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Main Responsibilities
• Code compliance • Workmanship control • Documentation control
Personal Attributes
Important qualities that good Inspectors are expected to have are:
• Honesty •Integrity •Knowledge •Good communicator •Physical fitness
• Good eyesight
Standard for Visual Inspection
1 Basic Requirements BS EN 970 - Non-destructive examination of fusion welds –
Visual examination Welding Inspection Personnel should:
• be familiar with relevant standards, rules and specifications applicable to the
fabrication work to be undertaken
• be informed about the welding procedures to be used
• have good vision (which should be checked every 12 months)
Welding Inspection
Conditions for Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970) Illumination:
• 350 lux minimum required (recommends 500 lux - normal shop or office lighting)
Vision Access:
• eye should be within 600mm of the surface
• viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less than 30°
Welding Inspection
Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)
When access is restricted may use:
• a mirrored Microscope
• a fiber optic viewing system à usually by agreement
Other aids:
• welding gauges
• dedicated weld-gap gauges and linear misalignment (high-low) gauges
• straight edges and measuring tapes
• magnifying lens
(if magnification lens used it should have magnification between X2 to X5)
Welding Inspectors Equipment
After Welding
Weld Identification
• identified/numbered as required
• is marked with welders identity
Visual Inspection
• ensure weld is suitable for all NDT • visually inspect & „sentence‟ to Code
requirements
Dimensional Survey • ensure dimensions comply with Code/drawing
Other NDT • ensure all NDT is completed & reports available
Welding Repairs
• monitor repairs to ensure compliance with Procedure, ensure NDT after repairs is
completed • PWHT • monitor for compliance with Procedure • check chart records
confirm Procedure compliance
Pressure / Load Test • ensure test equipment is suitably calibrated • monitor to
ensure compliance with Procedure • ensure all records are available
Documentation • ensure any modifications are on ‘as-built’ drawings • ensure all
required documents are available • Collate / file documents for manufacturing
records • Sign all documentation and forward it to QC department
Joint types
Joint type Butt fillet Plug Spot Edge
Butt X X
Tee X X
Corner X X
Lap X X X
Edge X
Butt Weld
•Most codes quote the weld toes shall blend smoothly
•This statement is not quantitative and therefore open to individual
•The higher the toe blend angle the greater the amount of stress concentration
•The toe blend angle ideally should be between 20’-30’
The c.s.a. of (b) is over double the area of (a) without the extra excess weld metal
being added
Features to consider
Fillet welds connecting part with fusion faces with an angle more than 120’ or less
than 60’ should not use the previous calculations
Angle between fusion faces in degrees Factor
60~90’ 0.7
91~100’ 0.65
101~106’ 0.6
107~113’ 0.55
114~120’ 0.5
Welder (EN 287) : Welder need to be able to understand WPS’s and have the skill
to make welds that are not defective and have to demonstrate these abilities before
being allowed to make production welds.
- EN welding standard states that an independent examiner / examining body
/ third party inspector may be requested to monitor the qualification process
- A welding inspector monitors the welding to make sure that the welder used
the conditions specification by the WPS
- The finished test weld is subjected to NDT by the method specification by the
EN standard – Visual, MT or PT & RT or UT
- A welder’s Qualification certificate automatically expires if the welder has not
used the welding process for 6 months or longer
- A certificate may be withdrawn by the Employer if there is reason to doubt
the ability of the welder, for example * a high repair rate or not working in
accordance with qualified WPS
- Welder qualification essential variable is may require more skill than has
been demonstrated by the test weld
- Typical welder essential variables is welding process and Material type,
Electrode type, thickness and diameter, position, weld backing
- Numerous code and standards deal with welder qualification
l Once the content of the procedure is approved the next stage is to
approve the welds to the approved procedure.
