We found
that both the ionic solid and the molecular solid were water soluble and we found that the
molecular solid was able to melt but the other two solids did not.” Explain that these solids
contain intermolecular forces that hold them together. Begin brief lecture on
intermolecular forces (PowerPoint #2). At the end of the lecture be sure to explain that
intermolecular forces vary in strength and be sure to explain vapor pressure and how to use
a simple manometer. The manometer explanation should simply cover how it is used so
that students will be able to use it in a following investigation.
*It is highly recommended to set up the manometer ahead of time and practice using it with acetone and
isopropyl alcohol if you have not done so previously.

• Assessment: The students will be assessed formatively on their ability to answer and
participate in the class discussions.

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 Elaborate (Day 4)

• Overview and Objectives: “What are some physical differences between water, rubbing
alcohol, and acetone?” The students will use their knowledge on intermolecular forces to
determine how varying strengths of intermolecular forces affect different physical
properties of molecular substances. This will be a student driven lesson where students will
observe three chemicals, determine a way to quantify the intermolecular forces, and
conduct their own experiment to test/quantify these forces. Then they will briefly present
their findings to the class. At the end of the presentations, a final worksheet covering the
material within this entire lesson will be handed out. This lesson covers all objectives.

o Pre-Lab/Discussion/Safety: 10 minutes
o Lab: 40 minutes

• Materials and Set-up:

Manometers will be set-up ahead of time (hopefully a long time ahead of time).

Each group will have:

o Simple manometer
o 1 Thermometer
o A dropper bottle containing 50mL of DI water, isopropyl alcohol, and acetone
respectively.
o 1 Meter stick
o 1 Lunch tray
o Roll of string
o 1 Pair of scissors
o 1 Black marker
o 3 100mL Beakers
o Cotton swabs
o 3 Test tubes
o 1 Test tube rack
o 3 10mL Graduated cylinders
o ‘Sticking Together’ handout (each student)

• Safety: Diluted solutions of acetone and isopropyl alcohol will be used. These liquids are
very flammable and should be kept away from heat sources of any kind. Gloves and goggles
are required. Avoid excessive skin contact with acetone and isopropyl alcohol. These two
solutions are quite volatile and the experiment should be handled within a ventilated hood.
If contact with the eyes occurs, flush with copious amounts of water.

• Procedure: “Now that we have used intermolecular and intramolecular forces and the
properties of ionic and covalent bonds to determine the identities of unknown solids, we are

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 going to further investigate the strengths of intermolecular forces. On my desk are three
clear and colorless liquids. One is water, one is acetone, and the other is rubbing alcohol.
What can you tell me about these three liquids right now?” Have students answer what
they can and ask them to talk to their peers. “Today I would like you to get with your lab
partner(s) and begin exploring the differences between these three liquids.” Hand out the
lab guide (Sticking Together) to each student. Briefly explain the first portion of the lab with
the students and cover lab safety with regards to the three liquids, heating mechanisms, and
glassware. No instruments (hot plate, manometer, thermometer) should be used during
this part of the lab. Explain that these compounds have varying levels of volatility (explain
volatility). Have the students explore the differences of the three chemicals and record
their observations. Examples of students’ initial observations may include seeing how
quickly each liquid might evaporate, strengths of odors present (scent itself is biological, but
‘quantity’ of scent is based off of amount that has been vaporized), and noticing that
beakers feel cold when holding them. Then have the students begin planning procedures to
determine a way to quantify (using this term very loosely) the strengths of the
intermolecular forces of each liquid using the list of materials provided. Once they have
completed what they believe are plausible quantification methods and have developed a
hypothesis accordingly, they are to consult the instructor to determine the best way to
complete their experiment. Address lab safety protocols with students and cover what
equipment is used for measuring what parameters and how to use these instruments safely
and properly. Once their procedure, hypothesis, and general understanding are accepted,
the students may begin their experiment(s). Remember, more data is usually better. After
their personal labs are completed, the students will prepare a presentation of their finding
to present to the class. The students may need to finish their lab during the following class
period. The start of the next class period should be used to help students wrap up their labs
and work on their presentations if need be. Students who do not have any work to do may
be asked to help other groups if they wish. At the end of the presentations, a final
worksheet covering the material within this entire lesson plan will be handed out. This
worksheet is to be handed in for grading at the start of the next class period.

• Assessment: The students will be assessed formatively by evaluating the students’ ability to
decipher the correct unknown solid. They will also be assessed formatively throughout
these class periods by how they answer the discussion questions, observing the students as
they work, and during their consultation. The students will also be assessed formatively on
their presentation based off of a general rubric. Finally, a summative assessment in the
form of a worksheet will be handed out at the end of the presentations.

