Body weight is used to define as mass of an organism and a form

of physical exercise that employs a person's own weight as resistance to movement. As

a measure of mass, the measurement unit for body weight is in kilograms. It is frequently

used to measure weight without items located on the person. Practically, there are certain

time wherein body weight may be measured with clothes but without any heavy

paraphernalia such as cellular phones, wallets, or wrist watches. Through the usage of

manual or digital weighing scale, a person can determine a person’s weight and health

as an excess or reduced body weight is regarded as an indicator and with the assistance

of body volume measurement, it seeks to provide an extra dimension by calculating the

distribution of body weight.

Prior to that, medical professionals use body mass index (BMI) as a medium to

calculate its distribution. Body mass index, or BMI, is a way to help someone figure out if

a person is at healthy weight for your height. It is defined as number based on your weight

and height. In general, the higher the number, the more body fat a person has. It is

commonly used as a screening tool to decide if someone’s weight might be putting it at

risk for health problems such as heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. As stated by the

United States National Library of Medicine (2016), there are four classifications for all

labels for ranges of weight in adults or children interconnected through the continuous

use of BMI mainly 1. Underweight, 2. Normal, 3. Overweight, and 4. Obese.

Throughout history, humans have given importance to the beauty of the human

body. Society, media, and popular culture often shape how a person sees their own body,

but popular standards are not always helpful. Yvette Brazier (2017) once said that many

men and women are concerned about their body image correlated as giving essence to
the beauty of one another. As National Eating Disorder Association (NEDA) enunciated

an information at the year 2011, body image is not just what people see in the mirror, thus,

it is the multifaceted psychological experience of embodiment (Park S. 2009). It involves

memories, assumptions, generalizations or even perceptions on surroundings.

Consequently, Denise Witmer (2018) mentioned that body image may either be mental

or emotional aspect as it both defies the picture that a person has in his/her mind and on

how that particular person feels about their body.

In educational institutions, success is measured by academic performance, or how

well a student meets standards set out by local government and the institution itself. As

career competition grows even more fierce in the working world, the importance of

students doing well in school has caught the attention of parents, legislators and

government education departments alike. Academic performance represents outcomes

that indicate the extent to which a person has accomplished specific goals that were the

focus of activities in instructional environments, specifically in school, college, and

university.

An early work by (Truong & Sturm, 2011) states that the relationship between body

weight and educational achievement (Himes J.,2015) has important policy implications,

particularly as the prevalence of adolescents with body weight status has been on the

rise in many countries of the world and has been analyzed in disciplines such as

psychology, sociology, medicine and, more recently, economics. According to

psychologists and sociologists, being overweight can affect educational achievement by

influencing an individual’s self-esteem and body image (Puhl, 2011). At the same time,
body weight and educational achievement can be influenced by additional factors such

as “future orientation,” the individual’s willingness to invest in his or her future health,

income and social success (Duncan et al., 2009; Sutin, Ferrucci, Zonderman &

Terracciano, 2011).

Cross-sectional data from the Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS)

by 2015, conducted in seven African countries to obtain a representative sample.

Partnering with BMC Public Health(2015), unadjusted rates of being underweight varied

from 12.6% (Egypt) to 31.9% (Djibouti), while being overweight ranged from 8.7% (Ghana)

to 31.4% (Egypt). Obesity rates ranged from 0.6% (Benin) to 9.3% (Egypt). The results

demonstrate the co-existence of dual burden of underweight and overweight in both

males and females. Females had a higher overweight prevalence in five of the countries,

exceptions being Egypt and Malawi, males had a higher prevalence of being underweight

than females for every country.

Consequently, the World Health Organization (WHO) in the year 2015, considers

childhood obesity a serious public health challenge of the 21st century due in part, to its

association with affluence. On the other hand, being underweight, also associated with

negative health outcomes, remains a significant problem despite increased efforts to

address it in accordance to academic performance (Lancet. 2013 Aug.,10).

