Summary Journal Introduction To Linguistic Lecturer: Nur Alfa Rahmah, M.PD

SUMMARY JOURNAL
INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTIC
LECTURER: NUR ALFA RAHMAH, M.Pd.
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT C 2018

TARBIYAH AND TEACHERS TRAINING FACULTIES
UNIVERSITAS ISLAM NEGERI ANTASARI BANJA
Phonetic & Phonology
Sound Segments
The study of speech sounds is called phonetics. To describe speech sounds, it is

necessary to know what an individual sound is, and how each sound differs from all others.
This is not as easy at it may seem, for when we speak, the sounds seem to run together and it
isn’t all obvious whee one sounds end and sounds in our “mind’s ear” and are able to make
sense of them, unlike the sign painter in the cartoon.
Some phrases and sentences that early distinct shen printed may be ambiguous when
spoken. Read the following pairs aloud and see why might misinterpret what we hear:
Grade A Gray day
I scream Ice Cream
The sun’s rays meet The sons raise meat
The lack of breaks between spoken words and individual sounds often makes us think
that speakers of foreign languages run their words together, unaware that we do too. One can
see the tongue, jaw, and lips in continuous moyion as the individual sounds are produced.
Identity of Speech Sounds
Summary Book Class C | 2

Phonetics
Some phones may be allophones of more than one phoneme. There is no
one-to-one correspondence between the phonemes of a language and their allophones.
In English, for example, stressed vowels become unstressed according to
regular rules, and ultimately reduce to schwa [ə], which is an allophone of each
English vowel.
Phonological segments—phonemes and phones—are composed of phonetic
features such as voiced, nasal, labial, and continuant, whose presence or absence
is indicated by + or – signs. Voiced, continuant, and many others are distinctive
features—they can contrast words. Other features like aspiration are nondistinctive
and are predictable from phonetic context. Some features like nasal may
be distinctive for one class of sounds (e.g., consonants) but nondistinctive for a
different class of sounds (e.g., vowels). Phonetic features that are nondistinctive
in one language may be distinctive in another. Aspiration is distinctive in Thai
and nondistinctive in English.
When two distinct words are distinguished by a single phone occurring in the
same position, they constitute a minimal pair, e.g., fine [faɪn] and vine [vaɪn].
Minimal pairs also occur in sign languages. Signs may contrast by handshape,
location, and movement.
Words in some languages may also be phonemically distinguished by prosodic
or suprasegmental features, such as pitch, stress, and segment length. Languages
in which syllables or words are contrasted by pitch are called tone languages.
Intonation languages may use pitch variations to distinguish meanings
of phrases and sentences.
The relationship between phonemic representation and phonetic representation
(pronunciation) is determined by phonological rules. Phonological rules
apply to phonemic strings and alter them in various ways to derive their phonetic
pronunciation, or in the case of signed languages, their hand configuration. They
may be assimilation rules, dissimilation rules, rules that add nondistinctive features,
epenthetic rules that insert segments, deletion rules, and metathesis rules
that reorder segments.
Phonological rules generally refer to entire classes of sound. These are natural
classes, characterized by a small set of phonetic features shared by all the members
of the class, e.g., [–continuant], [–voiced], to designate the natural class of
voiceless stops.
Linguists may use a mathematical-like formulation to express phonological
rules in a concise way. For example, the rule that nasalizes vowels when they
occur before a nasal consonant may be written V → [+nasal] / __ [+nasal].
Morphophonemic rules apply to specific morphemes, e.g., the plural morpheme
/z/ is phonetically [z], [s], or [əz], depending on the final phoneme of the
noun to which it is attached.
The phonology of a language also includes sequential constraints (phonotactics)
that determine which sounds may be adjacent within the syllable. These
determine what words are possible in a language, and what phonetic strings are
impermissible. Possible but nonoccurring words constitute accidental gaps and
are nonsense words, e.g., blick [blɪk].
Phonological rules exist in part to enforce phonotactic constraints. Optimality
Theory hypothesizes a set of ranked constraints that govern the phonological
rules.
To discover the phonemes of a language, linguists (or students of linguistics)
can use a methodology such as looking for minimal pairs of words, or for sounds
that are in complementary distribution. The phonological rules in a language show that the
phonemic shape of words
is not identical with their phonetic form. The phonemes are not the actual phonetic
sounds, but are abstract mental constructs that are realized as sounds by
the operation of rules such as those described in this chapter. No one is taught
these rules, yet everyone knows them subconsciously
Morphology
Morphology is an area that studies structures, forms and categorizations of words.1 The
type of exercisewe have just performed is an example of investigating basic forms in language,
generally known as morphology. This term, which literally means “the study of forms,” was
originally used in biology, but, since the middle of the nineteenth century, has also been used
to describe the type of investigation that analyzes all those basic “elements” used in a
language.What we have been describing as “elements” in the form of a linguistic message are
technically known as “morphemes.” 2
Morphemes, we do not actually have to go to other languages such as Swahili to
discover that “word forms” may consist of a number of elements. We can recognize that English
word forms such as talks, talker, talked and talking must consist of one element talk, and a
number of other elements such as -s, -er, -ed and -ing. All these elements are described as
morphemes. The definition of a morpheme is “a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical
function. the definition of a morpheme is “a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.3
Example Of Morphology Linguistic
Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and forms a core part of
linguistic study today.
-The term morphology is Greek and is a make up ofmorp-meaning ‘shape,form’,-and-ology
which means’ the study of something’.
-Morphology as a sub-discipline of linguistics was named for the first time in 1859 by the
German Linguistic August Schleicher who used the term for the study of the form of words.
Smallest independent units of language
Independent:
1. Don’t depend on other words.
2. Can be separated from other units.
3. Can change position.

Example :
 The man looked at the horses.
-S is the plural marker, dependent on the noun horse to receive meaning.
- Horses is a word : can occur other positions or stand on its own.
EG:
The horses looked the man.
-What is the man looking at?-Horses.
Words are thus both independent since they can be separated from other words and move
around in sentences, and the smallest units of language since they are the only units oflanguage
for which this is possible.
In the foregoing dialogue, Humpty Dumpty is well aware that the prefix unmeans “not,” as
further shown in the following pairs of words:
A B
desirable undesirable
likely unlikely
inspired uninspired
happy unhappy
developed undeveloped
sophisticated unsophisticated
Thousands of English adjectives begin with un-. If we assume that the most basic unit
of meaning is the word, what do we say about parts of words like un-, which has a fixed
meaning? In all the words in the B column, unmeans the same thing—“not.” Undesirable
means “not desirable,” unlikely means “not likely,” and so on. All the words in column B consist
of at least two meaningful units: un + desirable, un + likely, un + inspired, and so on.
Just as un- occurs with the same meaning in the previous list of words, so
does phon- in the following words. (You may not know the meaning of some of
them, but you will when you finish this book.)
phone phonology phoneme
phonetic phonologist phonemic
phonetics phonological allophone
phonetician telephone euphonious
phonic telephonic symphony
A single word may be composed of one or more morphemes:
one morpheme boy
desire
morph (“to change form”)
two morphemes boy + ish

desire + able
morph + ology
three morphemes boy + ish + ness

desire + able + ity
four morphemes gentle + man + li + ness
un + desire + able + ity
more than four un + gentle + man + li + ness
anti + dis + establish + ment + ari + an + ism
Syntax
The rules of syntax combine words into phrases anf phrases into sentences. Among another
things , the rules specify the correct word order for a language.
For example, English is a Subject–Verb–Object (SVO) language. The English sentence in (1)
is grammatical because the words occur in the right order; the sentence in (2) is ungrammatical
because the word order is incorrect for English. (Recall that the asterisk or star preceding a
sentence is the linguistic convention for indicating that the sentence is ungrammatical or ill-
formed according to the rules of the grammar.)
1. The President nominated a new Supreme Court justice.
2. *President the new Supreme justice Court a nominated.
A second important role of the syntax is to describe the relationship between the meaning of a
particular group of words and the arrangement of those words.
For example, Alice’s companions show us that the word order of a sentence con-tributes
crucially to its meaning. The sentences in (3) and (4) contain the same words, but the meanings
are quite different, as the Mad Hatter points out.
3. I mean what I say.

4. I say what I mean.
The rules of the syntax also specify the grammatical relations of a sentence,
such as subject and direct object. In other words, they provide the information
about who is doing what to whom. This information is crucial to understanding
the meaning of a sentence. For example, the grammatical relations in (5) and (6)
are reversed, so the otherwise identical sentences have very different meanings.
5. Your dog chased my cat.
6. My cat chased your dog.

