INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

I year Semester-II (2016-17)

Disk operating system(DOS):

Dos Internal Command
1. Cls
2. Dir
3. Date
4. Time
5. Vol
6. Ver
7. Copy con
8. Type
9. REN
10. MD(make directory)
11. CD( change directory)
12. RD(remove directory)
13. DEL
14. Path
15. Copy
How to open the dos prompt:
step 1: go to click on start
step 2: then click on run
step.3: type the CMD /Command in the open menu
step 4: for maximize the screen press alt + enter

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1.CLS: the purpose of this command is to clean the display screen and re
display the dos prompt at the upper left corner of the screen.
syntax: c:\>cls and press enter
2.DIR: the purpose of this command is to display the list of directory and file in
the screen.
syntax: c:\>dir and press enter
DIR/P: to see the directory in page wise
DIR/W: to see the directory in with wise
DIR/S: to see the directory in size wise
DIR/O: to see the directory in order wise
3.DATE: this command is to the current system date
Syntax: c:\>date (and press enter)
4.TIME: this command is to display the current system time.
Syntax: c:\>time (and press enter)
5.VOL: the purpose this command is to display the volume label or name of the
volume given by the user.
Syntax: c:\>vol (and press enter)
6.VER: it displays the version of the dos (Disk Operating System) being used
currently.
Syntax: c:\>Ver (and press enter)
7.COPY CON: the purpose of this command is to create the file.(a file is
collection data or text stored on the disk) the file created this command cannot
be modified if the user is been tried to use this command for modified it
displays file is already exits overwrite it.to save the conntent of the file either
by pressing ctrl+z or function key f6.
Syntax: c:\> copy con (filename).extn
8.TYPE: the purpose of this command is to view the content of standard text or
file this only displays the information in the file

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Syntax: c:\> type (filename).extn
9.REN: the purpose of this command is to to rename the old file with a new
file name.
Syntax: C:\> ren old file name new file name
10.MD: The Purpose of this command is to create in new directory or sub
directory storing groups of file in different directories make it easy to find files
Syntax: c:\> MD (directory name)
11.CD (Change dir): the purpose of this command is to change from one
directory to another or
sub Directory
Syntax: c:\> CD (directory name)
12.RD (Remove dir): the purpose of this command is to delete directory
Syntax: c:\> RD (directory name)
13.DEL : the purpose of this command is to delete a file
Syntax: c:\> DEL (file name)
14.PATH: the purpose of this command is to provide access files locate it in
other directory
Syntax: c:\> path and press enter
15.COPY: the purpose of this command is to copy one or more specified files to
another disk with the same file name , date and time
syntax: c:\> copy file name source path target path

External commands:

These commands are known as Disk residence commands. These commands help
to perform some specific task. These are stored in a secondary storage device. Some
important external commands are given below-
MORE MOVE FIND DOSKEY
MEM FC DISKCOPY FORMAT
SYS CHKDSK ATTRIB
XCOPY SORT LABEL

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1. MORE:-Using TYPE command we can see the content of any file. But if
length of file is greater than 25 lines then remaining lines will scroll up. To
overcome through this problem we uses MORE command. Using this command
we can pause the display after each 25 lines.

Syntax:- C:\> TYPE <File name> | MORE

C:\> TYPE ROSE.TXT | MORE
or
C:\> DIR | MORE

2. MEM:-This command displays used amount of memory in the computer.

Syntax:- C:\> MEM

3. SYS:- This command is used for copy system files to any disk. The disk
having system files are known as Bootable Disk, which are used for booting the
computer.

Syntax:- C:\> SYS [Drive name]

C:\> SYS A:
System files

transferred
This command will transfer the three main system files COMMAND.COM,
IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS to the floppy disk.

4. XCOPY:- When we need to copy a directory instant of a file from one

location to another the we uses xcopy command. This command is much faster
than copy command.

Syntax:- C:\> XCOPY < Source dirname > <Target dirname>

C:\> XCOPY TC TURBOC

5. MOVE:- Move command is used for moving one file or multiple files from
one location to another location or from one disk to another disk.