The issue of underweight in early childhood in the U.S. has garnered much less

attention than the issue of childhood obesity in recent years. A major reason for this lack

of research is the decrease in the prevalence rates of underweight in the U.S over the last

30 years (Onis, Blossner, Borghi, Frongillo, & Morris, 2009). The most recent estimates for

the occurrence of underweight in the U.S. are about 3.1% (Onis et al.). In addition,
worldwide there is a much greater prevalence of underweight among children than in the

U.S., with estimates anywhere from 17% to 25% (Chang, Walker, Grantham-McGregor, &

Powell, 2011). A majority of research on childhood underweight is conducted in

nonindustrialized nations as a result of their living conditions (Onis et al., 2009). Onis and

colleagues identified the lack of cheap, high-calorie food available in these nations as a

major contributor to high underweight prevalence. In addition, insufficient means to store

and distribute food and high disease rates have also been identified as contributors to early

childhood underweight (Onis et al.). Little research exists on the contributing factors to

underweight in the United States. Future research is needed to identify reasons why a

small but meaningful section of the United States youth is diagnosed as underweight.

Multiple detrimental effects on the development of children have been identified

in relation to underweight (Chang et al., 2011; Mendez & Adair, 2009; Walker, Chang, &

30 Powell, 2011). Among the most notable detrimental effects to development was

decreased school achievement (Walker et al.). Underweight is shown to be associated

with lower academic achievement. Malnutrition is likely the main underlying factor for

underweight and the negative influence on students may be more far reaching than just

academic achievement (Golam et al., 2014). Academic deficiencies related to

underweight in children have been identified in both industrialized and non-industrialized

nations (Chang et al.). Specifically, children who were diagnosed as “underweight” were

more likely to exhibit conduct problems in school (Chang et al.). Also, underweight

children were more likely to score lower on arithmetic tests than their typically weighted

peers, when controlling for IQ. In addition, these effects remained significant after

controlling for home and school environment conditions that have been found to play a
role in influencing achievement (Chang et al.). Prior to academic achievement, social and

emotional deficits have been linked to underweight in children (Chang et al., 2011;

Maughan, Pickles, Hagell, Rutter, & Yule, 2009). Specifically, self-esteem and aggressive

behavior in early childhood have been shown to be strongly positively correlated with birth

weight (Chang et al.). In other words, children with low birth weight tend to have lower

self-esteem and show more aggression. As a result of their study, Chang and colleagues

hypothesized that emotional and social deficiencies exhibited by underweight children

may be serving as a moderator in academic outcomes. Existing research has identified

multiple negative outcomes (i.e., poor academic achievement, increased aggressive

behaviors, lower self-esteem) for underweight in early childhood (Chang et al.; Mendez

&Adair, 2009; Walker et al., 2011; Whaley, Sigman, & Espinosa, 2009,), suggesting that

even with a low prevalence rate, childhood underweight in the U.S. needs additional

research.

A case study by Santana (2017) had suggested that individuals with obesity have

lowerintelligence quotient (IQ) and exhibit poorer executivefunction, memory, attention

and motor skills compared withnormal weight peers. Successful academic performanceis

important during the school years and is also a strongpredictor of occupational and social

success in adult life. Interconnected to that, John Hill (2017) professed that adiposity may

directly influence cognition, learning and memory functioning. However, weight-related

bias or discrimination, commonly experienced by children with obesity, may affect self-

esteem by internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems, thus mediating or

moderating children’s academic performance. Lower teacher expectations of obese

students might affect grades indirectly (Branigan,2017) if obese students underperform

in class due to internalization of such lower expectations (Kuklinski and Weinstein 2009)

or factors such as stereotype threat. Amelia Branigan also found, in the year 2016, that

teachers and school staff expected obese students to be more emotional, less tidy, and

less likely to succeed at schoolwork than their normal-weight peers, while students as

young as kindergarten associate obesity with being stupid, ugly, mean, sloppy, and

having few friends. Consistent with the hypothesis that such stigmatization may motivate

differential social interaction among overweight and obese students, Janssen and King

(2013) foundthat overweight and obesity to be associated with bullying behaviors:

victimization as early as age 11, and by age 15, also perpetration. In accord with that,

overweight children have a greater likelihood of poor peer relations, being excessively

teased, and ostracized. Neumark-Sztainer (2009) and colleagues found that both

overweight and underweight children were more likely to be teased by family and peers

than normally weighted children. Finally, a link between increased teasing from being

overweight is positively correlated with a higher prevalence of body image issues and

eating disorders (especially for girls; Neumark- Sztainer et.al).