l A welders test know as a welders qualification test(WQT)
l To give maximum confidence that the welder meets the quality
requirements of the approved procedure
30. The majority of welder qualification tests are carried out using an unbacked joint. This is
because ____
a. It is quicker, and cheaper, if back gouging is not required
b. If the welding process is not TIG, back purging is not required
c. All welder qualification tests are done on small diameter pipe
d. It requires more skill and increases the welder’s qualification range
53. A qualified Welding Procedure Specification is used to ____
a. Give instruction to the welder / b. Give information to the welding inspector
c. Give confidence that welds will have the specified properties
d. All of the above
92. BS EN 288 is a specification for ____
a. Welder approval testing / b. Welding equipment calibration
c. Welding procedure approval / d. Consumables for submerged arc welding
105. EN 288 standard would refer to which of the following:
a. Welder approval testing / b. Welding equipment
c. Welding procedure approval / d. Consumables for welding
96. A welder approval certificate should be withdrawn if ____
a. He has not done any welding for a period of 4 months
b. He has been absent from work for a period of 7 months
c. The repair rate for his welds exceeds 1% / d. All of the above
17. A welder qualification test is to verify:
a. The skill of the welder / b. The quality of the materials
c. The non destructive test procedures / d. The manufacturing methods
71. A welding procedure is useful to:
a. Give information to the welder / b. Give information to the inspector
c. Give confidence to a product / d. All of the above
159. Welder qualification tests are designed to:
a. Test the correctness of the welding procedure / b. Test the welder’s skill
c. Prove the weldability of the parent material / d. All of the above
23. Which group of welders is most likely to require continuous monitoring by a welding
inspector?
a. Concrete shuttering welders / b. Overland pipeline welders / c. Tack welders
d. Maintenance welders
116. The highest and lowest heat input positions are considered to be ____
a. PB highest; PA lowest/ b. PE highest; PC lowest/ c. PD highest; PB lowest
d. PF highest; PG lowest
109. Welds made with very high heat input will show a reduction in ____
a. Tensile ductility / b. Notch toughness / c. Fatigue strength / d. Creep resistance
89. Which of the following would be high Heat Input welding?
a. 550 J/mm / b. 55 J/mm / c. 5.5 J/mm / d. 5.0 kJ/mm
48. Which of the following units is used to express heat input?
a. Joules / b. N/mm2 / c. J/mm2 / d. kJ/mm
124. In welding procedure terms, a change in essential variable means:
a. Requalification of the weld procedure
b. Possible changes in the weld’s microstructure
c. Possible changes in the mechanical properties / d. All of the above
Qualitative tests
1) Bend tests : Welding qualification test pieces and sometime welder
qualification tests pieces.
Bend test 4type
(1) Face bend : Transverse to butt weld up to ~12mm thickness – bend so that
the face of weld in on outside bend (face in tension)
(2) Root bend : Transverse to butt weld up to ~12mm thickness – Bend so that
the root of the weld is on outside of bend (root in tension)
(3) Side bend : Transverse slice (~10mm) from the full thickness of butt weld >
~12mm
(4) Longitudinal bend : Parallel to the longitudinal axis of a butt weld(~12mm)
face or root of weld may be tested in tension.
* The radius of the former is usually expressed as multiple of the specimen
Thickness and C-Ma steel it is typically 4t (t is the specimen thickness) but
for material that have lower tensile ductility the radius of the former may be
grater than 10t.
* The standard that specifies the test method will specify the minimum bend angle
that the specimen must experience and this typically 120’
* Acceptance criteria : Bend test pieces should exhibit satisfactory ductility by
not showing cracks or any signs of significant fissures of cavities on the
outside of the bend.
2) Fracture test
(1) Fillet weld fractures test
* The Quality / soundness of fillet weld can be assessed by fractured test
pieces and examining the fracture surfaces. Can be used for welder
qualification test according to European standard but is not used for welding
procedure qualification to European standard
* The method for assessing the quality of fillet welds may be specified by application
standard as an alternative to macroscopic examination.
* Acceptance criteria : Lack of penetration into root face and solid inclusions
and porosity that are visible on the fracture surface.