Syntactic rules also specify other constraints that sentences must adhere to. Consider, for
example, the sentences in (7). As an exercise you can first read through them and place a star
before those sentences that you consider to be ungrammatical.
7. (a) The boy found.

(b) The boy found quickly.
(c) The boy found in the house.
(d) The boy found the ball.
We predict that you will find the sentence in (7d) grammatical and the ones in (7a–c)
ungrammatical. This is because the syntax rules specify that a verb like found must be followed
by something, and that something cannot be an expres-sion like quickly or in the house but
must be like the ball.Similarly, we expect you will find the sentence in (8b) grammatical while
the sentence in (8a) is not.
8. (a) Disa slept the baby.
(b) Disa slept soundly.
The verb sleep patterns differently than find in that it may be followed solely by a word like
soundly but not by other kinds of phrases such as the baby.We also predict that you’ll find that
the sentences in (9a, d, e, f) are gram-matical and that (9b, c) are not. The examples in (9) show
that specific verbs, such as believe, try, and want, behave differently with respect to the patterns
of words that may follow them.
9. (a) Zack believes Robert to be a gentleman.
(b) Zack believes to be a gentleman.
(c) Zack tries Robert to be a gentleman.
(d) Zack tries to be a gentleman.

(e) Zack wants to be a gentleman.
(f) Zack wants Robert to be a gentleman.
The fact that all native speakers have the same judgments about the sen-tences in (7) to (9) tells
us that grammatical judgments are neither idiosyncratic nor capricious, but are determined by
rules that are shared by all speakers of a language.Syntactic rules reveal the grammatical
relations among the words of a sen-tence as well as their order and hierarchical organization.
They also explain how the grouping of words relates to its meaning, such as when a sentence
or phrase is ambiguous. In addition, the rules of the syntax permit speakers to pro-duce and
understand a limitless number of sentences never produced or heard before—the creative aspect
of linguistic knowledge. A major goal of linguistics is to show clearly and explicitly how
syntactic rules account for this knowledge. A theory of grammar must provide a complete
characterization of what speakers implicitly know about their language.

Sentence structure
Describing Sentences
In English, a sentence consists of a subject (usually a noun phrase) followed by a verb which
is sometimes followed by an object (another noun phrase), prepositional phrases etc.
Phrase structure trees

• Phrases are created from other phrases or words.
• Sentence is the biggest phrase.
A tree diagram represents several aspects of “how words are put together” in a sentence:
• the order of the words in a sentence.
• the word class (Part of Speech) of each word.
• the hierarchical structure of a sentence – the grouping of words into phrases, and the
grouping of phrases into larger phrases.
• the centers of phrases that other words group around (e.g. N in NP, V in S)
Phrase/Constituent
Intuitively, a constituent (phrase) is a group of words which “belong together” in a sentence.
They are usually coherent by themselves (i.e., when taken out of the context of the sentence)
and make a coherent contribution to the meaning of the sentence as a whole.
Syntactically, these examples are ambiguous, however your knowledge of the world helps you
to choose the most probable interpretation.

Sentence Relatedness
EVELYN WAUGH, quoted in The New York Times, April 11, 1966
Another aspect of our syntactic competence is the knowledge that certain sentences are related
to one another, such as the following pair:
The boy is sleeping. Is the boy sleeping?
These sentences describe the same situation. The sentence in the first column
asserts that a particular situation exists, a boy-sleeping situation. Such sentences
are called declarative sentences. The sentence in the second column asks whether
such a boy-sleeping situation holds. Sentences of the second sort are called yes-
no questions. The only actual difference in meaning between these sentences is
that one asserts a situation and the other asks for confirmation of a situation.
This element of meaning is indicated by the different word orders, which illus-
trates that two sentences may have a structural difference that corresponds in
a systematic way to a meaning difference. The grammar of the language must
account for this fact.
Transformational Rules
RENÉ DESCARTES, Oeuvres, vol. X, c. 1637
Phrase structure rules account for much of our syntactic knowledge, but they
do not account for the fact that certain sentence types in the language relate
systematically to other sentence types. The standard way of describing these
relationships is to say that the related sentences come from a common underling structure.
Yes-no questions are a case in point, and they bring us back to a
discussion of auxiliaries. Auxiliaries are central to the formation of yes-no questions as well as
certain other types of sentences in English. In yes-no questions, the auxiliary appears in the
position preceding the subject. Here are a few more
examples:
The boy is sleeping. Is the boy sleeping?
The boy has slept. Has the boy slept?
The boy can sleep. Can the boy sleep?
The boy will sleep. Will the boy sleep?
A way to capture the relationship between a declarative and a yes-no question

is to allow the PS rules to generate a structure corresponding to the declarative
sentence. Another formal device, called a transformational rule, then moves the
auxiliary before the subject.
Yes-no questions are thus generated in two steps.

1. The phrase structure rules generate a basic structure.
2. Aux movement applies to produce the derived structure.
The basic structures of sentences, also called deep structures or d-structures,
conform to the phrase structure rules. Variants on the basic sentence structures
are derived via transformations. By generating questions in two steps, we are
claiming that for speakers a relationship exists between a question and its cor-
responding statement. Intuitively, we know that such sentences are related. The
transformational rule is a formal way of representing this knowledge.
The derived structures—the ones that follow the application of transforma-
tional rules—are called surface structures or s-structures. The phonological rules
of the language—the ones that determine pronunciation—apply to s- structures.
If no transformations apply, then d-structure and s-structure are the same. If
transformations apply, then s-structure is the result after all transformations
have had their effect. Many sentence types are accounted for by transformations,
which can alter phrase structure trees by moving, adding, or deleting elements.
Other sentence pairs that are transformationally related are:
active-passive
The cat chased the mouse. → The mouse was chased by the cat.
there sentences
There was a man on the roof. → A man was on the roof.
PP preposing

The astronomer saw the quasar with the telescope. → With the telescope, the astronomer saw
the quasar.
The Structural Dependency of Rules

Transformations act on phrase structures without paying attention to the par-
ticular words that the structures contain. These rules are said to be structure
dependent. The transformational rule of PP preposing moves any PP as long as it is immediately

under the VP, as in In the house, the puppy found the ball; or With the telescope, the boy saw
the man; and so on.
Evidence that transformations are structure dependent is provided by the fact
that the sentence With a telescope, the boy saw the man is not ambiguous. It has
only the meaning “the boy used a telescope to see the man,” the meaning cor-
responding to the first phrase structure on page 109 in which the PP is immedi-
ately dominated by the VP. In the structure corresponding to the other meaning,
“boy saw a man who had a telescope,” the PP is in the NP as in the second tree
on page 109. The PP preposing transformation applies to the VP–PP structure
and not to the NP–PP structure.
Another rule of English allows the complementizer that to be omitted when it
precedes an embedded sentence but not a sentence that appears in subject posi-
tion, as illustrated by these pairs:
I know that you know. I know you know.
That you know bothers me. *You know bothers me.
This is a further demonstration that rules are structure dependent.

Agreement rules are also structure dependent. In many languages, including
English, the verb must agree with the subject. The verb is marked with an -s
when the subject is third-person singular.
This guy seems kind of cute.

These guys seem kind of cute.

Now consider these sentences:
The guy we met at the party next door seems kind of cute.
The guys we met at the party next door seem kind of cute.
The verb seem must agree with the subject, guy or guys. Even though there are
various words between the head noun and the verb, the verb always agrees with
the head noun. Moreover, there is no limit to how many words may intervene, or
whether they are singular or plural, as the following sentence illustrates:
The guys (guy) we met at the party next door that lasted until 3 a.m. and
was finally broken up by the cops who were called by the neighbors seem
(seems) kind of cute.
A final illustration of structure dependency is found in the declarative-

question pairs discussed previously. Consider the following sets of sentences:
The boy who is sleeping was dreaming.

Was the boy who is sleeping dreaming?
*Is the boy who sleeping was dreaming?
The boy who can sleep will dream.

Will the boy who can sleep dream?
*Can the boy who sleep will dream?
The ungrammatical sentences show that to form a question, the rule that moves
Aux singles out the auxiliary dominated by the root S, and not simply the first
auxiliary in the sentence. We can see this in the following simplified phrase struture trees. There
are two auxiliaries, one in the subject relative clause and the
other in the root clause.

