Biology

 Biology is a branch of science that deals with the study of life.

 Hence, it is also called life science.
 The term ‘Biology’ was coined by Lamarck and Traviranus (1802). M
 Mnemonic: L & T

 The science of biology is so vast and extensive that biology is so vast and extensive that biologist
divide it into several branches to facilitate the study of living organism and their relationship
with other living and non-living entities.

 Biology has two basic branches – Botany and Zoology. Botany is the study of plants while
Zoology is the study of animals.

 Aristotle is known as “the Father of Biology”.

The Cell

 The cell can be defined as a “basic functional unit of life”.

 The term “cell” is derived from the Latin word and was first observed by a scientist named
Robert Hooke in the year 1665.
 Leeuwenhoek is commonly known as “the Father of Microbiology”, and considered to be the
first microbiologist.

 All living organisms are composed of one or many cells to perform their individual function. A
cell is the basic unit of life, which is able to control and perform several functions in living
organicm.

 The largest cell in the human body is the female egg cell ovum while the smallest cell in the
human body is ovum, “sperm”.
 The longest cell in the human body is the “nerve cell”.

 The largest known cells are unfertilized ostrich egg cells which weigh 3.3 pounds.

 The smallest type of cell in the world is the mycoplasma bacterium with only a diameter of 10
um (micrometre).
  There are two primary types of cells- Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells.

Part of Prokaryotic Cell and their Functions

 Capsule: It is composed of a thick polysaccharide. It is a kind of smile layer, which covers the
outside of the cell wall. It is used to stick cells together and works as a food reserve and it also
protects the cell from dryness and from chemicals.
 Cell wall: it is made from the glycoprotein merein. Cell wall provides strength and rigidity to
the cell and it is permeable to solutes.
 Cytoplasm: It helps in cellular growth, metabolism and replication. Cytoplasm is the storehouse
for all types of chemicals and components that are used to sustain the life of a bacterium.

 Plasma Membrane: It is also known as “Cell membrane”. It is mainly composed of proteins,

phospholipids and carbohydrates, which forms into a fluid-mosaic. Plasma membrane surrounds
 the bacteria and it is the most important organelle and plays a vital role in controlling the
movement of substances in the cell.
 Cytoplasm region (or) nucleiod region: An area of the cytoplasm that contains the single
bacterial DNA molecule.
 Ribosome: They are the smallest part of cell organelle. Ribosome plays a vital role in protein
synthesis as they consist of protein and RNA. They are located freely in the cytoplasm attached
to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
 Mesosomes: They are the folding, present inside the plasma membrane. Mesosome plays a vital
role in cellular respirations, replication of DNA, cell division, separation of chromosomes
during cell division and also performs the role of Golgi bodies and mitochondaria.
 Plasmids: They are a small circle of DNA. Plasmid plays a vital role in exchanging DNA between
the bacterial cells. Bacterial cells have many plasmids.
 Pili: They are short protein appendages, which fixes bacteria to surfaces. These pili are smaller
than those flagella and are used in conjugation to exchange the genetic information.
 Flagella: They are rigid rotation tail. The clockwise rotation moves the cell forward and
anticlockwise rotation helps the cell to spin. The rotation is powered by H+ gradient across the
cell membrane.

Parts of Eukaryotic Cell and their Functions

 Cell wall: It helps in protecting the plasma membrane and plays a vital role in supporting and
protecting the cells. It is a thick outer layer made of tough cellulose. Cell walls are present in
plant cells and are absent in animal cells.
 Plasma membrane: The plasma membrane is present in animal cells, plant cells and even in
eukaryoticcells. It is a double-layered thin barrier, surrounding the cell that controls the entry
and exit of certain substances.
 Nucleus: It is present both in the animal and plant cells. It is large and present in the centre of a
cell. It contains DNA and stores all the necessary information, which is required to control all the
activities within the cell. Hence it is also called as a “brain of the cell”.
 Nuclear membrane: It is double-layered, which surrounds the nucleus and helps in the entry
and exit of material into the nucleus. It also separates the nucleus from the other parts of the
cell.
 Nucleolus: It is present in the nucleus of both plant and animal cells. it plays a vital role in the
synthesis of RNA and in the formation of the ribosome.
  Robert Brown first discovered the nuclei (plural form of nucleus) in the cells way back in 1831.
 Mitochondria: The organelles that convert energy into usable forms, which are used by the cell
to perform their cellular functions. It is a “powerhouse of the cell”, which produces energy by
breaking down fats and carbohydrates. It converts glucose to ATP.
 Chloroplast: They are the sub-cellular sites of photosynthesis.
 Ribosomes: They are biological molecules, which are composed of proteins and RNA. It plays a
vital role in the synthesis-millions of protein.
 Golgi Bodies: They are sac-like structure, which are specifically used for storing or preserving all
the substances made by the cell.
 Lysosomes: They are spherical organelles, which contain enzymes that help in maintaining the
physiological activities of cellular constituents. They protect the cell by ingestion of other dying
cells or larger extracellular material like-foreign invading microbes. Without lysosomes, living
organism would become filled with dead cells.i.e Lysosomes are called “suicidal bags”.
 Vacuoles: They are vesicle that help in the digestion. They are present both in plant and animal
cells.
 Cytoplasm: It refers to the jelly-like material with organelles in it. It is present both in plant and
animal cells. They consist of inner region of the plasma membrane and also the outer region of
DNA. A cytoplasm plays a vital role in storage and manufacturing of energy.
 Chromosomes are small, coloured thread-like structures present in the nucleoplasm of living
cells, which help in the inheritance or transmission of characters in the form of genes from one
generation to another generation.
 Centrosomes: They are small hollow cylindrical shaped organelles, which are composed of nine
bundles of micro tubules. They play a vital role in the cell division or in the cell cycle.

