PHYSICS – Concepts Notes

CAPACITORS and CAPACITANCE

 A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulator. The two
conductors have charges +Q and –Q, with potential differences V = V1 - V2 between
them. Even a single conductor can be used as a capacitor by assuming the other at
infinity.
 The electric field (E) in the region between the conductors is proportional to the charge
Q. If the charge (Q) on the capacitor is doubled, the electric field (E ) will also be
doubled.
 The capacitance (C) is independent of Q or V. Capacitance (C) is depends only on the
geometrical configuration of the system of two conductors. It depends on the nature of
the insulator (dielectric) separating the two conductors.
 The SI unit of capacitance is Farad (Coulomb/volt) or 1F = 1 CV-1.
 Capacitor with large capacitance can hold large amount of charge Q at a relatively small
V. High potential difference implies strong electric field (E) around the conductors. Ie.:
capacitance can be increased by reducing potential, and keeping the charge constant.
 The maximum electric field that a dielectric medium can withstand without break-down
(of its insulating property) is called its dielectric strength; for air it is about 3 x 106 Vm-1.
Thus, for a capacitor to store a large amount of charge without leaking, its capacitance
should be high enough, so that the potential difference and electric field do not exceed
the4 break-down limits.
 In practice, a Farad is a very big unit; the most common units are its sub-multiples; 1µF =
10-6F, 1 pF = 10-12F.
 A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel conducting plates
separated by a small distance.
 The product Ɛ0K is called the permittivity of the medium and is denoted by Ɛ. For
vacuum K = 1 and Ɛ = Ɛ0; ; Ɛ0 is called permittivity of the vacuum, which is a
dimensionless ratio.
 K = Ɛ/Ɛ0 is called the dielectric constant of the substance. The dielectric constant of a
substance is the4 factor (>1) by which the capacitance increases from its vacuum value,
when the dielectric is inserted fully between the plates of capacitor.
 Work done by battery Wb = (charge given by battery) x (emf) = QV, but energy stored in
conductor = 1/2QV, so 50% energy supplied by the battery is lost in the form of heat.
 The amount of energy stored depends on the size of the conductor.
 When a capacitor C charged upto V is discharged by means of any resistance, then heat
loss = CV2/2 (Not depend on R).
 As the potential of the Earth is assumed to be zero, practically capacity of the earth or a
conductor connected to earth will be infinite. Theoretically capacity of the Earth
C = 4πƐ0R = 711 µF
 Dielectrics are non-conductors upto certain value of field depending on its nature. If the
field exceeds this limiting value called Dielectric Strength, at which they lose their
insulating property and begin to conduct. Dielectric Strength is the maximum value of
electric field that a dielectric can tolerate without break-down. Unit is Volt/metre.
Dimension is (M1L1T-3A-1)
 If one of the plate of parallel plate capacitor slides relatively, then C decrease (as
overlapping area decrease).
 If both the plates of parallel plate capacitor are touched each other resultant charge and
potential difference became ZERO.
 Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor does not depend on thickness and metal of
plate.
 If nothing is mentioned then assume battery is disconnected and Q is constant.
 A parallel plate capacitor is connected to battery (V = constant), and a slab of dielectric
is inserted between the plates, then total energy given by battery is divided into two
parts: Half is used to insert the slab (work is done by field), and half is stored in the form
of electrostatic potential energy.
 If a charged capacitor of energy U is connected to an identical uncharged capacitor, then
the electrostatic potential energy of system = U/2, Heat loss = U/2 and energy of each
capacitor = U/4
 For a given voltage to store maximum energy, capacitors should be connected in
parallel.
 If N no. of identical capacitors each having break-down voltage V are joined in series –
then the breakdown voltage of the combination = NV, and for parallel connection it will
be V.
 If two capacitors are connected in series with a battery, now battery is removed and
loose wires connected together, then final charge on each capacitors is ZERO.