Syntax:- C:\> MOVE <file name> <path name>

C:\SONGS> MOVE *.MP3 C:\ SONGS\OLD SONGS\

6. FC:-(File Compare) This command is capable for comparing two set of files
and display difference between two files.

Syntax:- C:\> FC <First set of file> <Second set of file>

C:\> FC ROSE.TXT GULAB.TXT

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7.CHKDSK:-(Check disk) - This command is used to check the status of a disk
and show the report of result status.

Syntax:- C:\> CHKDSK

C:\>CHKDSK
CHKDSK has NOT checked this drive for errors.
You must use SCANDISK to detect and fix errors on
this drive.
Volume JAI created 10-19-2001 7:14p
Volume Serial Number is 3E42-1907
4,203,073,536 bytes total disk space
381,988,864 bytes available on disk
4,096 bytes in each allocation unit
1,026,141 total allocation units on disk
93,259 available allocation units on disk
651,264 total bytes memory
610,784 bytes free
Instead of using CHKDSK, try using SCANDISK.
SCANDISK can reliably detect
and fix a much wider range of disk problems.

8. SORT:- This command is useful when we want to sort a file. When we run
this command the result can be get to display device or file.

Syntax:- C:\> SORT /R < Input file name> <output file name>
Suppose we have a file Player.txt which having the list of a cricket player team
and we want to sort the list of players, then we uses this command
C:\> SORT Player.txt

If we not specify the output file name then result will show to the screen.

/R- switch is used for sorting the file in descending order like from Z to A or
from 9 to 0.

9. FIND:- The FIND command is used to search a file for a text string.

Syntax:- C:\> FIND "String to search" <File name>

C:\TEST>find "office" gulab.txt

---------- gulab.txt
A clock in a office can never get stolen

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10. DISKCOPY:- DISKCOPY copies the contents of a floppy disk to another.

Syntax:- C:\> DISKCOPY <Drive1> <Drive2>

C:\> DISKCOPY A: B:

This command will be copy all contents of A drive to B drive.

11. ATTRIB:- Sets the various type of attribute to a file. Like Read only,
Archive, Hidden and System attribute.

Syntax:- C:\> ATTRIB [± r] [± a] [± h] [± s] <File name>

here r - for read only, a- for archive, h - for hidden, s - for hidden attribute.
C:\> ATTRIB +r Gulab.txt
This command will change the attribute of file gulab.txt to read only mode. To
remove the read only attribute we will follow this command.
C:\> ATTRIB -r Gulab.txt

12. LABEL:- If you are not happy with the volume label of hard disk, you can
change it.

Syntax:- C:\> LABEL

C:\>LABEL
Volume in drive C is JAI
Volume Serial Number is 3E42-1907
Volume label (11 characters, ENTER for none)? INFOWAY

13. DOSKEY:- Once we install doskey , our dos will star to memorize all
commands we uses. We can recall those commands using up or down arrow
keys. It also gives the facility to create macros, which creates a short key for
long keyword or command.

Key function for Doskey are given as-

UP,DOWN arrows recall commands

Esc clears current command
F7 displays command history
Alt+F7 clears command history
selects a command by
F9
number
Alt+F10 clears macro definitions

Syntax:- C:\> DOSKEY

DOSKey installed

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Creating Macros:-
C:\>doskey t=time

C:\>t
C:\>time
Current time is 3:39:05.97p
Enter new time:

To list out all macros defined just type DOSKEY/MACROS at dos prompt and
press enter.
C:\>DOSKEY/MACROS
$D=date
T=time

14. FORMAT:- This command creates new Track & Sectors in a disk. Every

Syntax:- C:\> FORMAT [drive name] [/S]

C:\> FORMAT A:
this command will create new track & sectors.
C:\> FORMAT A: /S
This command will transfer system files after formatting the disk.

History of Computers:

In the beginning many devices have been used in the processing of data.
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The mechanical calculating device ABACUS was principally used to add and
subtract. It was probably used by the Babylonians as early as 2200 B.C. and
existed in many forms such as a frame of beads, a pebble tray and knotted
strings. This device had limited use so scientists developed other means. About
1610, John Napier, a Scottish mathematician. developed a series of rods called
bones that could be arranged in a predetermined ways to produce the products
of selected numbers.