Nucleic Acids

 Nucleic acids are long biological macromolecules that consist of smaller molecules called
nucleotides.

 Nucleic Acids are DNA and RNA, they carry genetic information in the cell.
  In DNA and RNA, these nucleotides contain four nucleobases-sometimes called nitrogenous
bases or simply bases-two purine and pyrimidine bases each.

 They also help in synthesis of proteins, through the process of translation and transcription.

DNA – Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid

 A nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning
of all modern living organisms(scientists believe that RNA may have been the main genetic
material in primitive life forms).
 Double-standed. It has two nucleotide started which consist of its phosphate group, five-
carbon ugar (the stable 2-deoxyribose), and four nitrogen-containing nucleobases: adenine,
thymine, cytosine, and guanine.
 Pairing of Bases: A-T (Adenine-Thymine), G-C(Guanine – Cytosine)
 DNA is self-replicating.
 DNA was first identified and isolated by Friedrich Miescher (Friedrice Mixture)and the double
helix structure of DNA was first discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick. (Watson
Cricket)
Ribo Nucleic Acid (RNA)

 The information found in DNA determines which traits are to be created, activated, or
deactivated, while the various forms of RNA do the work.
 RNA is a single polynucleotide chain composed of nucleotides of adenine, guanine, cytosine and
uracil. Thymine nucleotides are absent.
 RNA occurs mostly in the cytoplasm in the eukaryotic cells. A small amount occurs in the
nucleus of the cell, as a constituent of nucleolus.
 Single-standed. Like DNA, RNA is composed of its phosphate group, five-carbon sugar (the less
stable ribose), and four nitrogen-containing nucleobases: adenine, uracil (not tymine), guanine,
and cytosine.
 Pairing of Bases: A-U(Adenine-Uracil), G-C(Guanine-Cytosine).
 RNA is synthesized from DNA when needed.

Cell Division

 Cell division is a process with sequence of steps that enables organism to grow and reproduce.
Mitosis

 The process by which a cell which has previously replicated chromosomes in the nucleus of the
cell is separated into two identical sets of chromosomes id known as mitosis.
 Mitosis is the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, these daughter cells are
genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell. It is a form of nuclear division.
 Mitotic division of cell is unchecked and it may result in uncontrolled growth of cells leading to
cancer or tumor.

Meiosis

 Meiosis is a unique type of cell division, it is necessary to sexual reproduction in eukaryotic

organism.
 The cells that are produced by the process of meiosis are referred to as gametes or spores.
 Meiosis shuffles the genes between the chromosomes in a pair, which are received from each
parent.
 It produces chromosomes with new genetic combinations in every gamete the process
generates.
 Meiosis division produces genetically unique four cells, the number of chromosomes is half as
that is in the parent cell.
Biomolecules

 Biomolecules are organic molecules especially macromolecules like carbohydrates, proteins in

living organism.
 All living from-bacteria, algae, plants and animals are made of similar marcromolecules that are
responsible for life. All the carbon compounds we get from living tissues can be called
biomolecules.
 There are four major classes of biomolecules-Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins and Nucleic acid.

Carbohydrates
  Carbohydrates are good sources of energy.
 Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) are long chains of sugars.
 Ribose and deoxyribose sugars from the structural frame of the genetic materials, RNA and
DNA.
 They have a free aldehyde or ketone group, which act as reducing agents and are known as
reducing sugars.

 Carbohydrates provide the body with source of fuel and energy, it aids in proper functioning of
our brain, heart and nervous, digestive and immune system.
 Deficiency of carbohydrates in the diet causes fatigue, poor mental function.

 Oligosaccharides are compound such that yield 2 to 10 molecules of the same or different
monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Oligosaccharides yielding 2 molecules of monosaccharides on
hydrolysis is known as a disaccharides and tetrasaccharides respectively Examples: Maltose,
lactose, sucrose, raffinose, stachyose.
 Polysaccharides are compounds of sugar and yield more than 10 molecules of monosaccharides
on hydrolysis. Examples: Starch, glycogen, cellulose, pectin, inulin, hyaluonic acid

Lipids

 Lipids are composed of long hydrocarbon chains.

 The primary purpose of lipids in body is energy storage.
 They serve as sources for fat soluble vitamins like A, D, E, K.
  Structural membrane are composed of lipids which form a barrier and control flow of material in
and out of the cell.
 Lipid harmones, like sterols, help in mediating communication between cells.
Lipids present in biological membranes are of three classes based on the type of hydrophilic
head present:
 Glycolipids are lipids whose head contains oligosaccharides with 1-15 saccharide residues.
 Phospholipids contain a positively charged head which is linked to the negatively charged
phosphate groups.
 Sterols, whose head contains a steroid ring. Example steroid.
 Examples of lipids: oils, facts, phospholipids, glycolipids, etc.

Proteins

 Proteins are organic substances, they are made up of nitrogen and oxygen, carbon and
hydrogen.
 Proteins are the most important biomolecules, they are the fundamental constituents of the
cytoplasm of the cell.
 Proteins are made up of amino acids.
 Proteins give heat and energy to the body and also aid in building and repair.
 Only small amounts of proteins are stored in the body as they can be used up quickly on
demand.
 The types of proteins are as follows:

 Hormones are the proteins-based chemicals that are secreted by the endocrine glands.
Hormones are chemical messengers that transmit signals from one cell to the other.
 Enzymatic proteins accelerate the metabolic activity in the cells.
 Structural proteins are necessary components of the body. Structural proteins like collagen
form connective framework in body tissue, and keratin is main component of hair, skin and
nails.
 Defensive proteins like antibodies and immunoglobulins are the core parts of the body’s
immune system.
 Storage proteins store mainly mineral ions in the body, like potassium, iron etc.
 Transport proteins carry vital materials to the cells.
 Receptor proteins are located on the outer part of the cells, they control te substances that
leave and enter the cell.
 Contractile proteins control the strength and speed of heart and muscle contractions.