Further Syntactic Dependencies
Sentences are organized according to two basic principles: constituent structure

and syntactic dependencies. As we have discussed, constituent structure refers
to the hierarchical organization of the subparts of a sentence, and transforma-
tional rules are sensitive to it. The second important property is the dependen-
cies among elements in the sentence. In other words, the presence of a particular
word or morpheme can be contingent on the presence of some other word or
morpheme in a sentence. We have already seen at least two examples of syn-
tactic dependencies. Selection is one kind of dependency. Whether there is a
direct object in a sentence depends on whether the verb is transitive or intransi-
tive. More generally, complements depend on the properties of the head of their
phrase. Agreement is another kind of dependency. The features in Aux (and on
the verb) must match the features of the subject.
The following wh questions illustrate another kind of dependency:

1. (a) What will Max chase?
(b) Where has Pete put his bone?
(c) Which dog do you think loves balls?
There are several points of interest in these sentences. First, the verb chase in
sentence (a) is transitive, yet there is no direct object following it. There is a gap
where the direct object should be. The verb put in sentence (b) selects a direct
object and a prepositional phrase, yet there is no PP following his bone. Finally,
the embedded verb loves in sentence (c) bears the third-person -s morpheme,
yet there is no obvious subject to trigger this agreement. If we remove the wh phrases, the
remaining sentences would be ungrammatical.
2. (a) *will Max chase ___?

(b) *has Pete put his bone ___?
(c) *do you think ___ loves balls?
The grammaticality of a sentence with a gap depends on there being a wh

phrase at the beginning of the sentence. The sentences in (1) are grammatical
because the wh phrase is acting like the object in (a), the prepositional phrase
object in (b), and the embedded subject in (c).
We can explain the dependency between the wh phrase and the missing con-
stituent if we assume that in each case the wh phrase originated in the position
of the gap in a sentence with the corresponding declarative structure:
3. (a) Max will chase what?

(b) Pete has put his bone where?
(c) You think (that) which dog loves balls?
The wh phrase is then moved to the beginning of the sentence by a transfor-

mational rule: Move wh. Because embedded wh phrases (I wonder who Mary
likes) are known to be complementizer phrases (CPs), we may deduce that main
clause questions (Who does Mary like?) are also CPs.
Thus, wh questions are generated in three steps:
1. The phrase structure rules generate the CP d-structure with the wh phrase
occupying an NP position within the S: direct object in (3a); prepositional
object in (3b); and subject in (3c).
2. Move Aux adjoins the auxiliary to S.
3. Move wh moves the wh phrase to C.
In question (1c), there is an auxiliary “do.” Unlike the other auxiliaries (e.g.,
can, have, be), do is not part of the d-structure of the question. The d- structure
of the question Which dog did Michael feed? is “Michael fed which dog?”
Because Move Aux is structure dependent (like all rules), it ignores the content
of the category. It will therefore move Aux even when Aux contains only a tense
feature such as past. In this case, another rule called “do support,” inserts do
into the structure to carry the tense:
Who did Helen say the senator wanted to hire ___?

Who did Helen say the senator wanted the congressional representative to try to hire ___?
Who did Helen say the senator wanted the congressional representative to
try to convince the Speaker of the House to get the Vice President to hire ___?
“Long-distance” dependencies created by wh movement are a fundamental

part of human language. They provide still further evidence that sentences are
not simply strings of words but are supported by a rich scaffolding of phrase
structure trees. These trees express the underlying structure of a sentence as well
as its relation to other sentences in the language, and as always are reflective of
a person’s knowledge of syntax.
UG Principles and Parameters

MARK TWAIN, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court, 1889
In this chapter we have largely focused on English syntax, but many of the gram-
matical structures we have described for English also hold in other languages.
This is because Universal Grammar (UG) provides the basic design for all human
languages, and individual languages are simply variations on this basic design.
Imagine a new housing development. All of the houses have the same floor plan,
but the occupants have some choices to make. They can have carpet or hard-
wood floors, curtains or blinds; they can choose their kitchen cabinets and the
countertops, the bathroom tiles, and so on. This is more or less how the syntax
operates. Languages conform to a basic design, and then there are choice points

or points of variation.
All languages have phrase structure rules that specify the allowable
d- structures. In all languages, phrases consist of heads and complements, and
sentences are headed by Aux (or T), which is specified for information such as
tense, agreement, and modality. However, languages may have different word
orders within the phrases and sentences. The word order differences between
English and Japanese, discussed earlier, illustrate the interaction of general and
language-specific properties. UG specifies the structure of a phrase. It must have
a head and may take one or more complement types (the X-bar schema dis
cussed earlier). However, each language defines for itself the relative order of
these constituents: English is head initial, Japanese is head final. We call the
points of variation parameters.
All languages seem to have movement rules. Move Aux is a version of a more
general rule that exists in languages such as Dutch, in which the auxiliary moves,
if there is one, as in (1), and otherwise the main verb moves, as in (2):
1. Zal Femke fietsen?
will Femke bicycle ride (Will Femke ride her bicycle?)
2. Leest Meindert veel boeken?
reads Meindert many books (Does Meindert read many books?)
In English, main verbs other than be do not move. Instead, English “do” spells
out the stranded tense and agreement features. All languages have expressions
for requesting information about who, when, where, what, and how. Even if the
question words in other languages do not necessarily begin with “wh,” we will
refer to such questions as wh questions. In some languages, such as Japanese and
Swahili, the wh phrase does not move. It remains in its original d-structure posi-
tion. In Japanese the sentence is marked with a question morpheme, no:
Taro-ga nani-o mitsuketa-no?

Taro what found
Recall that Japanese word order is SOV, so the wh phrase nani (“what”) is an
object and occurs before the verb.
In Swahili the wh phrase—nani by pure coincidence—also stays in its base
position:
Ulipatia nani Kitabu?

you gave who a book
However, in all languages with wh movement (i.e., movement of the question

phrase), the question element moves to C (complementizer). The “landing site”
of the moved phrase is determined by UG. Among the wh movement languages,
there is some variation. In the Romance languages, such as Italian, the wh phrase
moves as in English, but when the wh phrase questions the object of a preposi-
tion, the preposition must move together with the wh phrase. In English, by con-
trast, the preposition can be “stranded” (i.e., left behind in its original position):
A chi hai dato il libro?

To whom (did) you give the book?
*Chi hai dato il libro a?
Who(m) did you give the book to?
In some dialects of German, long-distance wh movement leaves a trail of wh

phrases in the C position of the embedded sentence:
Mit wem Glaubst Du Mit wem Hans spricht?
With whom think you with whom Hans talks
(Whom do you think Hans talks to?)

Wen willst Du Wen Hans anruft?
In Czech the question phrase “how much” can be moved, leaving behind the
NP it modifies:
Jak velké Václav koupil auto?

How big Václav bought car
(How big a car did Václav buy?)
Despite these variations, wh movement adheres to certain constraints.

Although wh phrases such as what, who, and which boy can be inserted into
any NP position, and are then free in principle to move to C, there are specific
instances in which wh movement is blocked. For example, a wh phrase cannot
move out of a relative clause like the senator that wanted to hire who, as in (1b).
It also cannot move out of a clause beginning with whether or if, as in (2c) and
(d). (Remember that the position from which the wh phrases have moved is indi-
cated with ___.)
1. (a) Emily paid a visit to the senator that wants to hire who?
(b) *Who did Emily pay a visit to the senator that wants to hire ___?
2. (a) Miss Marple asked Sherlock whether Poirot had solved the crime.
(b) Who did Miss Marple ask ___ whether Poirot had solved the crime?
(c) *Who did Miss Marple ask Sherlock whether ___ had solved the crime?
(d) *What did Miss Marple ask Sherlock whether Poirot had solved ___?
The only difference between the grammatical (2b) and the ungrammatical
(2c) and (d) is that in (2b) the wh phrase originates in the higher clause, whereas
in (2c, d) the wh phrase comes from inside the whether clause. This illustrates
that the constraint against movement depends on structure and not on the length
of the sentence.
Some sentences can be very short and still not allow wh movement:
3. (a) Sam Spade insulted the fat man’s henchman.

(b) Who did Sam Spade insult?
(c) Whose henchman did Sam Spade insult?
(d) *Whose did Sam Spade insult henchman?
4. (a) John ate bologna and cheese.