The remaining three causal studies acknowledge that obesity is also a socially

sanctioned characteristic of the physical body (Saguy 2013), and has the potential to alter

academic performance via social pathways such as discrimination and stigma even in the

absence of direct physical health consequences. Teachers might discriminate against

obese students, grading them more harshly than a student of normal weight regardless

of actual academic performance. Lower teacher expectations of obese students might

affect grades indirectly (Branigan,2017) if obese students underperform in class due to

internalization of such lower expectations (Kuklinski and Weinstein 2009) or factors such
as stereotype threat. Amelia Branigan also found, in the year 2016, that teachers and

school staff expected obese students to be more emotional, less tidy, and less likely to

succeed at schoolwork than their normal-weight peers, while students as young as

kindergarten associate obesity with being stupid, ugly, mean, sloppy, and having few

friends. Consistent with the hypothesis that such stigmatization may motivate differential

social interaction among overweight and obese students, Janssen and King

(2013) foundthat overweight and obesity to be associated with bullying behaviors:

victimization as early as age 11, and by age 15, also perpetration. In accord with that,

overweight children have a greater likelihood of poor peer relations, being excessively

teased, and ostracized. Neumark-Sztainer (2009) and colleagues found that both

overweight and underweight children were more likely to be teased by family and peers

than normally weighted children. Finally, a link between increased teasing from being

overweight is positively correlated with a higher prevalence of body image issues and

eating disorders (especially for girls; Neumark- Sztainer et.al).

The term "overweight" is used in two different ways. In one sense it is a way of saying

imprecisely that someone is heavy. The other sense of "overweight" is more precise and

designates a state between normal weight and obesity. The National Institutes of

Health (NIH) now defines overweight in terms of the BMI (the body mass index) which is a

person's weight in kilograms (kg) divided by their height in meters (m)squared. Since the

BMI describes the body weight relative to height, it correlates strongly (in adults) with the

total body fat content.

Obesity has been more precisely defined by the National Institutes of Health (the NIH)

as a BMI (Body Mass Index) of 30 and above. (A BMI of 30 is about 30 pounds overweight.)
Since the BMI describes the body weight relative to height, it correlates strongly (in adults)

with the total body fat content. Some very muscular people may have a high BMI without

undue health risks.

Nutrient intake, body mass, and physical activity is described relative to cognitive

development and academic achievement. The overconsumption of energy and excess

body mass suggests poorer academic achievement during development and greater

decay of brain structure and function accompanied by increased cognitive aging during

older adulthood (Burkhalter & Hillman, 2011).

Others have demonstrated that overnutrition, more specifically an

overconsumption of energy, is maladaptive for brain health and function. Specifically, a

link between an excess of body fat and decrements in cognitive performance have also

been investigated. Campos et al. examined intelligence (i.e. Wechsler Intelligence Scale

for Children) in 65 obese adolescents relative to healthy weight individuals within the

same community (age range 8–14 y). They found that obese children performed worse

on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children than their healthy weight counterparts.

Academic performance may be associated with behavioral responses to obesity.