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Evaluate

Students will be evaluated through daily discussions with the instructor and other
students. These discussions are found in each of the four previous sections and usually occur at
the beginning of each lesson and after any new material has been covered or activity has been
completed. Each discussion allows students to compare their thoughts with other members of
the class (students and instructor).
There will also be two worksheets that are to be completed. The first worksheet is
completed during the Engage section and is graded on completeness and the student’s
participation in the following discussion. The follow-up discussion on the first worksheet allows
students the chance to compare and review their own answers with the answers of other
students. The second worksheet is a summative worksheet at the end of the Elaborate section
that covers all of the material found within this lesson plan. This will be graded based on the
rubric provided.
Students will also be assessed on their ability to determine the type of solid of three
unknowns. This is found in the Explore section as the laboratory investigation ‘My Bonds are
Stronger.’ This investigation will be graded on general participation during the lab and
participation during the discussion that follows. This allows for students to compare their notes,
methodologies, and understanding of the investigation with their peers and the instructor.
Students will be assessed on their ability to observe the differences between three
liquids, develop a method for quantifying the strengths of the intermolecular forces of these
liquids, and their ability to perform a quantification procedure to determine those strengths
within a laboratory setting. This will be done in the form of the laboratory investigation ‘Sticking
Together’ during the Elaborate portion of this lesson. This investigation will be graded on
completion and participation based off of the rubric provided.
Finally, the students will be evaluated on their ability to present their findings of the
investigation ‘Sticking Together’ to their peers and the instructor. Their assessment will cover
their ability to present their findings in an accurate and scientific manner and will be graded on
the rubric provided. This presentation will occur towards the end of the Elaborate section after
students complete the investigation.

References

Pérez, J., Pérez, M., Calatayud, M., García-Lopera, R., Montesinos, J., Gil, E. (2017). Student’s
Misconceptions on Chemical Bonding: A Comparative Study between High School and
First Year University Students. Asian Journal of Education and e-Learning, 05 (01), 1-15.

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Supporting Documents

Worksheet #1 Name:

1. Which of these atoms is considered a metal? A nonmetal?

Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen, Calcium, Chlorine, Sodium, Potassium

Calcium, Sodium, and Potassium are considered metals

Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen, and Chlorine are considered nonmetals

2. How can we identify the difference between an ionic and covalent bond using the
periodic table?

Ionic bonds form between a metal and a nonmetal.

Covalent bonds form between two nonmetals.

3. True or False: Ionic bonds share electron pairs between atoms to balance out the
attractive and repulsive forces between atoms.

False, covalent bonds share electron pairs while ionic bonds use a complete transfer of
valence electron(s) between the atoms forming two oppositely charged ions which are
then held together by their electrostatic attraction.

4. Determine whether the following bonds are ionic or covalent.

a. H-O-H covalent
b. Na-Cl ionic
c. Br-Mg-Br ionic
d. Cl-Cl covalent

5. The following depicts a solid, would you consider this to be an ionic or covalent solid?

Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

Cl- Cl- Cl-

Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

This is a structure containing ions of metals and nonmetals meaning it is an ionic solid.

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6. Diamond and graphite are two compounds comprised entirely of carbon atoms linked to
one another. Would these be considered ionic or covalent solids?

Because carbon is a nonmetal and it will be linking only to other carbon atoms, they are
covalent solids.

7. Consider the structure of water. What type of solid would you consider solid water (ice)
to be? Explain.

This is meant to be a trick question as the students have not yet identified molecular
solids yet. This will be covered at the start of the next class period.

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My Bonds are Stronger

Today we will be investigating ways to determine the identities of unknown solids using solubility and
melting point. Your objective will be to determine what type of each unknown is (covalent network,
ionic, molecular) and hypothesize why these solids act the way they do.

Before beginning the lab, come up with a hypothesis pertaining to the solubility and melting point of
each type of solid.

Solubility:

Ionic-

Covalent-

Molecular-

Melting Point:

Ionic-

Covalent-

Molecular-

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To begin, first place the hotplate on the base of the ring stand. Fill the 250mL beaker about halfway
with water and add a couple boiling chips. Let the water heat while completing the solubility portion of
the lab.

Solubility:

Using the three 100mL beakers, determine whether or not each solid is soluble in water. Note your
observations of each below.

Unknown #1

Unknown #2

Unknown #3

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Melting point:

Be sure to use the heat resistant gloves whenever handling heated glassware.

1) Using the thermometer, monitor the temperature of the water bath.