The French mathematician Blaise Pascal improved this concept in 1645

and produced the Pascaline, recognised as the first mechanical calculator but it
was only capable of performing additions and subtractions. Until 1820, nearly
two centuries later. al! attempts to produce a calculator capable of performing
all four arithmetic operations and producing mathematical tables failed. Then. a
young genius named Charles Babbage, an English mathematician gave much
thought to the design of a device that used the" differences" between previous
values in a table to produce new values. Babbage in 1822, constructed a
working model to illustrate the principle - the difference engine. Babbage then
commenced work on a steam-driven version of the difference engine capable of
calculating and printing results. He succeeded in building part of the full-sized
version but abandoned it in favor of a more powerful machine, the Analytical
Engine. This engine was using coded punched cards to provide a constant flow
of information and capable of performing a variety of computations , executing
sequences of instructions, branching from one sequence of instructions to
another based on the result of its calculations.

Basics of Computer
Definition : “A computer can be defined as an electronic device that takes input
from the user, stores, processes data and generates the required output as per the
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 processing instructions given to it by the user”.
1. Input - Input devices feed the computer the raw matter - facts or data.
2. Processing - The storage of data, numerical comparisons, arithmetic
operation are performed on data to produce desired results
3. Output - The processed data or information is sent to the output device

connected to computer.

The block diagram of computer :

CPU

ALU

Output Devices
Input
devies Memory unit

Control unit

The basic components of a computer are:

 Input Unit
 Output Unit
 Memory / Storage Unit
 Arithmetic Logic Unit
 Control Unit
 Central Processing Unit

These are shown in figure below:

When a computer is asked to do a job, it handles the task in a very special way:

1).It accepts the information from the user. This is called input.
2).It stored the information until it is ready for use. The computer has memory
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chips, which are designed to hold information until it is needed.
3).It processes the information. The computer has an electronic brain called the
Central Processing Unit, which is responsible for processing all data and
instructions given to the computer.
4).It then returns the processed information to the user. This is called output.

Input Unit

Input Unit accepts the instructions and data from the outside world. Then it
converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form. after that it
supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further
processing.

Ex: Keyboard, Mouse, Jotsticks.

Memory Unit

The Memory Unit is the part of the computer that holds data and instructions for
processing. Although it is closely associated with the CPU, in actual fact it is
separate from it. Memory associated with the CPU is also called primary storage,
primary memory, main storage, internal storage and main memory. When we load
software from a floppy disk, hard disk or CD-ROM, it is stored in the Main
Memory.

Arithmetic Logical Unit

An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit that performs arithmetic and
logical operations. The ALU is a fundamental building block of the central
processing unit (CPU) of a computer, and even the simplest microprocessors
contain one for purposes such as maintaining timers. The processors found inside
modern CPUs and graphics processing units (GPUs) accommodate very powerful
and very complex ALUs; a single component may contain a number of ALUs. Most
ALUs can perform the following operations: Integer arithmetic operations
(addition, subtraction, and sometimes multiplication and division).

Control Unit
The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) directs the
various components of a computer. It reads and interprets (decodes) instructions in
the program one by one. The control system decodes each instruction and turns it
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into a series of control signals that operate the other parts of the computer. Control
systems in advanced computers may change the order of some instructions so as to
improve performance.

Central Processing Unit

The control unit and ALU of a computer system are jointly known as the CPU. The
CPU is the brain of computer system. It takes all calulations and comparisons in a
computer systems and it s also responsible for activating and controlling the
operations of other units of computer system.

Output Unit

The output unit is just reverse of the input unit. it accepts the result produced by
computer, which are in coded form and can't be easily understood by us. Then it
converts these coded result into human readable form. After that it supplies the
converted results to the outside world.

Ex: Monitor, Printers etc.