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests
Object of test: • To break open the joint through the weld to permit examination of
the fracture surfaces • Specimens are cut to the required length • A saw cut
approximately 2mm in depth is applied along the fillet welds length • Fracture is
usually made by striking the specimen with a single hammer blow • Visual inspection
for defects
(2) Butt weld fractures test(Nick-break tests)
Hydrostatic test
Under pressure leakage proof test
Vessel configuration :
• The test should be done after any stress relief
• Components that will not stand the pressure test must be removed
• The ambient temperature MUST be above 0’C (preferably 15~20’C)
Dimensions
Convention of dimensions
In most standards the cross sectional dimensions are given to the left side of the
symbol, and all linear dimensions are give on the right side
BS EN ISO 22553
a = Design throat thickness
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat thickness
z = Leg length (min material thickness)
AWS A2.4
• In a fillet weld, the size of the weld is the leg length
• In a butt weld, the size of the weld is based on the depth of the joint preparation
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld profile, NDT and any
special instructions
31. BS 499 communicates by the use of symbols the type of joint preparation to be used.
Which of the following symbols indicates the depth of weld penetration required on the joint?
b
32. Which of the following symbols would indicate that a weld has to be finished on the
‘other’ side of the weld? a
57. What does the number 141 refer to on this drawing symbol?
74. When visually inspecting a fillet weld it would normally be sized by:
a. The leg lengths / b. The actual throat thickness
c. The design throat thickness / d. Both A and C
125. Weld symbols placed on a dotted line in accordance with ISO requirements means:
a. Weld on ‘arrow’ side / b. Weld on ‘other’ side /c. Weld on site
d. Full penetration required
151. The weld dimension used to indicate the minimum strength of a fillet weld is:
a. Leg length / b. Throat thickness /c. Width of bead /d. Length of weld element
8. The strength of a fillet weld is determined by ___
a. Leg length / b. Weld profile / c. Weld width / d. Throat thickness
44. According to AWS 2.4 a weld symbol for the ‘other’ side is placed ____
a. Above the dashed line / b. Below the dashed line / c. Above the solid line
d. Below the solid line
Main features:
• Shielding provided by decomposition of flux covering
• Electrode consumable / • Manual process
Welder controls:
• Arc length / • Angle of electrode / • Speed of travel / • Amperage settings
2. MMA Welding Plant
Transformer: • Changes mains supply voltage to a voltage suitable for welding. Has
no moving parts and is often termed static plant.
Rectifier: • Changes a.c. to d.c., can be mechanically or statically achieved.
Generator: • Produces welding current. The generator consists of an armature
rotating in a magnetic field, the armature must be rotated at a constant speed
either by a motor unit or, in the absence of electrical power, by an internal
combustion engine.
Inverter: • An inverter changes d.c. to a.c. at a higher frequency
3. MMA Welding Variables
Voltage • The arc voltage in the MMA process is measured as close to the arc as
possible. It is variable with a change in arc length
O.C.V. • The open circuit voltage is the voltage required to initiate, or re-ignite the
electrical arc and will change with the type of electrode being used e.g 70-90 volts
Current • The current used will be determined by the choice of electrode, electrode
diameter and material type and thickness. Current has the most effect on
3. Tungsten Electrodes
Old type- Slightly Radioactive
•Thoriated : DC electrode –ve- steels and most metals
• 1% Thoriated + tungsten for higher current values
• 2% Thoriated for lower current values
• Zirconiated : AC – Aluminum alloys and magnesium
New types - Not Radioactive
• Cerium : DC electrode –ve- steel and most metals
• Lanthanum : AC - Aluminum alloys and magnesium
5. Types of current
Arc voltage
travel speed
Electrode extension
2. ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Voltage Characteristic
2. Principles of operation
Factors that determine whether to use SAW chemical composition and mechanical
properties required for the weld deposit
• thickness of base metal to be welded
• joint accessibility
• position in which the weld is to be made
• frequency or volume of welding to be performed SAW methods Semiautomatic
Mechanized Automatic
5. SAW Consumables
Fused fluxes advantages:
•good chemical homogeneity
•easy removal of fines without affecting flux composition
•normally not hygroscopic & easy storage and handling
•readily recycled without significant change in particle size or composition Fused
8. Welding voltage
•welding voltage controls arc length
•increase in voltage produce a flatter and wider bead
•increase in voltage increase flux consumption
•increase in voltage tend to reduce porosity
•low voltage produce a “stiffer” arc & improves penetration in a deep weld groove
and resists arc blow
•excessive low voltage produce a high narrow bead & difficult slag removal