One example according to Tobin (2013) is that, greater exposure to fast food which leads

to obesity has been found to be detrimental to learning ability.There are several pathways

through which children’s weight could affect their academic performance. Overweight

children are more likely to have sleep apnea and asthma, which may interfere with

cognitive performance (Luder, Melnik, & DiMaio, 2013). Obese children also are more

likely to have an iron deficiency, which reduces cognitive performance (Nead,Halterman,

Kaczorowski, Auinger, & Weitzman, 2009; Taras, 2008). If being overweight lowers
children’s self-esteem, as indicated by Hayden-Wade et al. (2009) and Strauss, it may

indirectly lead to poorer academic performance. Bias among peers, parents, or teachers

against overweight children could worsen their academic performance if those children

receive fewer academic.

In addition to the health consequences of childhood obesity, other studies have

also found a negative correlation between childhood obesity and school performance. In

their study, for instance, (Wu et al., 2017) discovered a close association between

childhood obesity and poor academic performance among Chinese school-going children.

Analyzing data on this study helped the researchers conclude that obese children have

working memory deficits which may be construed to the cause of poor performance (Wu

et al., 2017). This study is supported by (Heshmat et al., 2014) who found a negative

relationship between school performance and childhood obesity. Those who were

overweight were seen to have low scores as compared to normal school going children.

The relationship was seen to be more significant for geometry and mathematics (Heshmat

et al., 2014). Psychological factors such as poor self-image and altered peer relationships

have been suggested to influence the relationship between school performance and

obesity (Wu et al., 2017)

There are also studies that address the relationship between academic

performance and student health and wellbeing along dimensions such as hunger,

malnutrition, sleep, physical and emotional abuse, and chronic illness (Austin 2007;

Glewwe, Jacoby and Taras 2008; Carlson et al 2008; Belot and James 2011). Recently,

there are an increasing number of studies focusing on examining and verifying the link

between childhood body weight and educational outcomes. The results are inconsistent.
Many of them found a negative association between overweight and school performance

(Crosnoe and Muller 2009; Taras and Potts-Datema 2009; Sabia 2009; Gurley-Calvez

and Higginbotham 2010; Averret and Stifel 2010). For instance, Datar, Sturm and

Magnabosco (2010) used data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten

Class (ECLS-K) to investigate the association between childhood overweight and

academic performance. They found out that overweight kindergartners scored

significantly lower than their non-overweight peers on standardized tests but

acknowledged that these effects could be attributed to potential confounding variables.

Thus, they concluded that obesity is a marker as opposed to a causal factor when it

comes to low academic performance. Gurly-Calvez and Higginbotham (2010) used West

Virginia fifth grade school district level panel 6 data to examine the relationship between

childhood obesity and performance in schools based on different family income levels.

Their results suggest that obesity has a negative effect on academic achievement

in lower income school districts and that these effects for low-income children can be

offset by additional educational spending. Sabia (2009) studied sample drawing from the

National Longitude Survey of Adolescent Health and concluded that there is a negative

relationship between body weight and academic performance among white females.

Similarly, using individual children’s data with mother’s historic BMI as instrumental

variable, study by Averret and Stifel (2010) found that overweight white boys have both

math and reading scores about one standard deviation below that of their peers and

obese black boys and girls have significantly lower reading scores but not math scores.

However, some other papers found no relationship between body weight and

achievement test scores. For example, in MacAcann and Roberts’ study (2013), they
found that obese students obtain equivalent test scores to nonobese students and they

asserted that the differences in grades obtained between obese and nonobese students

are due to the peer and teacher prejudice and discrimination. Again, Kaestner and

Grossman (2009), and Scholder et al. (2010) both claimed that there is no significant

association between weight status and academic achievement in their paper.

Enunciating the relationship of obesity to academic and behavioral performance,

the overall research has demonstrated that overweight children are more likely to possess

self-image beliefs that negatively affect their social interactions (Henninger,2009).

Body Mass Index

Below 18.5 Underweight

18.5 – 25.00 Normal

25.00 – 30.00 Overweight

30 Above Obese

Table. 1.1. Classification of Body weight calculated through body mass index

(Oshani, Kumara, 2017).

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W.G.D.S Wehigaldeniya* , P.A.L Oshani* , I.M.N.S Kumara** International Journal of

Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 7, Issue 2, February 2017 ISSN 2250-

3153

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