Characteristics of Computers:
A computer is equipped with number of chief characteristics that helps it to
handle the different problems more efficiently and economically. The salient
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characteristics are as
1) Accuracy:
Computer system always produce accurate results with valid data and
instruction.
In simpler terms, one cannot expect correct and accurate results when the
instruction set to manipulate the data is incorrect or the data which user is
putting in is wrong. So the computers never make a mistake. The degree of
accuracy provided by a particular computer depends upon it's design. Errors can
occur in a computer, but they are generally due to human and not the
technological weaknesses.
2) Speed:
Computers can process millions of instructions per second thus carrying out
even the complex tasks in fraction of seconds. The speed of computers is
increasing day by day and thus generally the speed of computers is measured in
terms of microseconds( 10-6), nanoseconds(10-9), and even pico seconds (10-12).
The job earlier carried out in days have been performed by computers in few
seconds due to their enormous speed of processing.
3) Versatility:
Versatility means that computers can do a variety of jobs depending upon the
instructions fed to them arid their hardware characteristics. It is one of the most
wonderful feature of the computers that they are not only capable of handling
complex arithmetical problem, but can do equally well other number of jobs.
For example a computer can be used to open a web site on one hand and in
parallel can be used to edit a document and can also be busy with some search
operation. So it can be used to carry out multiple jobs at a time. Also we find
computers in Banks, Reservation Offices, Diagnostic Centers , Educational
institutions etc..
4) Storage Capability:

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A computer can store and recall any information as and when required and can
be retained as long as desired by the user. Computer doesn't make any guess or
approximation. The information recalled would be as accurate as on the day it
was fed into the computer. It is dependent upon the user to make a computer
retain or forget a particular information.
5) No intellectual power:
Computer doesn't possess any intellectual power, only a user can determine
what tasks a computer can perform as computer can't take it's own decisions.
Nowadays some artificial intelligence has been introduced by involving some
pattern matching algorithms so that computer can take some decisions on its
own.

Hardware and software:

HardWare: Hardware generally refers to the physical equipment that performs

the basic functions. Hardware devices also include auxiliary devices called
peripherals such as printers, modems and scanners etc..
Software:
Software is a sequence of instructions designed to direct a computer to
perform certain functions. Computer must have. access to prewritten, stored
programs to input, store, make decisions, arithmetically manipulate and output
data in the correct sequence.
Software is generally categorized as two types
1. System Sofware
2. Application Sotware

System Software consists of programs designed to help the use of the

computer C( by the user. These programs perform standard tasks such as

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organizing and maintaining TJ data files, translating programs written in
various languages to a language acceptable to to the computer, scheduling the
jobs as well as helping in other areas of computer operations.
Most of the system software is available to the user by the manufacturer
e.g.
1. Operating system is a system software designed to manage the
resources of computer system such as memory, processor, input, output and
files.
Application Software consists of number of programs designed to perform any
specific user applications. These programs are either purchased or developed in
house for specific applications. Program for preparing and printing employee
pay slips is an example of application software.

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES :

The computer will be of no use unless it is able to communicate with the

outside world. Input/Output devices are required for users to communicate with

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the computer. In simple terms – input devices bring information INTO the
computer and output devices bring information OUT of a computer system.
These input/output devices are also known as peripherals since they surround
the CPU and memory of a computer system.

Some commonly used Input/Output devices are listed in a table below.

Input Devices Output

Devices
Keyboard Monitor
Mouse LCD
Joystick Printer
Scanner Plotter
Light Pen
Touch Screen

Input Devices
Keyboard
It is a text base input device that allows the user to input alphabets,
numbers and other characters. It consists of a set of keys mounted on a
board.

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Qwerty Keyboard Layout Function Keys Numeric Keypad Cursor Movement
Keys Alphanumeric Keypad/ Special-function Keys

Computer Basics
• Alphanumeric Keypad : It consists of keys for English alphabets, 0 to 9
numbers, and special characters like + − / * ( ) etc.
• Function Keys : There are twelve function keys labeled F1, F2, F3, … ,
F12. The functions assigned to these keys differ from one software
package to another. These keys are also user programmable keys.
• Special-function Keys : These keys have special functions assigned to
them and can be used only for those specific purposes. Functions of
some of the important keys are defined below.
Enter
Is used similar to the ‘return’ key of the typewriter and is used to
execute a command or program.
Spacebar
Is used to enter a space at the current cursor location.
Backspace
Is used to move the cursor one position to the left and also delete the
character in that position.
Delete