 If N no. of identical capacitors are connected, then Cseries = C/N, Cparallel = NC.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
 When charges flows in a conductor from one place to other, the rate of flow of charge
is called Electric Current (I). The direction of flow of Positive charge gives the
direction of current – called Conventional current. The direction of flow of Electrons
gives the direction of Electronic current. Therefore, the direction of electric current is
opposite to that of conventional current.
 I = Total charge flowing (q) / Total time taken (t); I = q/t = ne/t - where, n = number
of carriers of electricity and e = electronic charge. Current is a scalar quantity, Unit in
SI system is Ampere (A), and CGS unit is emu – called biot (Bi) or ab ampere. Ampere
(A) = (1/10) Bi (ab amp). Dimension is (M0L0T0A1)
 One ampere is the current through a wire, if a charge of one coulomb flows thru any
cross-section of the wire in One second. 1 Amp (A) = 1 coulomb (C) / 1 Second(s) = 1
coulomb per second = 1 Cs-1.
 Average current & Instantaneous current – current at any instant of time is called
instantaneous current.
 Current Density (J): The amount of charge flowing per second thru a unit area to the
direction of flow of charge. J = q/t / A = I/A. Current Density (J) is a vector quantity.
Its direction is same as that of E. Unit in SI system is Amp./m2 and Dimension is L2A
 Thermal Speed (VT): Conductor contain a large number of free electrons, which are in
continuous random motion, due to this the free electrons collide with positive metal
ions with high frequency and undergoes change in direction at each collision. These
random velocity of electron is called thermal speed. (105 m/s). The average thermal
velocity is zero, but the average thermal speed is non-zero.
 Mean free path (λ): The average distance travelled by an electron between two
successive collision. λ = Total distance travelled / Number of collisions. (λ = 10Å).
 Relaxation time (τ): The average time taken by an electron between two successive
collisions.. τ = Total time between two collision/Number of free electrons. (τ = 10-14s).
 When two ends of conductors are joined to a battery, then one end is at higher
potential and another at lower potential – this produces an electric field inside the
conductor from point of higher to lower potential. E = V/L, where V = potential
difference across the conductor, L = length of the conductor. The field exerts an
electric force on free electrons causing Acceleration of each electron. In absence of
applied potential difference, electrons have randon motion.
 The electrical conductivity of solid substance depends upon the number of free
electrons in it. In metals this number is quite large. Hence, metals are good
conductors of electricity. Silver is the best conductor of electricity than copper, gold
and aluminum, respectively.
 Drift Velocity (Vd): The average velocity with which the free electrons in a conductor
get drifted towards the positive end of the conductor under the effect of applied
electric field. The direction of drift velocity for electrons in a metal is opposite to that
of applied electric field. Drift velocity is very small (10-4 ms-1) compared to thermal
speed (105 m/s) of electron at room temperature.
 Mobility (µ): Drift velocity per unit electric field is called mobility of electrons.
µ = Vd/E = e τ/m. Its unit is m2/V-s. Mobility of free electron is independent of
electric field.
 The conductor remains uncharged when current flows thru it, because the charge
entering at one end per second is equal to charge leaving the other end per second.
 For a conductor of non-uniform cross-section current does not change – along the
wire Current (I) will be same – because current is simply rate of flow of charge.
Current density, drift velocity depends on area (A) inversely. Here, I1 = I2, but A1 < A2,
so, J1 > J2, E1 > E2, Vd1 >Vd2
 Electric field outside a current carrying conductor is Zero, but inside a conductor is V/l
 Order of free e- density in conductors = 1028 electron/m3, while in semi-conductors =
1016 e-/m3.
 If temperature of conductor increase, free electrons collide more frequently with
vibrating ions, and hence average relaxation time decrease.
 Mean free path of conduction electron = Drift velocity x Relaxation time.