(b) John ate bologna with cheese.
(c) *What did John eat bologna and?
(d) What did John eat bologna with?
The sentences in (3) show that a wh phrase cannot be extracted from inside
a possessive NP. In (3b) it is okay to question the whole direct object. In (3c) it
is even okay to question a piece of the possessive NP, providing the entire wh
phrase is moved, but (3d) shows that moving the wh word alone out of the pos-
sessive NP is illicit.
Sentence (4a) is a coordinate structure and has approximately the same mean-
ing as (4b), which is not a coordinate structure. In (4c) moving a wh phrase out
of the coordinate structure results in ungrammaticality, whereas in 4(d), moving
the wh phrase out of the PP is fine. The ungrammaticality of 4(c), then, is related
to its structure and not to its meaning.
The constraints on wh movement are not specific to English. Such constraints

operate in all languages that have wh movement. Like the principle of structure
dependency and the principles governing the organization of phrases, the con-
straints on wh movement are part of UG. These aspects of grammar need not be
learned. They are part of the innate blueprint for language that the child brings

to the task of acquiring a language. What children must learn are the language-
specific aspects of grammar. Where there are parameters of variation, children
must determine the correct choice for their language. The Japanese child must
determine that the verb comes after the object in the VP, and the English- speaking
child that the verb comes first. The Dutch-speaking child acquires a rule that
moves the verb, while the English-speaking child must restrict his rule to auxil-
iaries. Italian, English, and Czech children learn that to form a question, the wh
phrase moves, whereas Japanese and Swahili children determine that there is no
movement. As far as we can tell, children fix these parameters very quickly.
SIGN LANGUAGE SYNTAX

All languages have rules of syntax similar in kind, if not in detail, to those of English,
and sign languages are no exception. Signed languages have phrase structure rules that provide
hierarchical structure and order constituents. The basic order of ASL is SVO. Unlike English,
however, adjectives follow the head noun in ASL. ASL has a category Aux, which expresses
notions such as tense, agreement, modality, and so on. Many languages, including English, have
a transformation that moves a direct object to the beginning of the sentence to draw particular
attention to it, as in : many greyhounds, my wife has record.
The transformation is called topicalization because an object to which attention is drawn

is generally the topic of the sentence or conversation. (the d-structure underlying this sentence
is My wife has rescued many greyhounds)
In ASL a similar reordering of signs accompanied by raising the eyebrows and tilting
the head upward accomplished the same effect. The head motion and facial expressions of a
signer function as markers of the special word order, much as intonation does in English, or the
attachment of prefixes or suffixes might in other languages. ASL and other sign languages show
an interaction of universal and language specific properties, just as spoken languages do. The
rules of sign languages are structure dependent, and movement rules are constrained in various
ways, as illustrated earlier.

Semantic
Semantic is a part of the linguistic that studies about the meaning of the words or the sentences. Why
we need to study about the meaning of the words or the sentences? Because if we do not, we will
misunderstand what people say in English. In semantic there are so many things we need to understand,
such as semantic roles, agent and theme, instrument and experiencer, location, source and goal, lexical
relation, synonymy and antonymy, hyponymy, prototypes, homophones and homonyms, polyseny, word
play, metonymy, collocation and etc.
We may encounter the sentence that has odd meaning, that’s why we study about semantic, so we can
understand what we read or listen, not only base meaning but other meaning of the words too.
2.1 Semantics
Semantics is the study of the meaning of the words, phrases, and sentences. Semantics always focus to
the words conventionally mean. So, semantics are dealing with the conventional meaning conveyed by
the use of words, phrases and sentences of a language.
Words have meanings. When you read the word dog in a sentence you think of a dog. The mental
representation of the dog is the meaning of the word dog. The animal in the world that you can see,
touch, hear, or smell is the referent of the word dog.
2.2 Conceptual and Associative meaning

There are two meaning of words, phrases and sentences, they are the conceptual meaning and associative
meaning. Conceptual meaning cover the baisc, essential components of the meaning that are conveyed
by the literal use of word. For example the word is needle, in English might include ‘thin, sharp, steel’.
These components would be part of the conceptual meaning of needle And in associative meanig, it
could be associated it with ‘pain’, or ‘illness’, or ‘drugs’ depend on person itself. In other words,
associative meaning of a word that used by someone may have different meaning from what they say,
and conceptual meaning of a word is describe about the word just like the example before. Usually.
Poets, novelists, advertisers and lovers often use associative meaning.
2.3 Semantic Features

One obvious way to learn about basic conceptual meaning might be helpful in the study of language for
the ‘oddness’ we experience when we read sentences, such as following sentences:
The hamburger ate the boy

The table listens to the radio
The horse is reading the newspaper
Let’s take first sentence as the example.
The hamburger ate the boy

Noun Phrase Verb Noun Phrase
This sentence is syntactically good, but semantically odd. We may be able identify the source of the
problem. The kind of noun that can be the subject of the verb ate must be an entity that is capable of
‘eating’. The naoun hamburger does not have this property and the noun boy does.
This simple example is an illustration of the procedure for analyzing meaning in terms of semantic
features. Feature such as ‘+animate, -animate’, ‘+human, - human’, ‘+female, -female’, for example

Table Horse Boy Radio Newspaper
Animate - + + - -
Human - - + - -
Male - + + - -
Adult - + - - -
From analsysis like this, we can say that the word boy in English has the elements [+human, +male, -
adult], so we can use it as a subject of a particular verb.
2.4 Semantic Roles

Semantic has roles to describe words. For example The boy kicked the ball, in this sentence kicked
describes an action, and the boy describes the roles of entities, such as person and things that involved
in the action. So, the boy’s role is to kick the ball. In other words, it describes what the subject does.
2.5 Agent and Theme

Agent is a role is taken by the noun phrase or as the entity that perform the action, and theme is a role
as the entitiy that affected by or involved in the action. The theme can also the entity itself, for example,
the book (not performing an action) as the book is green. The book is described by green, which is the
book involved to green, or green is describing the book.
Agents and themes are the most common semantic roles. Usually, the agents are typically humans, but
we can also use non-human things that cause an action, such as the wind, the dog, or other things that
can affect the theme. For example:
The wind blew the leaves away
From the sentence above, the wind has a role as the agent that causes the leaves flew away. Usually, the
theme is non-human but it also can be human.
2.6 Instrument and Experiencer
Instrument is a phrase that used by the agent, and the experiencer is used to designate the entity as the
person who has a feeling, perception of state, for example the boy cut the rope with an old razor and
The boy feels happy. In first sentence, the noun phrase old razor as the instrument. And in second
sentence the boy is the experiencer because it has a feeling.
Pointers of the Context of Sentences
It is raining outside.
Carefully, you will notice that is truth-value is dependent on “where” outside is. Consider now
the sentence
I am here, now.
While this sentence is clear, its truth-value depends on who “I” is, where “here” is, and when
“now” is.
I, here, now and other similar words are known as deictics (i.e., words that depend on the
sentence for (large) parts of their meaning). Deixis is the branch of pragmatics that studies deictic words.
The meaning of some English deictics
I The speaker
You The person the speaker is talking to
He/she Neither the speaker nor the hearer
We Both the hearer and the speaker
There A place distant from the speaker
Now The time of speaking
Today The day in which the sentence is uttered
Yesterday During the day before today
2.7 Location, Source and Goal

Location means where an entity is, source means where an entity moves from, and goal means where
an entity moves to. For example:
I Saw a butterfly in the park
EXPERIENCER THEME LOCATION
We Travelled from Indonesia to Malaysia

AGENT SOURCE GOAL
2.8 Lexical Relations

What is a word in lexical semantics?
 Word form- phonologically (and/or graphically) distinct "shape": bank, mole
 Lexeme: phonologically and semantically distinct, autonomous symbolic unit (i.e., it can stand
alone because it contains a root morpheme)
 In lexical semantics, a word is the same as a lexeme (=lexical unit)
Not only can words be treated as ‘containers’ of meaning, they can also have ‘relationships’ with each
other. For example, if we asked the meaning of the word conceal we might say “It’s same as hide”, or
shallow as “the opposite of deep”, or daffodil as “a kind of a flower”. We are characterizing the meaning
not in terms of its component features. The lexical relations we have just exemplified are synonymy
(conceal/hide), antonymy (shallow/deep) and hyponymy (daffodil/flower).
 Detonation and Connotation

The denotation of a sign is commonly asumed to correspond to its sense or intension. Connotations are
asumed to be all aspects of meaning that go beyond its sense.
Sources of Connotative Meaning