Roughage

 Roughage or Dietary fibre is cellulose (the part of a plant) which cannot be digested by the
human intestinal tract.
 It retains water and improves intestinal function by adding bulk to food. It is a definite necessity
for proper digestion and bowel movement.
 Roughage helps correct large intestine disorders and keeps it functioning normally. It prevents
constipation and haemorrhoids.
Vitamins

 Organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to maintain normal health, growth
and nutrition.
 Water-soluble vitamins: Vitamin A, D, E and K.
 The body can also synthesise vitamin D (specifically cholecalciferol) in the skin, from cholesterol,
when Sun exposure is adequate (hence its nickname, the “sunshine vitamin”).

Mineral nutrients

 Minerals are inorganic nutrients.

 They include both metallic and non-metallic elements, which are taken by the body in the form
of salts.
 There are 24 elements that are used in our body.
 Minerals cannot supply energy.
 Major Minerals: Minerals needed in amounts greater than 100 milligrams per day. These
include sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and sulfur.
 Microminerals Or Trace Minerals: Minerals needed in amounts less than 20 milligram daily.
These include iron, zinc, selenium, fluoride, chromium, copper, manganese, and molybdenum.
 Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the human body.
 Phosphorus is necessary for cellular health.
 Potassium is required for healthy muscular and nervous system.
 Iron is necessary for energy metabolism.
 Cobalt is required for normal functioning of pancreas.
 Zinc promotes a healthy immune system.
 Systems of Human Body

Digestive System

 The human digestive system is a complex process that consists of breaking down large organic
masses into smaller particles that the body can use as fuel.
 The breakdown of the nutrients requires the coordination of several enzymes secreted from
specialized cells within the mouth, stomach, intestine, and liver.
 Alimentary canal is a long continuous tube constituted by mouth, pharynx, oesophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and rectum.
 The glandular organs, salivary glands, liver and pancreas and the alimentary canal from the
digestive system.
 The mouth, which includes:
 The Teeth, which grind food to increase the surface area. The teeth are 32 small, hard organs
found along the anterior and lateral edges of the mouth.
 Taste Areas of Human Tongue
 The Tongue: It tastes and manipulates the food. The taste buds on the surface of the tongue
detect taste molecules in food and connect to nerves in the tongue to send taste information to
the brain. The tongue also helps to push the food towards the posterior part of the mouth for
swallowing.
 Salivary Glands: Surrounding the mouth are 3 sets of salivary glands. The saliva, which includes
mucin, a lubricant; buffers to neutralize acidic foods, antibacterial agents, and amylase, which
converts starch to maltose.
  Pharynx, which in humans, leads to both the trachea and the oesophagus. The pharynx is
responsible for the passing of masses of chewed food from the mouth to the oesophagus. While
food is being swallowed, the epiglottis block the trachea and the uvula blocks off the nose.
 The Oesophagus, which is the tube from the pharynx to the stomach. There is no digestion in
this part, also called gullet. Food is moved along the Oesophagus by peristalsis, wave-like
contractions of the muscles in the walls of the oesophagus. The lining of the oesophagus secrets
mucus to lubricate the ball of food. There are sphincter muscles (rings of constricting muscles)
at the top and bottom of the oesophagus.
 The Stomach is a J-shaped, expandable sack, normally on the left side of the upper abdomen.
The stomach contains hydrochloric acid strong enough to dissolve metal (pH about 1.5 to 3,
usually around 2), which kills bacteria and helps denature the proteins in our food, making them
more vulnerable to attack by pepsin.
 Small Intestine: The food moves from the stomach to duodenum, which is the upper part of the
small intestine. The small intestine is a long, thin tube about 1 inch in diameter and about 10
feet long that is part of the lower gastrointestinal tract.
 Liver and Gallbladder: The liver weight about 3 pounds and is the second largest organ in the
body. The liver has main different functions in the body, but the main function of the liver in
digestion is the production of bile and its secretion into the small intestine so that it can be
reused for the digestion of subsequent metals.
 Pancreas: The pancreas is a large gland ocated just interior and posterior to the stomach. The
pancreas secrets digestive enzymes into the small intestine to complete the chemical digestion
of foods.
 The pancreatic juice contains three enzymes.
 Trypsin – converts peptones and proteoses to smaller peptides.
 Amylase – converts starch into matose.
 Lipase – converts facts into fatty acids and glycerol.
 The digestion of proteins into the end products as amino acids, carbohydrates into glucose and
fats into fatty acids and glycerol is completed in the small intestine.
 Large Intestine: The large intestine long, thick tube about 2 ½ inches in diameter and about 5
feet long. The large intestine absorbs water and contains and many symbiotic bacteria that aid
in the breaking down of wastes to extract some small amounts of nutrients. The process by
which the undigested food material or waste is released from the body is called egestion.