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 Is used to delete the character at the cursor position.
Insert
Is used to toggle between insert and overwrite mode during data
entry.
Shift
Is used to type capital letters when pressed along with an alphabet
key. Also used to type the special characters located on the upper-side
of a key that has two characters defined on the same key.
Caps Lock
Is used to toggle between the capital lock feature. When ‘on’ locks the
alphanumeric keypad for capital letters input only.
Tab
Is used to move the cursor to the next tab position defined in the
document. Used to insert indentation into a document.
Ctrl
Or the control key is used in conjunction with other keys to provide
additional functionality on the keyboard.
Alt
Also like the control key, is always used in combination with other
keys to perform specific tasks.
Esc
Usually used to negate a command. Also used to cancel or abort
executing programs.
Numeric Keypad
Is located on the right side of the keyboard and consists of keys
having numbers (0 to 9) and mathematical operators (+ − * /) on
them. This keypad is provided to support quick entry for numeric
data.
Cursor Movement Keys
Are have arrow keys used to move the cursor in the direction indicated by
the arrow (up, down, left, right).

Mouse
The mouse is a small device used to point at a particular place on the
screen and select in order to perform one or more actions. It can be used to
select menu commands, size windows, start programs etc.

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 The most conventional kind of mouse has two buttons on top: the left one
being used most frequently.
Mouse Actions
Left Click : used to select an item.
Double Click : used to start a program or open a file.
Right Click : usually used to display a set of commands.
Drag and Drop : allows you to select and move an item from one location
to another. To achieve this place the cursor over an item on the screen,
click the left mouse button and while holding the button down move the
cursor to where you want to place the item, and then release it.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device used for direct data entry from the source
document into the computer system. It converts the document image into
digital form so that it can be fed into the computer. Capturing information
like this reduces the possibility of errors typically experienced during large
data entry.

Light Pen
It is a pen shaped device used to select objects on a display screen. It is
quite like the mouse (in its functionality) but uses a light pen to move the
pointer and select any object on the screen by pointing to the object.
Users of CAD (Computer Aided Design) applications commonly use the
light pens to directly draw on screen.
Touch Screen
Allows the user to operate/make selections by simply touching the display
screen. Common examples of touch screen include information kiosks, and
bank ATMs.

Output Devices :
Monitor
Monitor is an output device that resembles the television screen and
uses a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) to display information. The monitor
is associated with a keyboard for manual input of characters and
displays the information as it is keyed in. It also displays the program
or application output. Like the television, monitors are also available
in different sizes. LCD was introduced in the 1970s and is now
applied to display terminals also. Its advantages like low energy
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 consumption, smaller and lighter have paved its way for usage in
portable computers (laptops).
Printer
Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output.
Based on the technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-
impact printers.
Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a
hammer strikes the paper through a ribbon in order to produce output.
Dot-matrix and Character printers fall under this categories.
Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use
chemical, heat or electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper.
Inkjet, Deskjet, Laser, Thermal printers fall under this category of
printers.
When we talk about printers we refer to two basic qualities associated with
printers: resolution, and speed. Print resolution is measured in terms of
number of dots per inch (dpi). Print speed is measured in terms of number
of characters printed in a unit of time and is represented as characters-per-
second (cps), lines-per-minute (lpm), or pages-per-minute (ppm).
Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a
hammer strikes the paper through a ribbon in order to produce output.
Dot-matrix and Character printers fall under this categories.
Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use
chemical, heat or electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper.
Inkjet, Deskjet, Laser, Thermal printers fall under this category of
printers.
When we talk about printers we refer to two basic qualities associated with
printers: resolution, and speed. Print resolution is measured in terms of
number of dots per inch (dpi). Print speed is measured in terms of number
of characters printed in a unit of time and is represented as characters-per-
second (cps), lines-per-minute (lpm), or pages-per-minute (ppm).
Plotter
Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets computer
commands and makes line drawings on paper using multicoloured
automated pens. It is capable of producing graphs, drawings, charts, maps
etc

TYPES OF COMPUTERS or Classifications of Computer:

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 Types of computer Classified by three types:

1. computer can be classified by its Purpose

2. computer can be classified by its development

3. computer can be classified by its size and performance.