There are different sources of connotative meaning, which we will review next.
Affective connotations:
The aspects of meaning having to do with the feelings or atitudes of the speakers. Compare, for
example, resistant fighter versus terrorist: Labeling someone who fights a goverment as a
resistance fighter implies that one agrees with the goals of that person; Whereas labeling them
terrorist implies the opposite.
Colocative connotations:
The aspect of meaning having to do with the linguistic environment in which and expression
usually occurs. For example, by uttering the word cease or liberal, one evokes ( connotes) desist
and bleeding heart, respectively.
Sosial connotations:
words, syntacstic turns of prace, intonation, and other linguistic features are all encoded for
differents levels of formality. For example, the following synonymous expressions have
increasingly formality.
The door!
Shut the door!
Please shut the door.
Would you shut he door?
Could you shut the door?
Would you mind shutting the door?
Would it be inconvenient to shut the door?
Reflected connotations:
the aspect of meaning concerning other meanings of a linguistic experession that may be
activated even when they are irrelevant in the situation. Consider the word cock, which has
several perfectly innocent meanings, including that of rooster and that of hammer of firearm.
Nevertheless speakers avoid the word because of its well-known sexual reflected connotations.
Individual or restricted connotations:
the assosiations that an individual speaker or a small group of speakers (e.g., family or a group
of coworkers) may develop out of their everyday experiences. For example, if your cousin Bob
is an unpleasant person, you may come to assosiate his name and the idea of unpleasantness; if
your boss always uses a stock phrase, such as another day, another dollar, that phrase may
evoke your boss. The significant issue is that these connotations are valid only for the individual
or the small group of people who are exposed to the conditioning environment (cousin Bob, the
monotonous boss).
Coded connotations:
the aspects of meaning that are revoked by cultural or literary codes, e.g., lilies evoke purity,
chastity, and innocence; elephants evoke lasting memory; pigs evoke dirt and unpleasants
manners. Obviously, meanings change with cultures. The color white in some cultures connotes
not purity, but death.
 Synonymy and Antonymy
Synonyms are two or more words that has similar meaning, and antonyms are two or more words that
has opposite meaning. Big/large, small/tiny, buy/purchase, these words are synonyms, as you can see
they have similar meaning. And rich/poor, high/low, fast/slow, they are antonyms that have opposite
meaning.
 Hyponymy
Meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another or the meaning of words in some type of
hierarcial relationship. For example:
Living things: animal, flower
Animal: dog, cat, deer, lion.
Flower: Rose, tulip, lily
 Prototypes
The idea of ‘the characteristic instance’ of a category is known as the prototype. The concept of a
prototype helps explains the certain meaning of certain words. There is some general pattern to the
categoryzation process involved in prototypes and that it determines our interpretation of word meaning.
For example, given the category label furniture, we are quick to recognize chair as a better example
than bench or stool. Given clothing, people recognize shirts quicker than shoes.
 Homophones and Homonyms

When written two words or more different forms have same prounciation, they are described as
homophones, such as heal/heel, for/four, cell/sell, hour/our. And homonyms are when written or spoken
one form word has two or more more unrelated meanings, as in these example:
Right (correct) – Right (a direction)
Rose (gotten up) – Rose (a flower)
Rock (a music genre) – Rock (a stone)
 Polysemy
When we encounter two or more words with the same form and related meanings, we have what
technically known as polysemy. Polysemy can be defined as one form having multiple meanings.
Example is head, it can be the object on top of your body, on top of a glass of beer, the top person of a
company, and many other things.
If we are not sure is it homonymy or polysemy, we can check dictionary. If the word is polysemous,
there will be a list of different meanings of that word.
 Varieties of polysemy
Linear polysemy – one sense is a specialisation of the other:
- Autohyponymy: basic/specialised sense: drink (anything)>drink (alcohol)
- Automeronymy: basic/subpart sense: door (whole structure)>door (panel)
- Autohyperonymy (autosuperordin.): basic/wider sense: cow (fem.)>cow (any bovine)
- Autoholonymy: basic/larger part sense: leg (thigh + calf)>leg (incl. knee and foot)
Non-linear polysemy – one sense is figurative (non- literal) or involves a different construal (way
of “looking” at something), based on some “facet”:
- Metaphor: resemblance between domains: swallow (a pill)/swallow (an argument)
- Metonymy: stand-for association within a domain: hands (body part)/hands (manual labour:
whole persons accessed via their hands, the most salient parts in the context)
- Other: different construals, e.g. month (Jan 1- Jan 31)/month (period of 30 days)
Most polysemy is non-systematic; exceptions include the most basic conceptual metaphor patterns, e.g.
UP IS MORE/DOWN IS LESS (high price, falling temperature) and some metonymic patterns, such as
PLANT – FLOWER OF PLANT, ANIMAL – MEAT OF ANIMAL, INSTRUMENT – SOUND OF
INSTRUMENT.
 Word Play
These last three lexical relations are the basis of a lot of word play, usually for humorous effect. We
make sense of the riddle Why are trees often mistaken for dogs? By recognizing the homonymy in the
answer: Because their bark. And if you asked the following question: Why is 6 afraid of 7? You can
understand why the answer is funny (Because 789) by indentifying the homophones.
 Metonomy
The relatedness of meaning found in polysemy is essentially based on similiarity. Using one word to
refer to the other is an example of metonymy. It is our familiarity with metonymy that makes it possible
for us to understand He drank the whole bottle, although it sounds absurd litterally (i.e. he drank the
liquid, not the glass object). Many examples of metonymy are highly conventionalized and easy to
interpret. Making sense of such expression often depends on context, background knowledge and
inference.
Futhermore, words may change their meaning: when we say that Bob is a pig we do not mean literally
that Bob is a swine, but rather that Bob has some significant feature in common with such ( for instance,
that of being dirty). This is a methapor, or figurative use of meaning.
 Collocation

One final aspect of our knowledge of words has nothing to do with any of the factors considered so far.
We know which words tend to occur with other words. This type of research provides more evidence
that our understanding of what words and phrases mean is tied to the contexts in which they are typically
based.
Pragmatics
Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics, which is the study of language. Pragmatics focuses
on conversational implicature, which is a process in which the speaker implies and a
listener infers. Simply put, pragmatics studies language that is not directly spoken.
Instead, the speaker hints at or suggests a meaning, and the listener assumes the correct
intention.
In a sense, pragmatics is seen as an understanding between people to obey certain rules
of interaction. In everyday language, the meanings of words and phrases are constantly
implied and not explicitly stated. In certain situations, words can have a certain meaning.
You might think that words always have a specifically defined meaning, but that is not
always the case. Pragmatics studies how words can be interpreted in different ways
based on the situation.
 Pragmatic Rules
The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) gives two examples of how
pragmatics works, or how it influences language and its interpretation. In the first, ASHA notes:
"You invited your friend over for dinner. Your child sees your friend reach for some cookies
and says, 'Better not take those, or you'll get even bigger.' You can't believe your child could be
so rude." In a literal sense, the daughter is simply saying that eating cookies can make you gain
weight. But due to the social context, the mother interprets that same sentence to mean that her
daughter is calling her friend fat. The first sentence in this explanation refers to the semantics—
the literal meaning of the sentence. The second and third refer to the pragmatics, the actual
meaning of the words as interpreted by a listener based on social context. In another example,
ASHA notes:
"You talk with a neighbor about his new car. He has trouble staying on topic and starts talking
about his favorite TV show. He doesn't look at you when you talk and doesn't laugh at your
jokes. He keeps talking, even when you look at your watch and say, 'Wow. It's getting late.' You
finally leave, thinking about how hard it is to talk with him."
In this all-too-familiar scenario, the speaker is literally just talking about a new car and his
favorite TV show. But the listener interprets the signs the speaker is using—not looking at the
listener and not laughing at his jokes—as the speaker being unaware of the listener's views (let
alone his presence) and monopolizing his time. You've likely been in this kind of situation
before, where the speaker is talking about perfectly reasonable, simple subjects but is unaware
of your presence and your need to escape. Where the speaker sees the talk as a simple sharing
of information (the semantics), you see it as a rude monopolization of your time (the
pragmatics).
Pragmatics have even proved helpful in working with children with autism. Beverly Vicker, a
speech and language pathologist writing on the Autism Support Network website, notes that
many children with autism find it difficult to understand and pick up on what she, and many
autism theorists, describe as "social pragmatics," which refers to :
"...the ability to effectively use and adjust communication messages for a variety of purposes
with an array of communication partners within diverse circumstances."
Yet when educators, speech pathologists, and other interventionists teach these explicit
communication skills—or social pragmatics—to children with autism spectrum disorder the
results are often quite profound and can have a big impact in improving their conversational
interaction skills.
 Importance of Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the "meaning minus semantics," says Frank Brisard in his essay "Introduction:
Meaning and Use in Grammar," published in "Grammar, Meaning and Pragmatics." Semantics,
as noted, refers to the literal meaning of a spoken utterance. Grammar, Brisard says, involves
the rules defining how the language is put together. Pragmatics takes context into account in
order to complement the contribution that semantics and grammar make to meaning, he says.
David Lodge, writing in the Paradise News, further explains why pragmatics is so important to
understanding language:
"What does pragmatics have to offer that cannot be found in good old-fashioned linguistics?
What do pragmatic methods give us in the way of greater understanding of how the human mind
works, how humans communicate, how they manipulate one another, and in general, how they
use language?"
Lodge says that pragmatics is needed because it gives humans "a fuller, deeper, and generally
more reasonable account of human language behavior." Without pragmatics, there is often no
understanding of what language actually means, or what a person truly means when she is
speaking. The context—the social signs, body language, and tone of voice (the pragmatics)—is
what makes utterances clear or unclear to the speaker and her listeners.
Discourse analysis
The word “discourse” is usually defined as “language beyond the sentence” and so the
analysis of discourse is typically concerned with the study of language in texts and
conversation. As language-users, we are capable of more than simply recognizing correct versus
incorrect forms and structures. We have the ability to create complex discourse interpretations
of fragmentary linguistic messages. and these are the types of discourse
1. Interpreting discourse
To understand the interpretation and how the brain works against a text that is a little
strange, we need to look at the following example.
My Town
My natal was in a small town, very close to Riyadh capital of Saudi Arabia. The
distant between my town and Riyadh 7 miles exactly. The name of this Almasani
that means in English Factories. It takes this name from the peopl’s carrer. In my
childhood I remmeber the people live. It was very simple. Most the people was farmer.
This example may illustrate a simple point about the way we react to language that
contains ungrammatical forms. That is, we attempt to arrive at a reasonable interpretation of
what the writer intended to convey. It is this effort to interpret, to arrive at an interpretation, and
to make our messages interpretable, we certainly rely on what we know about linguistic form
and structure.
In other words, interpretation discourse is the ability to understand the intent of the text even
though the grammar used is wrong.
 Cohesion
Cohesion is the ties or connections that exist within texts. A number of those types of
cohesive ties can be identified in the following paragraph.
My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he