Digestive Enzymes

 Digestive enzymes function in chemical digestion. It begins in the mouth and ends in the small
intestine.
 No chemical digestion in the large intestine. Bacteria here are producers of vitamin B and K.
Respiratory System
  The act of breathing includes: inhaling and exhaling air in the body; the absorption of oxygen
from the air in order to produce energy; the discharge of carbon dioxide, which is the byproduct
of the process.
 The normal respiratory rate for adults and children over the age of 12 usually ranges from 14 to
18 breaths per minute.
 Inhalation: (drawing the air inwards) is the result of increasing in the volume of the thoracic
cavity.
 Exhalation: is the result of decrease in the volume of the thoracic cavity.
 Internal nostrils open into pharynx.
 The opening of the pharynx into the trachea is called glottis.
 Trachea: Located just below the larynx, the trachea is the main airway to the lungs. Trachea is
thin walled but its walls do not collapse even when there is not enough air in it as it is supported
by rings of cartilage. Trachea bifurcates into bronchi.
 Bronchi: The bronchi branch from the trachea into each lung and create the network of intricate
passages that supply the lungs with air.
 Lungs: Together the lungs from one of the body’s largest organ. They’re responsible for
providing oxygen to capillaries and exhaling carbon dioxide.
 Alveolus: Alveolus is the tiny sac-like structure present in the lungs in which the gaseous
exchange takes place.
 Diaphragm: The diaphragm is the main respiratory muscle that contracts and relaxes to allow air
into the lungs.
 The right lung is larger than the left lung.
 We inhale and exhale about 500 ml of air per breath. This value is called the tidal volume.
 Even after a very strong exhalation, about 1000 to 1200 mL of air remains in the lungs. This is
known as residual volume.
 Breathing is the physical process of respiratory gaseous exchange between the organism and
the environment by diffusion. On the other hand, respiration involves oxidation of food and
release of energy along with respiratory gaseous exchange.
 Another name for the larynx is the voice box or the Adam’s apple, and the larynx is what gives
you your voice.

Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic respiration:

 Giucose + oxygen  Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP)

Anaerobic respiration:

 Glucose (broken down to)  Lactic Acid + Energy (ATP)

Circulatory System

 The circulatory system is known as a double circulatory system, this is because it is made up of
two interweaving loops and blood passes through the heart twice. The heart is at the centre of
this system. The heart is divided into two havels, the right and the left. Bold from these two
halves never mix.
The Heart

 The heart is cone-shaped organ made up of cardiac muscle called myocardium tissue.
 The contraction and relaxation follows a rhythm called heart beat. Heart pumps blood into the
blood vessels. The heart beats or contracts approximately times per minute.
 The systemic contraction of the heart is called Pulse rate which is the same as the rate of heart
beat.
 The human heart is a two-sided, 4 chambered structure with muscular walls.
 An atrioventricular (AV) valve separates each auricle from ventricle.
 A semilunar (also known as arterial) valve separates each (ventricle from its connecting artery.
 Auricles or Atria refer to the upper chambers of the heart (2 in number) that receive the
impure blood from the veins to send it to the ventricles.
 Ventricles are lower two chambers that accept blood from the arteries (left atrium) and then
contracts to force into the aorta.
 The walls of the ventricles are thicker and contain more cardiac muscle than the walls of the
atria. This enables the ventricles to pump out blood to the lungs and the rest of the body.
 The right chamber of the heart accepts deoxygenated blood that is carried by the right aorta.
 The left side of the heart is concerned with the oxygenated blood.
 Atria collect blood from veins.
 Atria contract, atrioventricular valve open.
 Blood is pumped into ventricles.
 Ventricle contracts, atrioventricular valves close and semilunar valves open.
 Blood is pumped into arteries, semilunar valve close.
 Cycle repeats.
 In the human heart, contraction is initiated by a special modified heart muscle known as
sinoatrial node. It is located in the right atrium. The SA node has the inherent power of
generating a wave of contraction and controlling the heartbeat. Hence, it is known as the
pacemaker.
 Since the heart beat is initiated by the SA node and the impulse of contraction originates in the
heart itself, the human heart is termed myogenic.
 When the sinoatrial node becomes defective, the heart may beat too fast, too slow, or
irregularly. An artificial pacemaker is used to treat a dangerously slow heart rate to help it beat
at a more healthy rate.
Arteries

 Arteries carry oxygenated blood (with the exception of the pulmonary artery and umbilical
artery).
 Direction of blood flow from the heart to various parts of the body.
 Thick outer layer of longitudinal collagen and elastic fibers prevents leaks and bulges.
 Thick wall withstands high pressure.
 Thick layers of circular elastic fibers and muscle fibers to pump blood.
 Narrow lumen to maintain high pressure.

Veins

 Veins carry deoxygenated blood (with the exception of pulmonary veins and umbilical vein).
 Direction of blood flow from various parts of the body to the heart.
 Thin walls so that nearby muscles can help push blood towards the heart.
 Thin outer layer of longitudinal collagen and elastic fibers as pressure is low.
 Wide lumen to accommodate the slow-flowing blood.

Capillaries
  Capillaries are the smallest and thinnest of the blood vessels and serve as the connection
between the arterial and venal system of the cardiac system.
 They are only one-cell thick, and they are the sites of the transfer of oxygen and other nutrients
from the bloodstream to other tissues in the body.
 They also collect carbon dioxide waste materials and fluids for return to the veins.