2) Fill each of the three test tubes a quarter of the way with a different solid in each.
3) Once the temperature of the water bath is above 90°C, proceed to the next step.
4) One at a time, clamp the test tube and lower the tube so that only the portion of the tube with
solid in it is submerged in the hot water bath. Record your observations.

Unknown #1

Unknown #2

Unknown #3

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 Unknown #1 Unknown #2 Unknown #3

Did it dissolve?

Did it melt?

What can you determine from this information?

You have determined the solubility and the ability of a solid to melt when heated, did your results
support or refute your hypothesis?

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What type of solid do you think each unknown is and why? (You may use illustrations in you
explanation)

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Sticking Together!

What are some physical differences between water, rubbing alcohol, or acetone?

Today I would like you to get with your partner(s) and begin exploring this question. You will be given a
small dropper bottle of each of these compounds in which to observe some of the physical properties of
each compound (Do not consume any chemical and avoid eye contact). Please record your thoughts
and observations below. Before the end of the class period, you and your partner(s) must determine a
way to compare the physical characteristics of each compound using two different methods. Once you
and your partner(s) have determined your methods, consult with me on how you might test these
characteristics using the equipment available within this lab. Below are some guidelines to help you
create your experiment. After the completion of your observations and meeting with me, you and your
partner(s) will conduct your experiments and prepare to present your findings to the class.

Based on your observations, what did you notice first about each compound? Were they similar or
different?

What differences did you notice? How did you determine those differences?

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If you place some solution into a beaker and hold it for a longer period of time, what do you notice?

What senses did you use to make your observations? Remember to follow proper lab safety
procedures.

How might you collect data?

Develop a hypothesis, determine materials and methods, and consider what type of data you will be
collecting for each experiment. (Is your hypothesis testable?)

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Worksheet #2 Name:

1.) Of the following, which compounds demonstrate covalent bonding? Circle all that apply.

a. MgCl2

b. NH3

c. CO2

d. KI

e. HCl

2.) Describe the difference between an ionic and covalent bond.

Ionic bonds are composed of ions. Between a metal and non-metal. Electrons are not shared.
Covalent bonds are between non-metals. Electrons are shared between atoms.

3.) Ethanol (C2H6O) is a compound that is commonly used as a disinfectant and is a colorless liquid.
At room temperature, it vaporizes quickly. Water (H2O) is also a colorless liquid but vaporizes at
room temperature at a much slower rate. Is this difference contributed to intermolecular forces
or intramolecular forces? Explain.

It is contributed to the intermolecular forces, not the intramolecular forces. When moving from a liquid
to gaseous state, the intermolecular forces between molecules is being overcome. This energy will not
be strong enough to break the bonds between atoms.

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 4.) Which of the following gives a correct representation of sodium chloride (NaCl) as a solid?

Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

Cl- Cl- Cl-

Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

a.

Cl- Na+ Cl-

Na+ Cl- Na+

b.

Na Na Na Na
Cl Cl Cl

Na Na Na Na
c.

Cl Na Cl

Na Cl Na
d.

5.) True or False: When water boils, the bonds between atoms are being broken releasing
hydrogen and oxygen gas. If false, explain what is actually happening.

False, though the input of energy is higher than letting the water sit at room temperature; it is still not
enough to break the bonds between atoms. What is actually happening is the energy from the increase
in temperature overcomes the intermolecular forces causing a phase change from liquid water to water
vapor.

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 6.) True or False: If a solid containing only carbon atoms (diamond, graphite) were melted down,
bonds between some carbon atoms are being broken. If false, explain what is actually
happening.

True

7.) If a compound has stronger intermolecular forces its boiling point will be __________ than a
compound with weaker intermolecular forces. Also, the compound with weaker intermolecular
forces will have __________ vapor pressure readings than the compound with stronger
intermolecular forces at the same temperature.

a. lower, lower

b. lower, higher

c. higher, lower

d. higher, higher

e. none of the above

8.) Consider the ionic compound containing Ca2+ and Cl-. At room temperature we would expect a
pure sample of this compound to be a _________.

a. Solid

b. Liquid

c. Gas

9.) Using the following data, rank the relative strength of each molecules intermolecular forces, 1
being the highest and 5 being the lowest.