could. That car would be worth a fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to help pay
for my college education. Sometimes I think I’d rather have the convertible.
From the text above we can see there are many cohesive words that there are
connections present here in the use of words to maintain a reference to the same people and
things throughout: father – he – he – he; my – my – I; Lincoln – it. There are more general
connections created by a number of terms that share a common element of meaning, such
as“money” (bought – saving – penny – worth a fortune – sold – pay) and “time” (once –
nowadays - sometimes). There is also a connector (However) that marks the relationship of
what follows to what went before. The verb tenses in the first four sentences are all in the past,
creating a connection between those events, and a different time is indicated by the present
tense of the final sentence. cohesive is a little difficult to understand, for that we see the same
sentence without cohesiveness. Note that the following text has connections such as Lincoln –
the car, red – that color, her – she, letters – a letter, and so on.
My father bought a Lincoln convertible. The car driven by the police was red. That
color doesn’t suit her. She consists of three letters. However, a letter isn’t as fast as a
telephone call.
Then from the text above, we will see "connectedness" between everything so that we
can easily understand the purpose of the text. Analysis of these cohesive ties within a text gives
us some insight into how writers structure what they want to say. An appropriate number of
cohesive ties may be a crucial factor in our judgments on whether something is well written or
not.
 Coherence
Coherence is a state or situation in which all the parts or ideas fit together well so that
they form a united whole. The key to the concept of coherence (“everything fitting together
well”) is not something that exists in words or structures, but something that exists in people.
It is people who “make sense” of what they read and hear. in other words, this is the way humans
interpret things empirically so they will find meaning that makes sense to them.

It is certainly present in the interpretation of casual conversation. Here is a good example,
adapted from Widdowson (1978).
HER: That’s the telephone.

HIM: I’m in the bath.
HER: O.K.
How does each of these people manage to make sense of what the other says?They do
use the information contained in the sentences expressed, but there must be something else
involved in the interpretation. Drawing on concepts derived from the study of speech acts
(introduced in Chapter 10), we can characterize the brief conversation in the following way.
She makes a request of him to perform action.

He states reason why he cannot comply with request.
She undertakes to perform action.
 Speech events
In order to begin to describe the sources of that variation, we would have to take
account of a number of criteria. For example, we would have to specify the roles of speaker and
hearer(or hearers) and their relationship(s), whet her they were friends, strangers, men, women,
young, old, of equal or unequal status, and many other factors. All of these factors will have an
influence on what is said and how it is said.We would have to describe what the topic of
conversation was and in what setting it took place.
As language-users, in a particular culture, we clearly need quite sophisticated knowledge of
how conversation works.
2. Conversation analysis
In simple terms, English conversation can be described as an activity in which, for the
most part, two or more people take turns at speaking.Typically, only one person speaks at a
time. If more than one participant tries to talk at the same time, one of them usually stops, as in
the following example, where A stops until B has finished.
A: Didn’t you [ know wh-

B: [ But he must’ve been there by two
A: Yes but you knew where he was going
Usually, participants wait until one speaker indicates that he or she has finished, usually by
signaling a completion point. Speakers can mark their turns as complete in a number of ways:
by asking a question, for example, or by pausing at the end of a completed syntactic structure
like a phrase or sentence. Other participants can indicate that they want to take the speaking
turn, also in a number of ways. They can start to make short sounds, usually repeated, while the
speaker is talking, and often use body shifts or facial expressions to signal that they have
something to say.

 Turn-taking
There are differentstrategies of participation in conversation. Some of these strategies

seem to be the source of what is sometimes described by participants as “rudeness”or
“shyness”Theparticipants characterizedin this way may simply be adhering to slightly different
conventions of turn-taking.
One strategy, which may be overused by “long-winded” speakers or those who are used to
“holding the floor,” is designed to avoid having normal completion points occur.If the normal
expectation is that completion points are marked by the end of a sentence and a pause, then one
way to “keep the turn” is to avoid having those two markers occur together.That is, don’t pause
at the end of sentences, make your sentences run on by using connectors like and, and then, so,
but, and place your pauses at points where the message is clearly incomplete and preferably
“fill” the pause with a hesitation marker such as er, em, uh, ah.
X: well that film really was … [ wasn’t what he was good at

Y: [ when di-
X: I mean his other … em his later films were much more … er really more in the
romantic style and that was more what what he was…you know…em best at doing
Y: so when did he make that one
In the example, speaker X produces filled pauses (with em, er, you know) after
having almost lost the turn at his first brief hesitation. These types of strategiespresent in the
conversational speech of most people and they are part of what makes conversation work. one
of the most noticeable features of conversational discourse is that it is generally very “co-
operative.” This observation has been formulated as a principle of conversation.
3. The co-operative principle

This principlewas first described by thephilosopher Paul GriceThe co-operative
principle is stated in the following way: “Make your conversational contribution such as is
required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk
exchange in which you are engaged” (Grice, 1975: 45).
Supporting this principle are four maxims, often called the “Gricean maxims.”
The Quantity maxim: Make your contribution as informative as is required, but not more,
or less, than is required.
The Quality maxim: Do not say that which you believe to be false or for which you lack
adequate evidence.
The Relation maxim: Be relevant.
The Manner maxim: Be clear, brief and orderly.

On occasion, we can experience conversational exchanges in which the co-operative
principle may not seem to be in operation. However, this general description of the normal
expectations we have in conversation helps to explain a number of regular features in the way
people say things.
For example, during their lunch break, one woman asks another how she likes the
sandwich she is eating and receives the following answer.
Oh, a sandwich is a sandwich.
In logical terms, this reply appears to have no communicative value since

it states something obvious and doesn’t seem to be informative at all. But, if the
woman is being co-operative then the listener must assume that her friend is
communicating some-thingThat is, her friend has essentially communicated that the
sandwich isn’t worth talking about.
 Hedges
Hedges can be defined as words or phrases used to indicate that we’re not really sure
that what we’re saying is sufficiently correct or complete. Hedges aims to show that we are
worried about following the maxims while being cooperative participants in a conversation. We
can use sort of or kind of as hedges on the accuracy of our statements, as in descriptions such
as His hair was kind of long or The book cover is sort of yellow (rather than It is yellow). Other
examples would include the expressions listed below that people sometimes put at the
beginning of their conversational contributions.
As far as I know …,
Now, correct me if I’m wrong, but …
I’m not absolutely sure, but ….
We also take care to indicate that what we report is something we think or feel (not
know), is possible or likely (not certain), and may or could (not must) happen. Hence the differ-
ence between saying Jackson is guilty and I think it’s possible that Jackson may be guilty. In
the first version, we will be assumed to have very good evidence for the statement.
 Implicatures
The Speakers usually talk about implying something that is not said. Like the
sandwich, we decided that she was implying that the sandwich wasn’t worth talking about. With
the co-operative principle and the maxims as guides, we can start to work out how people
actually decide that someone is “implying” something in conversation. Consider the following
example.
CAROL: Are you coming to the party tonight?
LARA: I’ve got an exam tomorrow.
On the face of it, Lara’s statement is not an answer to Carol’s question. Lara doesn’t
say Yes or No. Yet Carol will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “No” or
“Probably not.” Lara’s answer is not simply a statement about tomorrow’s activities, it contains
an implicature (an additional conveyed meaning) concerning tonight’s activities.
It is noticeable that, to Investigating how we use our background knowledge to arrive at

interpretations of what we hear and read is a critical part of doing discourse analysis.
 Background knowledge
John was on his way to school last Friday.