Blood

 Blood is a mixture of two components: cells and plasma. The heart pumps blood through the
arteries, capillaries and vein to provide oxygen and nutrients to every cell of the body. The blood
also carries away waste products.
 Plasma is the liquid component of blood, in which the red blood cells, and platelets are
suspended. It constituents more than half of the blood’s volume and consists mostly of water
that contains dissolved salts (electrolytes) and proteins.
 Red blood cells (also called erythrocytes) make up about 40 % of the blood’s volume. Red blood
cells contain hemoglobin, a protein that gives blood its red colour and enables it to carry oxygen
from the lungs and deliver it to all body tissues.
 White blood cells (also called leukocytes) are fewer in number than red blood cells, with a ratio
of about 1 white blood cell to every 600 to 700 red blood cells. White blood cells are responsible
primarly for defending the body against infection.
 Platelets (also called thrombocytes) are cell-like particles that are smaller than red or white bold
cells. Platelets are fewer in number than red blood cells, with a ratio of about 1 plarelets to
every 20 red blood cells. Platelets help in the clooting process by gathering at a bleeding site and
clumping together to form a plug that helps seal the blood vessel.
 People living at higher altitudes have more red blood cells than other people who live at lower
altitudes. People living at higher altitudes are used to the lower density of oxygen molecules in
the air. They have higher levels of haemoglobin (red blood cells) in their blood which helps them
to take in more oxygen.
 Normal reference ranges for haemoglobin for children, men and women are 11-13 g/dL, 14-18
g/dL, and 12-16 g/dL respectively.
 A sphygmomanometer or blood pressure meter is a device used to measure blood pressure.
Normal blood pressure is at or below 120/80.
 Every human being belongs to one of four blood groups: A, B, AB and O.
  Blood transfusion can be between matching blood group O can donate blood to all and ‘O’
group is called universal donor and AB group can receive blood from all and is called universal
recipient.

Skeletal System

 Skeletal system is the system of bones, associated cartilage and joints of human body.
 The adult human body has 206 bones.
 In addition to bone, the skeleton also consists of cartilage and ligaments.

 Cartilage is a type of dense connective tissue, made of tough protein fibers, that provide a
smooth surface for the movement of bones at joints.
  A ligament is a band of fibrous connective tissue that holds bones together and keeps them in
place.
 Joints are important components of human skeleton because they make the human skeleton
mobile. A joint occurs between “two or more bones”, “bone and cartilage” and “cartilage and
cartilage”.

Axial Skeleton

 The axial skeleton consists of the 80 bones along the central axis of the human body.
 Skull (29 bones) – includes bones of the cranium, face, and ears (auditory ossicles).
 Hyoid – U -shaped bone or complex of bones located in the neck between the chin and larynx.
 Vertebral Column (33 vertebrae) – includes spinal vertebrae.
 Thoracic Cage (12 pairs) – includes ribs and sternum (breast bone).
Appendicular Skeleton

 The appendicular skeleton is composed of 126 bones in the human body involved in locomotion
(lower limbs) of the axial skeleton and manipulation of objects in the environment (upper
limbs).
 Pectral Girdle (2 bones) – includes shoulder bones (clavicle and scapula).
 Upper Limbs (64 bones) – include bones of the arms and hands.
 Pelvic Girdle (2 hip bones) – includes hip bones.
 Lower Limbs (62 bones) – include bones of the legs and feet.
 The longest bone in the human body is the thigh bone called the femur.
 The smallest bone found in the human body is located in the middle ear. The staples (or stirrup)
bone is only 2.8 millimeters (0.11 inches) long.
 The area of our body with the most bones is the hand, fingers and wrist where are 54 bones.
 Our teeth from part of the skeletal system, but are not counted as bones.
 Bone marrow makes up 4% of a human body mass. It produces red blood cells which carry
oxygen all over the body. Marrow also produces lymphocytes, key components of the lymphatic
system, which support the body’s immune system.

Excretory System
  In human beings, excretion is carried out by an organ system known as the urinary system or the
excretory system.
 It has the following parts:
 Two bean-shapped kidneys, located below the diaphragm in the abdomen and towards the
back.
 Two excretory tubes or ureters (one from each kidney).
 One urinary bladder, ureters open into it.
 A muscular tube called urethra arises from the bladder. The urinary opening is at the end of
urethra.
 Filtration and reabsorption are two important processes of excretion.
 Kidneys not only excrete nitrogenous wastes but also regulate the water content of the body
(osmoregulation), and keep the normal mineral balance in the blood.
 A nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney.

The Urine

 The urine is a pale yellow coloured fluid.

 The yellow colour is due to the presence of urochrome pigment formed from the haemoglobin
of dead RBC’s in the liver cells.
 It is acidic in nature and has a pH of 6.0. it has a faint anamalic odour due to the presence of
urinod.
 It soon gets a strong smell of ammonia which forms as a result of degradation of urea.
 Daily urine output is 1.5 to 1.8 ltr. The volume of urine output is directly proportional to the
fluid intake.
 Chemically, it is formed of water 95 – 96 %, urea 2 %, other wastes like uric acid, hip puric acid,
createnine, phosphates and oxalates 2-3 %. It also contains non-nitrogenous organic
compounds like vitamin C, oalic acid and phenolic substances.
The Nervous System

 The functioning of the nervous system depends on detecting a stimulus in the internal or
external environment and responding to it.
 Central Nervous System (CNS) is regarded as the “information processor” in the body. It consists
of the brain lying under the skull, and the spinal cord contained within the vertebral column.
 The neuron is the basic unit of nervous system. There are three types of neurons – sensory,
motor and association or connecting neurons.
 In total, there are 43 main nerves that branch of the CNS to the peripheral nervous system (the
peripheral system is the nervous system outside the CNS. These are the efferent neurons that
carry signals away from the CNS to the peripheral system.
 These efferent fibers are divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous
system.
 The somatic fibers are responsible for the voluntary movement of our body, i.e. movement that
you consciously through about doing.
 The autonomic nervous system (ANS) consists of two sets of motor neurons and a collection of
ganglia. The autonomic nervous system incorporates all the impulses that are done
involuntarily, and are usually associated with essential functions such as breathing, heartbeat
etc.
 The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that connect the different parts of the
body (peripheral tisues) to the central nervous system.
The Brain