Welding voltage
•excessively high voltage produce a “hat-shaped” bead & tendency to crack
•excessively high voltage increase undercut & make slag removal difficult in groove
welds
•excessively high voltage produce a concave fillet weld that is subject to cracking
•excessively low speed produce rough beads and lead to slag inclusions
10. Electrode size
•at the same current, small electrodes have higher current density & higher
deposition rates
• Backing strip
• Backing weld
• Copper backing
16. Starting/finishing the weld
Twin pool - travel speed limited by undercut; very resistant to porosity and cracks
SAW Consumables
1. Welding fluxes:
• are granular mineral compounds mixed according to various formulations
• shield the molten weld pool from the atmosphere
• clean the molten weld pool
• can modify the chemical composition of the weld metal
• prevents rapid escape of heat from welding zone
• influence the shape of the weld bead (wetting action)
• can be fused, agglomerated or mixed
• must be kept warm and dry to avoid porosity
2. Welding flux:
5. Agglomerated Flux
• Granulated appearance
• High weld quality
• Addition of alloys
• Lower consumption
• Easy slag removal
• Smooth weld profile Agglomerated Flux: Baked at a lower temperature, dull,
irregularly shaped, friable, (easily crushed) can easily add alloying elements,
moisture absorbent and tend to be of the basic type
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic -• film outside, source inside (internal
exposure)
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI) -• film outside, source outside (external exposure)
Alternatively to contrast inks, fluorescent inks may be used for greater sensitivity.
These inks require a UV-A light source and a darkened viewing area to inspect the
component
Production repairs
A weld repair can be a relatively straight forward activity, but in many
instances it is quite complex, and various engineering disciplines may need
to be involved to ensure a successful outcome.
• Analysis of the defect types may be carried out by the Q/C department to discover
the likely reason for their occurrence, (Material/Process or Skill related).
In general terms, a welding repair involves What!
A weld repair may be used to improve weld profiles or extensive metal
removal:
•Repairs to fabrication defects are generally easier than repairs to service failures
because the repair procedure may be followed
•The main problem with repairing a weld is the maintenance of mechanical
properties
•During the inspection of the removed area prior to welding the inspector must
ensure that the defects have been totally removed and the original joint profile has
been maintained as close as possible
In the event of repair, it is required:
• Authorization and procedure for repair
• Removal of material and preparation for repair
• Monitoring of repair Weld
• Testing of repair - visual and NDT
There are a number of key factors that need to be considered before
undertaking any repair:
• The most important - is it financially worthwhile?
• Can structural integrity be achieved if the item is repaired?
• Are there any alternatives to welding?
• What caused the defect and is it likely to happen again?
• How is the defect to be removed and what welding process is to be used?
• What NDE is required to ensure complete removal of the defect?
• Will the welding procedures require approval/re-approval?
In service repairs
• Can be of a very complex nature, as the component is very likely to be in a
different welding position and condition than it was during production
• It may also have been in contact with toxic, or combustible fluids hence a permit to
work will need to be sought prior to any work being carried out
• The repair welding procedure may look very different to the original production
procedure due to changes in these elements
2. Many metals must be given heat treatment before and after welding.
• The inspector’s function is to ensure that the treatment is given correctly in
accordance with the specification or as per the details supplied.
Types of heat treatment available:
•Preheat •Annealing •Normalising •Quench Hardening •Temper •Stress Relief
3. Pre-heat treatments
• are used to increase weldability, by reducing sudden reduction of temperature, and
control expansion and contraction forces during welding
Requirements
• The welding heat input increased – Reduced
• Carbon Equivalent increased – increased
• Hydrogen content increased – increased
• Combined material thickness increased – increased
• Temperature – 50 – 250’ C
• Cooling : Hold during welding
4. Post weld heat treatments
• are used to change the properties of the weld metal, controlling the formation of
crystalline structures
Post Hydrogen Release (according to BS EN1011-2)
Temperature: Approximately 250 C hold up to 3 hours
Cooling: Slow cool in air
Result: Relieves residual hydrogen
Procedure: Maintaining pre-heat / interpass temperature after completion of welding
for 2 to 3 hours.
Question)
What is main reason for carry out PWHT (to steel joints) ?
à To reduce residual stresses
Supplementary Question)
What is the benefit for reduce residual stressed ?