 Current Carriers : Silver or any metals Free electorns
Hydrogen discharge tube Electrons and (+ve) Ions
Voltaic cell H+, SO4-2 (Ions)
Lead Accumulator H+, SO4-2 (Ions)
Semi-conductors Electrons and holes
Super conductor Electrons
 Ohm’s Law: The current I flowing through a conductor is always directly proportional
to the potential difference V across the ends of the conductor, provided that the
physical conditions (temperature, mechanical strains, etc) are kept constant.
V = I.R ; R = V/I.
 Graph between V and I for a metallic conductor is a straight line. At different temp. V-
I curves are different.
 The substance which obey Ohm’s law are known as Ohmic substances, where as
which don’t obey Ohm’s law (gases, crystal rectifiers, transistors, etc..) are known as
non-ohmic or non-linear conductors.
 The property of substance – it opposes the flow of current through it is known as
resistance.. R = V/I;
 The resistance of the conductor depends upon – It is directly proportional to the
length of the conductor (R œ I), and inversely proportional to the area of the cross-
section of the conductor (R œ 1/A) R = ρℓ/A. (ρ = Resistivity (or) specific resistance
of material – which is depends upon the nature of the material).
 1 ohm (Ω) = 1 Volt (V)/1 Ampere (A). The resistance of a conductor is said to be 1
Ohm, if one ampere of current flows when a potential difference of one volt is applied
across the ends of the conductor. (Dimensional formula = ML2T-3A-2).
 Reciprocal of resistance is known as conductance. C = 1/R (Unit is Ω-1 or “Siemen”).
Conductivity (σ) = 1/ρ. Its unit is Ohm/m (Dimensional Formula is M-1L-3T3A2).
Resistivity depends upon (1) Nature of materials and (2) Temperature of material.
And not depend on Size and shape of material.
 Temperature dependence of resistivity and resistance: ρT = ρ0[1 + α(T – T0)]
where, ρT is the resistivity at Temperature T, and ρ0 is the resistivity at a reference
temp. T0. α is temperature co-efficient of resistivity. Unit of α = 1/0C.
 Resistance for temperature difference (ΔT) is Rt = R0(1 + αΔT); Where Rt = Resistance
at t0C, R0 = Resistance at 00C, ΔT = Change in temp., α = Temp. co-efficient of
resistance.
 For metals α is positive, and for semi-conductors and insulators α is negative.
 Resistance of the conductor decreases linearly with decrease in temp. and becomes
ZERO at a specific temperature. This temperature is called critical temperature. At
this temperature conductor becomes a superconductor.
 The heating element of devices like heater is made up of Nichrome, because it has
high resistivity and high melting point.
 Fuse wire is made of Tin Lead alloy, because it has low melting point and low
resistivity.
 Resistance of resistance box are made of manganin or constantan, because they have
moderate resistivity and very small temperature coefficient. The resistivity is nearly
independent of temperature.
 The filament of bulb is made up of Tungsten, because it has low resistivity and high
melting point of 3300 K and give light at 2400 K.
 The connection wires are made of copper, because it has low resistance and
resistivity.
 In general, Specific Resistance of – Alloy > Semiconductor > conductor.
 Resistance of most of non-metals decreases with increase in temp. (eg.: carbon)
 The resistivity of an insulator is greater than metal by a factor of 1022.
 If a wire is stretched to N times of its original length, its new resistance will be N2
times. If a wire is stretched such that its radius is reduced to 1/Nth of its original
values, its resistance will increases N4 times, similarly resistance will decrease to N4
time, if radius is increased N times by contraction.
 If X% change is brought to length of a wire, its resistance will change by 2X%.
 If N resistance (each R) are connected in Series, resultant will be, Req = NR., and
potential difference across each resistance is V = V/N.
 The equivalent resistance of series combination is greater than the value of highest
resistance in the combination.
 If N resistance (each R) are connected in Parallel, resultant will be, Req = R/N., and
current through each resistance is I = I/N.
 The equivalent resistance of parallel combination is lower than the value of lowest
resistance in the combination.