 The brain consists of three important parts: Cerebrum, Cerebellum and Medulla.
 Cerebrum: It is the largest portion of the brain, vertically divided into two halves: right and left
cerebral hemispheres. It controls all voluntary actions.
 Cerebellum: The main function of the cerebellum is to maintain the balance of the body and
coordinate muscular activity.
 Medulla Oblongata: It is the lower portion of the brain located at the base of the skull. It is
roughly triangular and is continued behind as the spinal cord. Its function is to control the
activities of our visceral organs like the alimentary canal, movement, breathing, beating of heart
and many other involuntary actions.

 The spinal cord extends from the medulla oblongata and continues downward almost
throughout the length of the backbone. It is concerned with the following three functions:
1) it controls the reflexes below the neck.
2) It conducts sensory impulses from the skin and muscles to the brain, and
3) It conducts motor responses from the brain to muscles of the trunk and limbs.
  The thalamus is the part of the brain that relays pain and pressure impulses. It is called
Gatekeeper to the cerebrum because all sensory impulses pass to cerebrum through thalamus
except olfactory impulse.

 The hypothalamus is the part of the brain that helps maintain homeostasis in the body. It
controls involuntary functions such as hunger, thirst, sweating, fatigue, sexual desire,
‘temperature regulation and effecting the pituitary glands it acts as middleman between
nervous and endocrine system.

Sensory Organs

The Eye

 The eye is a slightly asymmetrical globe, about an inch in diameter.

 The human eye is wrapped in three layers of tissue:

 The Sclerotic Coat: This tough layer creates the “white” of the eye except in the front where it
forms the transparent cornea.
 Choroid Coat: This middle layer is deeply pigmented with melanin. It reduces reflection of stray
light within the eye. The choroid coat forms the iris in the front of the eye.
 The Retina: The retina is the inner layer of the eye. It contains the light receptors, the rods and
cones (and thus serves as the “film” of the eye).
  The human eye and brain together translate light into colour. The human eye can distinguish
about 10 million different colors.
 Collectively, the photoreceptors in the human eye are most sensitive to wavelengths of light, in
a vaccum or in air, between 530 and 555 nanometers, which is yellowish-green light.

Eye Defect

 Farsightedness (hypermetropia): If the eyeball is too short or the lens too flat of inflexible, the
light rays entering the eye – particularly those from nearby objects – will not be brought to a
focus by the time they strike the retina. Eyeglasses with convex lenses can correct the problem.

 Nearsightedness (Myopia): If the eyeball is too long or the lens too spherical, the image of
distant objects is brought to a focous in front of the retina and is out of focous again before the
light strikes the retina. Nearby objects can be seen more easily. Eyeglasses with concave lenses
correct this problem by diverging the light rays before they enter the eye.

Correction could be done by concave mirror

 Cataracts: One or both lenses often become cloudy as one ages. When a cataract seriously
interferes with seeing, the cloudy lens is easily removed and a plastic one substituted. The entire
process can be done in a few minutes as an outpatient under local anaesthesia.
Correction be done by focal lens

 Presbyopia is a condition where, with age, the eye exhibits a progressively diminished ability to
focus on near objects.

 Correction be done by bifocal lens

 Colour blindness or colour vision deficiency is the inability or decreased ability to see colour, or
perceive colour difference, under normal lighting conditions.
 Astigmatism usually occurs when the front surface of your eye, the cornea, has an irregular
curvature. Astigmatism is one of a group of eve conditions known as refractive errors and these
errors cause a disturbance in the way that light rays are focused within your eye.
 Correction = eyeglasses, contact lenses, or refractive surgery
The Ear

 The ear is made up of three parts: the outer, middle, and inner ear.
 All three parts of the ear are important for detecting sound by working together to move sound
by working together to move sound from the outer part through the middle and into the inner
part of the ear.
 The main purpose of the ear is to turn sound waves from the air into electrical signals that are
interpreted by the brain through the eighth cranial nerve.
 Humans can hear sounds waves with frequencies between 20 and 20,000 Hz.
 Normal hearing is at least 20 dB or better. A mild loss is 20-40 dB, moderate loss is 40-60 dB, and
severe loss is 60-80 dB.
 Ears also help to maintain balance.

Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

 The purpose of the organs of the male reproductive system is to perform the following
functions:
 To produce, maintain, and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and protective fluid
(semen)
 To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract during sex
 To produce and secrete male sex hormones responsible for maintaining the male reproductive
system
Female Reproductive System

 The female reproductive structures serve to produce eggs, move the fertilized egg, support a
growing embryo, and provide a birth canal.
 It produces the female egg cells necessary for reproduction, called the ova or oocytes.
 The system is designed to transport the ova to the site of fertilization.
 Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tibes.
 The next step for the fertilized egg is to implant into the wall of the uterus, beginning the initial
stages of pregnancy.
 The placenta is an organ that connects the developing foetus to the uterine wall to allow
nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mother’s blood supply, fights
against internal infection and produces hormones to support pregnancy.