He was really worried about the math lesson.
Most people who are asked to read these sentences report that they think John is
probably a schoolboy.Other inferences, for different readers, are that John is walking or that he
is on a bus. These inferences are clearly derived from our conventional knowledge, in our
culture, about “going to school,”An interesting aspect of the reported inferences is that they are
treated as likely or possible interpretations that readers will quickly abandon if they do not fit
in with some subsequent information. Here is the next sentence in the text.
Last week he had been unable to control the class.

It was unfair of the math teacher to leave him in charge.
After all, it is not a normal part of a janitor’s duties.
This type of text and manner of presentation, one sentence at a time, is rather artificial, of
course. Yet the exercise involved does provide us with some insight into the ways in which we
“build” interpretations of what we read In attempting to describe this phenomenon, researchers
often use the concept of a “schema” or a “script.”
 Schemas and scripts
A schema is a general term for a conventional knowledge structure that exists in

memory.a schema usually used in the interpretation of what we experience and what we hear
or read about.If you hear someone describe what happened during a visit to a supermarket, you
don’t have to be told what is normally found in a supermarket. You already have a “supermarket
schema”A script is essentially a dynamic schema. That is, instead of the set of typical fixed
features in a schema, a script has a series of conventional actions that take place.
Trying not to be out of the office for long, Suzy went into the nearest place,
sat down and ordered an avocado sandwich. It was quite crowded, but the
service was fast, so she left a good tip. Back in the office, things were not
going well.
On the basis of that restaurant script, we would be able to say a number of things about
the scene and events briefly described in this short text. For example, although the text doesn’t
have this information, we would assume that Suzy opened a door to get into the restaurant, that
there were tables there, that she ate the sandwich, then she paid for it, and so on. It is also a
good indication of the fact that our understanding of what we read doesn’t come directly from
what words and sentences are on the page, but the interpretations we create, in our minds, of
what we read. Indeed, crucial information is sometimes omitted from important instructions on
the assumption that everybody knows the script.
Psycholinguistics
A. Definition of Psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics is the study of the cognitive processes that support the acquisition and use of
language. The scope of Psycholinguistics includes language performance under normal
circumstances and when it breaks down. Psycholinguistics combines methods and theories from
psychology and linguistics. It attempts to evaluate the psychological reality and underpinnings of
linguistic rules and processes. It also seeks to link word and sentence processing to the deeper expressive
processes of message construction and interpretation.
B. The Main Interest of Psycholinguistic

A Psycholinguist is a social scientist who studies psycho linguistics. The main interest of a
Psycholinguist is language development; language use and language break down perception, attention,
motor planning and memory, that is critical for language but are not unique to language is the other areas
of psycholinguistic interest. More specifically a psycholinguist studies language, speech production and
comprehension, using behavioral and neurological methods which traditionally are developed in the
field of psychology though other methods such as corpus analysis are also widely used. Due to its
interdisciplinary nature psycholinguistics, can be found in linguistics, psychology, cognitive science,
communication science, communication disorders and other departments. The main of purpose of
psycholinguistics is to outline and describe the process of producing and comprehending communication
(The language, 2001, p.148). In the tradition of psychology, various models are used to further this
understanding.
Psycholinguistic currently represents a widely diverse field. Many and are also considered to
be linguists, nerolinguists, cognitive linguists neurocognitivist psycholinguistics. There are subtle
differences between these tilles, though they are all attempting to use different fancets of similar issues.
C. Scope of Psycholinguistics
1. Acquistion is divided into :
First-language acquisition is a universal process regardless of the language an individual will

begin to speak. First language acquisition starts with babies cooing, crying, and babbling which is known

as the pre-linguistic stages of first language acquisition. Almost all humans will be fluent in a language
before the age of five, which is remarkable. Some claim that if a person does not acquire any language
before they become a teenager, they will never do so successfully.
Second-language acquisition assumes knowledge from a first language and process as an

individual goes through the steps to learning a second language. After acquiring language, It can then
be comprehended
2. Comprehension
Language comprehension is an important part of linguistics that focuses on understanding

communication. In order for language to be understood it is first acquired and then interpreted.
Comprehending language might seem easy, but it is actually an extremely complex process. Alone, most
words only ave one meaning, but when they are used to form sentences and phrases they can become
misconstrued. Things such as lexical ambiguity can make comprehending language hard. (Parker &
Riley, 1994). However, most times comprehending your native language comes much easier than trying
to comprehend a second-language. After comprehending the language an individual has acquired and is
surrounded by they must finally produce language in a coherent way.
3. Language production
Language production can be viewed as consisting in four major stages: Conceptualizing a
thought to be expressed, formulating a linguistic plan, articulating the plan, and monitoring one’s speech.
These various stages will be examined in this part.
Production of speech and language: Serial vs Parallel models of linguistic planning ;
implementing linguistic plans (articulating and self monitoring)
Conversational interaction: The structure of conversations, conversational skills, conversational
settings.
4. Language Loss
A language can be maintained only through exposure to speakers of that language and
opportunities to use it. Therefore, families need to be encouraged to provide sufficient opportunities for
children to speak their home language so that it can be maintained. (p.61,PEL, 2nd edition).
D. Psycholinguitical studies are:

1. Language processes in communication and mind;
2. Language acquisition;
3. Language behavior patterns;
4. Verbal associations and meaning issues;
5. The process of language in abnormal people, such as deaf children;
6. Perception of cognition.
E. How to Start Teaching Kids English at Home

Parents definitely want the best for their children, especially in terms of learning. What if parents
want their children to learn English well but your own English is not perfect. Most importantly, you
always give some encouragement and praise. They will soon be enthusiastic about the language. Be
patient, and they will start speaking English in their own time.
1. Establish routines.

Set time for English at home. It is recommended in the short term, better than the long term.
fifteen minutes is enough for small children. and you can make sessions longer as you get older.
Try to do certain activities at the same time every day. Children feel more comfortable and
confident when they know what to expect. For example, you could play an English game every day after
school, or read an English story with your children before bedtime. If you have space at home, you can
create an English corner where you keep anything connected to English, for example books, games,
DVDs or things that your children have made. Repetition is essential – children often need to hear words
and phrases many times before they feel ready to produce them themselves.
2. Playing Games
Children learn naturally when they are having fun. There are many other types of games
you can play with your children to help them practise English. Flashcard are a great way to teach and
revise vocabulary and there are many different games which you can play with flashcard, such as
Memory, Kim’s Game, Snap or Happy Familie.
3. Using Everyday Situations
The advantage of teaching English at home is that you can use everyday situations and real
object around the house to practise the language naturally and in context. For Example:
a. Talk about clothes when your child is getting dressed, or when you are sorting laundry
(Let’s put on your blue socks, It’s Dad’s T-shirt, etc.)
b. Practise Vocabulary for toys and furniture when you are helping your child to tidy their
bedroom (Let’s put your teddy bear on the bed, Where is blue car?)
c. Teach food vocabulary when you are cooking or going shopping. When you go to the
supermarket, give your child a list of things to find (use pictures or words depending on their age).
Revise the vocabulary when you put the shopping away at home.
4. Using stories
Younger children love books with bright colours and attractive illustrations. Look at the
pictures together and say the words as you point to the pictures. Later you can ask your child to point to
different things, e.g. ‘Where's the cat?’ After a while encourage them to say the words by asking ‘What's
that?’ Listening to stories will get your child used to the sounds and rhythms of English.
5. Using Song
Songs are a really effective way to learn new words and improve pronunciation. Songs with
actions are particularly good for very young children as they are able to join in even if they are not yet
able to sing the song. The actions often demonstrate the meaning of the words in the song.
6. Teaching Grammar
With younger children, there is no need to explicitly teach grammar rules, but instead get
them used to hearing and using different grammatical structures in context, for example ‘have got’ when
you are talking about someone’s appearance, or ‘must/mustn’t’ when talking about their school rules.
Hearing the grammar being used in context from an early age will help your child to use it naturally and
correctly when they are older.
SUMMARY OF SOCIOLINGUISTIC
A. The term of sosiolinguistic is generally is used for the study of relationship Between language
and society. It has strong connetions with anthropology through study of language and culture,
and with sociology through in investigation of the role language plays in the organization of
social groups and instutetion. We use all these connections when we try to analyze language

from a social perspective. This socialinguistic is divided into 2 parts that are social dialects and
education and occupation.
1. Social Dialects
Whereas the traditional study of regional dialects tended to tended to concentrate on the
speech of people in rural areas, the study of social dialects has been mainly concerned
with speakers in towns and cities. In the social study of dialects, it is social class that is
mainly used to divine groups of speakers as having something in common.
For the examples of language use tha might be characteristic of a social dialects. We
treat class as social variable and pronounciation or word as the linguistic variable.
2. Education and Occupation