1. COMPUTER CAN BE CLASSIFIED BY ITS PURPOSE-
(A) ANALOG COMPUTER
Analog computers are computers that measure physical quantities (e.g.
pressure, temperature, length etc.) and convert them to numeric values.
For example, a thermometer does not perform any calculation but
measures relative expansion of the body by comparing the relative
expansion of mercury. Another example is voltmeter which measures
voltage.
(B)DIGITAL COMPUTER
Digital computers are counters are counting digital devices. It directly
counting numbers (or digits that represent numerals letters or other
special symbols). For example, a digital calculator or a digital watch.
(C) HYBRID COMPUTER
The features of analog and digital machines are combined to create a
hybrid computing system. For example, in a hospital an analog
Cardiogram, measures a patient’s vital signs like temperature, heart
functions. These are then converted to numbers and supplied to the
digital components that monitor the patient’s vital signs,

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER

These generations are:

1. First Generation (1942-1955)

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 Features of first generation computer
1. Vacuum tubes were the electronic circuitry used.
2. These computers were the fastest calculating device of their time.
3. Slow operating speed, high electricity consumption and large heat
generation was there.
4. Air conditioning required.
5. Continuous maintenance was required.
6. Very bulky in size so unreliable and nonportable.
7. Limited programming capabilities i.e. machine and assembly language.

2. Second generation (1955-1964)

Features of second generation computer:
1. Transistor was the electronic circuitry used.
2. Due to their small size these are more reliable and portable.
3. Computational time is in microseconds (10-6 sec).
4. Frequent maintenance was required.
5. Less heat generated.
6. Required power to operate.
7. Faster than first generation.
8. High level languages were used.
9. Wider commercial use.

3. Third generation (1964-1975)

Features of third generation computer:

1. Integrated circuits (ICs) were the electronic circuitary used.
2. Smaller in size.
3. Increased speed and reliability.

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4. A very low heat generated.
5. Computational time reduced to nano seconds (10-9 sec).
6. Maintenance cost is low.
7. Portable.
8. Less Power requirement.
9. More advanced high level languages like PASCAL, FORTRAN, COBOL
were used.

4. Fourth generation (1975 onwards)

In this generation very largescale integrated circuits (VLSI) of about
50000 components on a single chip is used. So the size is very small for this
generation computer. The examples are IBM-370 and HP 3000.
Features of fourth generation computers:
1. VLSI is the circuitary used.
2. Smallest in size.
3. Heat generated is minimum.
4. Very reliable and much faster as compare to previous generations.
5. No air conditioning required.
6. Minimal maintenance required because hardware failure is negligible.
7. Easily portable due to small size.
8. Cheapest among all generations.

5. Fifth generation (Present) and future generations

The exact time of fifth generation cannot be specified but it has been
started near 1989. In this generation the main emphases is on parallel
processing and artificial intelligent like human being. Super computer and
Robot are the examples of this generation. In fifth generation, the VLSI

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 technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology,
resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million
electronic components.
Features of Fifth generation and future computers:
2. ULSI technology.
3. Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates.
4. Development of true artificial intelligence.
5. Advancement in Superconductor Technology.
6. Development of Natural Language processing.
7. More User friendly with Multimedia features

3. Computer can be classified by its Size and Performance

Computer very widely in performance, size and cost.
Performance is measuring in terms of speed of processing instructions, storage
capacity, ability to handle a large number of input and output devices, and
nature of operations performed.
There are 4 types of computers.
1. mini computer
2. Micro Computer
3. main frame Computer
4. super computers

Mini computers:
A Mini computer may be defined as a small general-purpose computer that is
capable of handling large amount of data from multiple users working
simultaneously. Mini computers are powerful than the micro computers and can
support several users. They have larger RAM and backing storage capacity and
can process data more quickly.

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 The first popular mini computers was the pdp-8, launched in 1965, mini
computers were basically development for use in process control system.
Today’s mini system are costlier and have large storage capacity speed of
arithmetic operations, and ability to support a greater variety of faster-operating
peripheral devices as compared to PCs further, while most PC systems remain
oriented toward single users, mini systems are usually designed to
simultaneously handle the processing needs of multiple users.
Introduced in 1965, this is usually considered the first true minicomputer
because it was the first computer for less than $25,000. It was also much faster
than earlier machines such as the PB250.