Endocrine System

 The endocrine system acts with nervous system to coordinate the body’s activities.
 Both systems enable cells to communicate with others by using chemical messengers.
 The endocrine system uses chemical messengers called harmones that are transported by the
circulatory system (blood). They act on target cells that may be anywhere in the body.
 The endocrine system is slower than the nervous system because harmones must travel through
the circulatory system to reach their target.
  The hypothalamus is part of the brain. It maintains homeostasis (constant internal conditions)
by regulating the internal environment (examples: heart rate, body temperature, water balance,
and the secretions of the pituitary gland).
 Endocrine glands are also called ductless glands because they secrete hormones directly into
the bloodstream.
 Kinds of Hormones: On the basis of their chemical structure
 Peptide hormones are composed of amino acids. A peptide harmone binds to a cell-surface
receptor, it does not enter the cell. For example : Insulin and growth hormone.
 Steroid hormones enter the cell and bind to receptors in the cytoplasm. The harmone-receptor
complex enters the nucleus where it binds with chromatin and activites specific genes. For
example: Testosterone and cortisol.
 Tropic hormones: When the hormones have other endocrine glands as their targets, they are
called as Tropic hormones. Pituitary or the master gland secretes majority of the tropic
hormones also Thyroid gland.
 Non-tropic hormones: These hormones directly stimulate the target cells to induce the effect.
Most endocrine glands such as adrenal glands, pancreas, testis and ovary produce ono-tropic
hormones. Growth hormone, Oxytocin, Prolactin and melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
produced from pituitary gland are also non-tropic hormones.
Major human endocrine glands include:
 Hypothalamus
 Pituitary gland
 Parathyroid glands
 Adrenal glands
 Pineal gland
 Thyroid gland
 Pancreas
 Gonads
 Some common disorders associated with the endocrine glands

Thyroid Gland

 Goiter – Enlargement of the thyroid gland

 Hyperthyroidism – Increased secretion of thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine hormones
  Hypothyroidism – Deficiency of thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine hormones.
 Thyroiditis – Hashimotos thyroiditis is most common
 Thyroid cancer – Development of malignant tumours in the thyroid gland.

Parathyroid Gland

 Primary hyperparathyroidism – Hyper function of the parathyroid glands.

 Secondary hyperparathyroidism – Hyperplasia of the parathyroid glands.
 Tertiary hyperparathyroidism – Hyperplasia of the parathyroid hormones.
 Hypoparathyroidism - Decreased secretion of parathyroid hormones.
 Osteoporosis – It is a bone disease caused due lack of minerals, especially calcium, when
parathyroid gland does not function well.
 Rickets – It is seen in children due to lack of Vitamin D abd calcium.
 Oseomalacia – It is a form of rickets observed in adults.

Adrenal Gland

 Addison’s disease – It is caused due to hyposecretion of harmones by the adrenals.

 Conn’s syndrome is caused due to an overproduction of aldosterone.
 Cushing’s syndrome is a disorder caused due to an increased secreation of cortisol.
 Pheochromocytoma is a tumour in the medulla of the adrenal glands.
 Adrenocortical carcinoma – It is a rare cancer of the adrenal glands.
Pituitary Gland

 Diabetes insipidus is caused due to insufficient secretion of vasopressin secreted by the

posterior pituitary gland.
 Hypopitutiarism – Decreased secretion of pituitary hormones.
 Acromegaly is caused due to an overproduction of growth hormone.
 Prolactinoma is a tumour that causes increased secretion of prolactin.
 Sex hormone disorders – Pituitary gland secretes various sex hormones, thus altered secretion
of these affects the sexual development or regulation of sexual characteristics.
 Zoology

Origin of Life

 The formation of “first cell” on planet Earth is explained by the theory of chemical evolution
proposed by Oparin and Haldane, independently.
 According to this theory, the reducing atmosphere of primitive Earth helped in the formation of
simple inorganic compounds followed by simple organic compounds. Then, complex organic
compounds and subsequently their interaction leading to the formation of self-duplicating
nuclei acids.
 The nucleic acids and other macromolecules became surrounded by membrane to form the
protocells.
 The first form of life was probably prokaryotic chemo -autotrophs (cyanobacteria) are said to
have appeared about 3.5 billion years ago.
 Life is said to have originated in water, because of its unique properties.
 The origin of life was followed by organic evolution with the appearance of well adapted newer
form of life from the pre-existing simple form of life.
 Father of Zoology is Aristotle.

Organic Evolution

 Organic evolution refers to the slow and gradual process by which living organism have changed
from the simplest unicellular form to the most complex multi-cellular forms that are existing
today and on.
 The organic evolution can be defined as the formation of complex organism from simple
organism over a period of time. The raw materials for evolution are variations.
  Organic evolution primarily involves modifications in the existing organism and the inheritance
of these modifications.

Homologous Organs

 It is the type of organs which perform different functions in different animals but are structurally
similar.
 Example – Wings of a bat, the lateral fin of a whale, and the human arm [they all have similar
bone structure layout, butut they carry out distinct functions] – Homologous structures mean they
had come from a common ancestor.

Analogous Organs

 It is the type of organs which perform similar function in different animals but are structurally
different.
  Example – Bats ’wings & Files’ wings they both are used to help the creature fly but they have
different patterns of bone structure. The similarity of the function also reflects that they are
adapted to similar environment.

Vestigial Structures

 Vestigial structures are parts of an animal’s body that currently serve no purpose. In the species’
evolutionary past they served a function, but now are only relics.
 For example, many whales have a hop bone. This is useless in their aquatic environment now,
but millions of years ago their ancestors had legs and walked on land.
 There are 90 vestigial organs in human body. The appendix, coccyx, muscles that ears, muscles
that make hair raise up, little toe, wisdom teeth, and body hair are probably the most widely
known vestigial human organ. The formation of goose bumps in human under stress is a
vestigial reflex.
 Also, humans have a tail bone, which is a few fused vertebrae at the end of our spine.