à To improve resistance to brittle fracture
• The heating and subsequent cooling from welding produces expansion and
contractions which affect the weld metal and adjacent material.
• If this contraction is prevented or inhibited residual stress will develop.
• The tendency to develop residual stresses increases when the heating and cooling
is localised.
• Residual stresses are very difficult to measure with any real accuracy.
• Residual stresses are self balancing internal forces and not stresses induced whilst
applying external load
• Stresses are more concentrated at the surface of the component.
• The removal of residual stresses is termed stress relieving.
2. Normal Stress
Stress arising from a force perpendicular to the cross sectional area
3. Shear Stress
Stress arising from forces which are parallel to, and lie in the plane of the cross
sectional area.
4. Hoop Stress
Internal stress acting on the wall a pipe or cylinder due to internal pressure
The volume of weld metal in a joint will affect the amount of local expansion and
contraction, hence the more weld deposited the higher amount of distortion
- reduce the number of runs required to make a weld (e.g. angular distortion as a
function of number of runs for a 10 mm leg length weld)
General guidelines:
The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on carbon & other alloying elements
content.
If a material has limited weldability, we need to take special measures to ensure the
maintenance of the properties required
Poor weldability normally results in the occurrence of cracking
A steel is considered to have poor weldability when:
• an acceptable joint can only be made by using very narrow range of welding
conditions
• great precautions to avoid cracking are essential (e.g., high pre-heat etc)
2. The Effect of Alloying on Steels
Elements may be added to steels to produce the properties required to make it
useful for an application.
Most elements can have many effects on the properties of steels.
Other factors which affect material properties are:
•The temperature reached before and during welding
•Heat input
•The cooling rate after welding and or PWHT
3. Steel Alloying Elements
Iron (Fe): Main steel constituent. On its own, is relatively soft, ductile, with low
strength.
Carbon (C): Major alloying element in steels, a strengthening element with major
influence on HAZ hardness. Decreases weldability.
•typically < ~ 0.25%
Manganese (Mn): Secondary only to carbon for strength, toughness and ductility,
secondary de-oxidiser and also reacts with sulphur to form manganese sulphide.
< ~0.8% is residual from steel de-oxidation
Solidification Cracking
Lamellar Tearing
1. Factors for lamellar tearing to occur
Cracks only occur in the rolled plate !
Close to or just outside the HAZ !
Cracks lay parallel to the plate surface and the fusion boundary of the weld and has
a stepped aspect.
• Low quality parent materials, high levels of impurities
• Joint design, direction of stress
• The amount of stress acting across the joint during welding
• Note: very susceptible joints may form lamellar tearing under very low levels of
stress
The results are given as a STRA value Short Transverse Reduction in Area
2. Pre-heat Application
Furnace - Heating entire component - best
Electrical elements -Controllable; Portable; Site use; Clean; Component cannot be
moved.
Gas burners - direct flame impingement; Possible local overheating; Less
controllable; Portable; Manual operation possible; Component can be moved.
Radiant gas heaters - capable of automatic control; No flame impingement; No
contact with component; Portable.
Induction heating - controllable; Rapid heating (mins not hours); Large power
supply; Expensive equipment
3. Measuring pre heat in Welding
5. Welding Temperatures
Point of Measurement
- BS EN ISO 13916
- t < 50 mm
- A = 4 x t but max. 50 mm
- the temperature shall be measured on the surface of the workpiece facing the
welder
Calibration
1. Calibration, validation and monitoring Definitions:
Measurement = set of operations for determining a value of a quantity
Repeatability = closeness between successive measuring results of the same
instrument carried out under the same conditions
Accuracy class = class of measuring instruments that are intended to keep the errors
within specified limits
Calibration = checking the errors in a meter or measuring device
Validation = checking the control knobs and switches provide the same level of
accuracy when returned to a pre-determined point
Monitoring = checking the welding parameters (and other items) are in accordance
with the procedure or specification
2. Welding parameter calibration/validation
Which parameters need calibration /validation?
How accurate?
- depends on the application
- welding current - ±2,5%
- arc voltage - ±5%
- wire feed speed - ±2,5%
- gas flow rate - ±20% (±25% for backing gas flow rate)
- temperature (thermocouple) - ±5%
- depends on the welding process