Molecule (Formula) Boiling point Rank

Methanol (CH3OH) 65°C 3
Butane (C4H10) -1°C 5
Acetone (C3H6O) 56°C 4
Octane (C8H18) 125°C 1
Ethanol (C2H6O) 78°C 2

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 10.) You are given three vials, each containing an unknown solid. You are also informed that each
vial contains a different solid and that it is sugar, salt, or graphite. Your objective is to
determine whether the solid within each vial is a network covalent, ionic, or molecular solid.
Explain the process you might take to determine the identities of each vial within the lab and
what might happen in each step (Saying you will simply ask the teacher “What’s this” is not an
acceptable answer). (Fructose or other sugar, Table salt, Graphite)
First, take a sample of each solid and test its melting point- fructose melts at 103°C or use a flame test to
show fructose melting/burning

Second, take the samples and add water to see which dissolve- fructose and table salt

Because fructose has a low melting point, it is most like a molecular solid.

Because sodium chloride has a high melting point (couldn’t melt solid) but dissolves in water, it is most
like an ionic solid.

Because graphite has a high melting point and does not dissolve in water, it is most like a covalent solid.

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Rubric Worksheet #1

3 points for completion- partial points may be awarded if only parts were finished.

3 points for participating in class discussion about worksheet.

27
Rubric My Bonds are Stronger

5 points for completing the laboratory handout

5 points will be given initially for completing the experiment

• Points will be deducted based on lack of participation during experiment

3 points will be given for participating in the class discussions before and after.

• No points will be awarded if student does not participate. Participation is described as:
o Offering answers or explanations to questions
o Conversing with other students to obtain explanations
o Not conversing with other students about topics outside of class (-1 point)

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Rubric Sticking Together!

Part 1:

5 points for recorded observations

5 points for meeting with me and determining an acceptable experimental procedure

3 points for coming up with a testable hypothesis

Part 2:

5 points for following the procedures they have written out.

Presentation:

5 4-3 2-1 0
Introduction/ Students clearly Students express Students briefly Students give little
Overview express and the purpose/goal cover the to no introduction
explain the of the lab and give purpose/goal of or overview to the
purpose/goal of some insight as to the lab and hint to lab they
the lab and what what they are what they are conducted.
they are testing. testing. testing.
Materials and Materials and Materials and Materials and Materials and
Methods methods were methods were methods were methods were not
explained clearly explained but briefly covered in covered in the
and explicitly. some detail was the presentation presentation.
Students were left out. Students and very little
able to answer were able to information was
why they chose answer mostly given as to why.
these methods. why they chose
these methods.
Results/Discussion Students clearly Students address Students give Students do not
address and their results and some of their address their
explain their give some insight results and may results or discuss
results and give as to what these have some insight the relevance of
insight on what results might as to what these their results
these results mean results might
might mean mean

29
Rubric Worksheet #2

1.) 2pts
a. Only 2 of 3 correct, 1.5pts
b. Only 1 of 3 correct, 1pt
2.) 3pts
a. 1 point for electron sharing/not sharing/ions
b. 1 point for non-metals in covalent bonds
c. 1 point for metal and non-metal for ionic bonds
3.) 3pts
a. 2 points for stating intermolecular forces as the cause
b. 1 point for any reasonable explanation
4.) 2pts
a. Only 2pts if answered A
5.) 3pts
a. 1.5pts for false
b. 1.5pts for proper explanation
6.) 3pts
a. 3pts for true
7.) 2pts
a. Only 2pts if answered D
8.) 2pts
a. Only 2pts if answered A
9.) 5pts
a. 1 point for each correct ranking
10.) 11pts
a.4pts for mentioning proper melting point or flame test and reasoning
i. 2pts for mentioning that molecular solids have lower melting points
ii. 2pts for mentioning that ionic and covalent solids have high melting points
b. 4pts for mentioning proper use of water to dissolve solids
i. 1pt for mentioning that molecular solids may dissolve in water
ii. 1pt for mentioning that ionic solids may dissolve in water
iii. 2pts for mentioning that covalent solids mostly do not dissolve in water
c. 3pts for proper grammar, spelling, and process order/reagent use
i. -2pts if they don’t specify order, fail to specify splitting reagents for both tests or
a way to separate used solids after tests, and/or not connecting processes to
one another.
Total____/31

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Slide 1

PowerPoint #1

Slide 2
Diamond

dvusd.org

Table Salt

khanacademy.org

Ice

foodnetwork.com socratic.org

Slide 3

31
Slide 4

Slide 5

Slide 6

32
Slide 1

PowerPoint #2

Slide 2
Intermolecular Forces
• What are intermolecular forces?
• Where do we see intermolecular forces at
work?

Slide 3
What are they?
• Intra- vs. Inter-
• Act on polarity and dipole moments
• Where might this appear between water
molecules?

33
Slide 4
Where do we see them?
• Phase changes
• Surface tension
• Vapor Pressure/Volatility

Slide 5
How might we measure them?
• Melting and Boiling points
• Penny or Capillary Rise
• Manometer or Evaporation Rate

34