Although the unique circumstance of every life result in each of us having an individual
way of speaking, a personal dialects or idiolect. We generally tend to sound like others
with whom we share similiar educational backgounds and occupations.
Speech Accommodation
Speech accommodation is our ability to modify our speech style toward or away from
the perceived style of the person(s) we’re talking to.
When speech style is used to emphasize social distance between speakers, the process
is called divergence. We can make our speech style diverge from another’s by using forms that
are distinctly different. In the third line of the following The Study of Language example, the
Scottish teenager shifts to a speech style with features that differ substantially from the first
line.
TEENAGER: I can’t do it, sir.
TEACHER: Oh, come on. If I can do it, you can too.
TEENAGER: Look, I cannae dae it so …
Register and Jargon

A register is a conventional way of using language that is appropriate in a specific
context, which may be identified as situational (e.g. in church), occupational (e.g. among
lawyers) or topical (e.g. talking about language).
One of the defining features of a register is the use of jargon, which is special technical
vocabulary (e.g. plaintiff, suffix) associated with a specific area of work or interest. In social
terms, jargon helps to create and maintain connections among those who see themselves as
“insiders” in some way and to exclude “outsiders.”
Slang
Slang, or “colloquial speech,” describes words or phrases that are used instead of more
everyday terms among younger speakers and other groups with special interests.
It can be used by those inside a group who share ideas and attitudes as a way of
distinguishing themselves from others.
However, the use of slang varies within the younger social group, as illustrated by the
use of obscenities or taboo terms. Taboo terms are words and phrases that people avoid for
reasons related to religion, politeness and prohibited behavior. They are often swear words,
typically “bleeped” in public broadcasting (What the bleep are you doing, you little bleep!) or
“starred” in print (You stupid f***ing a**hole!).
African American English
African American English (AAE) also known as Black English or Ebonics, AAE is a
variety used by many (not all) African Americans in many different regions of the USA.
In much the same way as large geographical barriers between groups foster linguistic
differences in regional dialects, social barriers such as discrimination and segregation serve to
create marked differences between social dialects. In the case of AAE, those different features
have often been stigmatized as “bad” language, following a regular pattern whereby the social
practices, especially speech, of dominated groups 260 The Study of Language are treated as
“abnormal” by those dominant groups who are in charge of defining “normal.” Although AAE
speakers continue to experience the effects of discrimination, their social dialect often has
covert prestige among younger speakers in other social groups, particularly with regard to
popular music, and certain features of AAE may be used in expressions of social identity by
many who are not African American.
Vernacular Language
The term “vernacular” has been used since the Middle Ages, first to describe local
European languages (low prestige) in contrast to Latin (high prestige), then to characterize any
non-standard spoken version of a language used by lower status groups. So, the vernacular is a
general expression for a kind of social dialect, typically spoken by a lower-status group, which
is treated as “non-standard” because of marked differences from the “standard” language.
The Sounds Of A Vernacular

A pervasive phonological feature in AAVE and other English vernaculars is the
tendency to reduce final consonant clusters, so that words ending in two consonants (left hand)
are often pronounced as if there is only one (lef han).
This can affect the pronunciation of past tense
Eg : think, that = [tink], [dət]
The Grammar Of A Vernacular

It is typically in aspects of grammar that AAVE and other vernaculars are most
stigmatized as being “illogical” or “sloppy.”
One frequently criticized element is the Language and social variation double negative
construction, as in He don’t know nothin or I ain’t afraid of no ghosts. Because the negative is
expressed twice, these structures have been condemned as “illogical” (since one negative
supposedly cancels the other).
The “sloppy” criticism focuses on the frequent absence of forms of the verb “to be” (are,
is) in AAVE expressions such as You crazy or She workin now. It may be more accurate to say
that wherever are and is can be contracted in the casual style of other varieties (You’re, She’s),
they are not articulated in AAVE. Formal styles of Standard English require are and is in such
expressions, but many regional varieties do not. Nor do many other languages such as Arabic
and Russian require forms of “to be” in similar contexts. This feature of AAVE speech can’t be
“sloppy” any more than it would be “sloppy” in normal Arabic or Russian speech.

While AAVE speakers don’t include the auxiliary verb is in expressions such as She
workin now, to describe what is happening currently, they can use be (not is), as in She be
workin downtown now, as a way of expressing habitual action. That is, the presence or absence
of be distinguishes between what is a recurring activity or state and what is currently happening.
To talk about a habitual action that started or happened in the past, AAVE uses bin (typically
stressed), not was, as in She bin workin there. In effect, the use of habitual be or bin, and the
absence of forms of “to be” in present state expressions, are all consistent features in the
grammar of AAVE. The negative versions of these verbs are formed with don’t (not doesn’t)
and the verb is not used with a contracted negative. So, in AAVE, She don’t be workin is
grammatical, whereas *She doesn’t be workin and *She ben’t workin would be considered
ungrammatical.

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SUMMARY JOURNAL

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT C 2018

The study of speech sounds is called phonetics. To describe speech sounds, it is

Summary Book Class C | 2

Summary Book Class C | 4

two morphemes boy + ish

three morphemes boy + ish + ness

3. I mean what I say.

about who is doing what to whom. This information is crucial to understanding

5. Your dog chased my cat.

6. My cat chased your dog.

Summary Book Class C | 6

7. (a) The boy found.

(d) Zack tries to be a gentleman.

Summary Book Class C | 7

Phrase structure trees

Summary Book Class C | 8

Yes-no questions are a case in point, and they bring us back to a

The boy will sleep. Will the boy sleep?

A way to capture the relationship between a declarative and a yes-no question

Summary Book Class C | 9

Yes-no questions are thus generated in two steps.

There was a man on the roof. → A man was on the roof.

Summary Book Class C | 10

The Structural Dependency of Rules

dependent. The transformational rule of PP preposing moves any PP as long as it is immediately

I know that you know. I know you know.

That you know bothers me. *You know bothers me.

This is a further demonstration that rules are structure dependent.

when the subject is third-person singular.

This guy seems kind of cute.

Summary Book Class C | 11

A final illustration of structure dependency is found in the declarative-

The boy who is sleeping was dreaming.

The boy who can sleep will dream.

*Can the boy who sleep will dream?

Summary Book Class C | 12

Sentences are organized according to two basic principles: constituent structure

the verb) must match the features of the subject.

The following wh questions illustrate another kind of dependency:

2. (a) *will Max chase ___?

The grammaticality of a sentence with a gap depends on there being a wh

object in (b), and the embedded subject in (c).

of the gap in a sentence with the corresponding declarative structure:

3. (a) Max will chase what?

(c) You think (that) which dog loves balls?

The wh phrase is then moved to the beginning of the sentence by a transfor-

Thus, wh questions are generated in three steps:

Who did Helen say the senator wanted to hire ___?

“Long-distance” dependencies created by wh movement are a fundamental

UG Principles and Parameters

Summary Book Class C | 15

points of variation parameters.

tion. In Japanese the sentence is marked with a question morpheme, no:

Taro-ga nani-o mitsuketa-no?

Summary Book Class C | 16

Ulipatia nani Kitabu?

However, in all languages with wh movement (i.e., movement of the question

A chi hai dato il libro?

In some dialects of German, long-distance wh movement leaves a trail of wh

Mit wem Glaubst Du Mit wem Hans spricht?

With whom think you with whom Hans talks