Micro Computers:
Micro computers are at lowest end of the computer range. The special purpose
devices that are used to control washing machines and highly visible personal
computers .
The most common applications of the PC are word processing ,spread sheet
calculating, and database managing.

Main frames:
The earliest computers were called mainframes due to their large size. The
term is still used for the large computers today. The capacities of the earlier
mainframes of today are enormously different.
Main frames are very large computers with a very high capacity of main
store.Because they can process large amount of data very quickly, they are used
by big companies, banks, government departments as their main computer.

Super computer:

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Complex scientific applications like weather forecasting require a large amount
of data to be manipulated within a very short time. Large super computers with
faster processing using multiple processing and superior technology are used
for complex tasks requiring a lot of computational power. Examples of super
computers are CRAY. XMP-24 and NEC-500.
Cray Research (Brand Name CRAY), and Control Data Corporation (Brand
Name : CYBER) are two primary builders of supercomputers in America. In
India, Center for Development of Advanced Computing (C – DAC), Pune has
developed the Supercomputer ‘PARAM’. Earlier computers types are as micro
– computers, mini computers, super mini computers, main frames and super
computers basing on the processor that is present in the computer. But today all
computers use microprocessors as their CPU. Therefore the computer. Basing
on them the different computers are
Personal Computers.
Palmtop PCs
Laptop PCs
Work Stations

Memory
Memory is technically any form of electronic storage, it is used most often to
identify fast, temporarily forms of storage. If your computer’s CPU had to
constantly access the hard drive to retrieve every piece of data it needs, it would
operate very slowly. Most forms of memory are intended to store data
temporarily.

There are two types of computer memory inside the computer:

 Primary Memory
 Secondary Memory

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Primary Memory
Primary storage, presently known as main memory, is the only one directly
accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and
executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in
uniform manner. However, the primary memory can hold information only while
the computer system is ON. As soon as the computer system is switched off or rest,
the information hold in primary memory disappears. Also it has limited storage
capacity because it is very expensive. It is made up of semiconductor devices.
Secondary Memory
Secondary storage, sometimes called auxiliary storage, is all data storage that is
not currently in a computer's primary storage or memory. This is computer
memory that is not directly accessible to the processor but uses the I/O
channels. It is for storing data not in active use and preserves data even without
power, meaning it is non-volatile.In a personal computer, secondary storage
typically consists of storage on the hard disk and on any removable media, if
present, such as a CD or DVD.

Primary MEMORY:
Primary Memory can be categorized into two main categories:
1. RAM
2. ROM
RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY):
RAM stands for ‘Random Access Memory’. It is an volatile memory i.e., the
information stored in it is lost when the power supply goes off. RAM is also
called Main Memory. The users can write information into RAM and read
information from it. It is accessible to users. The user enters his program and
data into RAM. It possesses random access property. In RAM any memory
location can be accesses in a random manner without going through ant other

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memory location. There are 2 types of RAMs, Static RAM,
Dynamic RAM
ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY):
ROM stands for ‘Read Only Memory’. It is non volatile memory i.e., the
information stored in it is not lost even the power supply goes off. It is used for
permanent storage of information. ROMs are much cheaper compared to
RAMs. ROMs are not accessible to users. The manufacturers decide the
contents of ROMs. Basically ROMs are divided in PROM. EPROM, EEPROM

CACHE MEMORY:
The cache memory is the intermediate memory between the CPU and main
memory. The cache memory is faster than main memory. Its access time is
much less compared to that of the main memory. The access time of a cache
memory is 15-25 nanoseconds whereas that of main memory is 80ns. The cache
memory is not accessible to users. It stores instructions and data, which are to
be immediately executed. Thus the cache memory increases the operating speed
of the system. Cache memory used by CPU, whenever the CPU requires data
frequently. CPU first request the cache for required information, if the
information available in the cache, CPU access it, otherwise CPU access the
required information, from main memory, and then maintains the same copy of
information in the cache. Registers are used in cache memory for storing the
data.

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CACHE MEMORY

PRIMARY SECONDARY
MEMORY MEMORY

CACHE
CPU MEMORY

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

These devices are used to store data so that the data can be used in the future i.e.
the data stored in a secondary storage will be stored permanently in it even
when the power is switched off. We can move the data wherever we like as well
as write the data on a secondary storage device. They are different types of
secondary storage devices.
Magnetic hard Disk : the magnetic hard disk is used to store large amount of
data in the computer so that it can be used in the future.
Structure of Magnetic Hard Disk : It consists of 6 to 10 plates like disks coated
with magnetic metallic oxide. All these disks are arranged one above the other
on a cylinder and are placed in an aluminum box. Each disk consists of 2
surfaces.
Structure of the Magnetic Hard Disk Surface : Each surface is divided into
concentric circle called tracks. Each track is again divided into sectors. One
surface will have about 400 tracks and each track will be divided into 80
sectors. On a single sector we are able to store 512 bytes. Thus the capacity of

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magnetic Hard Disk is measured as 10X40X80X512 bytes. Through the length
of each track is different the data stored in each track is the same.
Accessing of the Magnetic Hard disk : The read write head takes time to search
for a particular position. This time is known as seek time. The rate at which the
disk revolve is known as latency time. The sum of seek time and latency time is
known as access time. Floppy Disks : the capacity of a floppy disk is much less
than hard disk but it is very useful as it can be taken any where easily. Floppy
disks also known as diskette.
The large hole present in the diskette is used to mount it into a
hardware device called floppy drive. These is an oval shape opening on the
disk. Which is known as read write opening. It is used to read or write data into
the floppy disk. There is another small hole known as index hole. This allows to
search for starting position of each sector. There is an opening at the right
comer of the floppy disk called as write protect notch which when closed,
protects the information from other users.
Structure of the disk surface : On a floppy disk they are two surfaces. Each
surface is divided into concentric circles. These circles are known as tracks.
Each track is again divided into sectors. They are above 40 tracks per surface
and 9 sectors per track. Each sector can store 512 bytes. Thus the capacity is
measured as 2X40X9X512 bytes.
Size and capacity of Floppy Disks : These are available in a number of size
8” , 51/4” , 31/2” in diameter. A 41/4” floppy has the capacity to store 1.22MB
where as a 31/2” floppy can store 1.44 MB.
Magnetic Tape Drive : The magnetic tapes used in the computer are similar to
audio cassettes. Magnetic Tape drives were used before the invention of the
Hard Disk. Now –a-days magnetic taps are rarely used in computers.
Structure of the Magnetic Tape : The width of the taps is in the rang of 1.25
cms to 2.5 cms. It is made of plastic, and is coated with magnetic metallic

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oxide. Data is recorded in the form of magnetic spots. These magnetic spots are
recorded in to series of horizontal rows called as tracks. The number of tracks
on the tape can be either 7 or 9. if the tape is of nine tracks eight tracks are used
to store the bits representing the characters. The ninth is parity track used
ensure that the bits have been correctly read.
Storage of Data on a Magnetic tape: Data is stored on a magnetic tape in block
of characters. These block are separated by gaps called as inter Block gaps. We
can find the data by just knowing the block number in which it is kept. The gaps
are used to tell starting and ending point of a block. The magnetic taps consists
of a spool on which the tape is wound. Between the two spools a set of 9 read
write heads are placed parallel to one another. These are used top read and write
information on the taps.
Compact Disc Read Only Memory(CD-ROM) : In modern days technology
the audio cassettes are being replaced by CD known as Compact Disc so that
we can store large The magnetic taps consists of a spool on which the tape is
wound. Between the two spools a set of 9 read write heads are placed parallel to
one another. These are used to read and write information on the taps.
The CDROM is a shiny metal like disk, which is coated with thin film of
aluminum oxide and whose diameter is 5.25”. It can store 60 MB of data.
Information in CDROM is written by shinning a laser beam, which creates a
circular pit. These pits are used to represent binary bits. The presence of a pit
represents binary one and the absence of a pit represents binary zero and is
referred as land.
The read information from the CDROM it is kept in a CDROM
drive. It uses a laser beam for reading. As floppy disks the CDROM disk is
inserted in a slot. The disk is rotated at a speed of 360 revolution/min. a laser
head senses the presence of pits and land. This is converted to ones and zeros
and sent to the computer.

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