Connecting Links

 The organism having the structures of two different groups are called connecting links.
 These explain the path of evolution.
 There are several theories that try to explain the mechanism of organic evolution.
 Theories of Evolution

Lamarckism

 Lamarckism is one of the earliest theories on evolution proposed by J.B.Lamarck. Lamarck

published his principles in the book, Philosophic Zoologique in 1809.
 According to Lamarckism, organic evolution occurs due to the “inheritance of acquired
characters”.
 According to Lamarck, continuous use of a part result in being a well-developed
developed and di
disuse of a
part over a long period of time results in its degeneration.
The principles of Lamarck are:
 Influence of the environment.
 Use and disuse of organs.
 Inheritance of acquired characters.

Darwinism

 The theory of natural selection was put forth by Charles Darwin in his book ‘On the Origin of
Species by Means of Natural Selection’, co-authored
co by Alfred Russel Wallace.
 According to Darwin, nature has its own ways of selecting the best from the availabl
available species for
continuation of life. The mechanism of natural selection works as follows:
 Individuals of a species produce more offspring than necessary to replace themselves.
 This results in competition and struggle for existence among the individuals. Wit
Within the species
itself, there are variations that result
r in minor differences amongg the individuals.
  Thus, in the struggle for existence only the ones with the variations best adapted to their
environment survival of the fittest”.
 Mutation theory proposed by Hugo DeVries attempts to find the sources of variations in
mutation occurring in individual organism.

Neo-Darwinism

 Neo-Darwinism is the modern theory on organic evolution that combines the ideas of
Darwinism and mutation theory.
 Neo-Darwinism attempts to explain evolution in terms of genotypic variations, natural selection
and isolation.
 The study of extinct organisms ( palaeontology) provides direct evidences in favour of evolution.
 Indirect evidences are available from the branches like morphysiology abd so on by a
comparative study of extint organism.
 Variations: The differences that occur in the characteristics between members of the same
species, form the raw materials for evolution.
 Variations can be stomach or blastogenic. Somatic variations are non-heritable, while
blastogenic variations are heritable.
 Mutations: Recombinations, genetic drift, natural selection and migration are the main sources
of variation.
 Origin of a new species from the existing one is called speciation. Speciation can be
multiplicative involving splitting of one species into two or more or phyletic involving
replacement of one species by another.
 Instant speciation may occur due to hybridization and polyploidy.
 Isolation is the separation of population by certain barriers, which prevent interbreeding.
 Isolation may occur due to geographical barriers such as land masses, mountains and rivers.
 Isolation may also be reproductive isolation. It may involve preventing of mating (pre-
reproductive) or mechanism that operate after mating (post-reproductive).
 Classification of Animals

Phylum-Protozoa

 Protozoa are microscopic and unicellular organism.

 The protoplasm is differentiated into an outer Ectoplasm and inner endoplasm.
 A protozoan has one or more than one nucleus.
 Locomotory organs are pseudopodia, cilia or flagella.
 Reproduction takes place by sexual or asexual method.
 Examples: Volvox, Euglena, Param-ecium, Amoeba, Stentor Sporozoa.

Phylum-Porifera

 This phylum consists of the sponges. Their bodies are porous.

 The number of species is estimated to be between 5,000 and 10,000.
 All are aquatic and almost all are marine.
 Examples: Sponges, Sycons etc.
Phylum-Cnidaria (Coelenterata)

 Cnidarians bodies typically take one of two forms: the polyp or the medusa. While the polyp
form is adapted for a sedentary or sessile lifestylem, the medusa from is adapted for floating or
free-swimming.
 Examples: This phylum consists of the jellyfish, hydra, sea anemones, corals, sea pens, sea
wasps, and box jellyfish.

Phylum – Platyhelminthes

 Most members of this phylum are parasitic (fluckes and tapeworms), but some are free living
(e.g., planaria). There are about 20,000 species.
 Platyhelminthes are hermaphroditic, and the parasitic species often have very complex
reproductive (life) cycles.
 Examples: Tapeworms, Flukes, Turbellaria
  Phylum Aschelminthes (Nematoda/Round worm)
 Free living nematodes are found in the sea, freshwater or in the soil in all kinds of environment.
 There are also many parasitic nematodes found in all groups of plants and animals.
 Body is long, cylindrical, fusiform (pointed at both the ends).
 The Saprophagous species live in decomposing plant and animal bodies and in rotting fruits.
 Examples : Ascaris (Round worms), Hookworms and Thread worms, etc.

Phylum – Annelida

 Free-living, terrestrial or aquatic form (freshwater or marine).

 Bilaterally symmetrical and vermiform.
 Body has more than two cell layers,, tissue and organs.
 Body possesses a through gut with mouth and anus.
 Has a nervous system with an anterior nerve ring, ganglia and a ventral nerve chord.
 Has a true closed circulatory system.
 Has no true respiratory organs.
 Examples: Nereis (ring worm), Pheretima, Megasloex, (earth worms), Hirudinaria (leech),
Polygrdius.
 Earth worms: Have 5 five hearts because they don’t have any lungs, so they need that much
blood to be pumped through their body.

Phylum – Arthropoda
  This phylum is the largest in the animal kingdom comprising of more than 75 % of the animal
species that has been identified.
 Arthropodas present three distinguishing features: they are metameric being (segmented body),
they have an exoskeleton made of chitin and they present articulated limbs.
 The body feature from which the phylum takes its name is the jointed appendages, which
include antennae and mouthparts as well as walking legs.
 The circulatory system is open and consists of a heart, arteries, and the open spaces of the
hemocoel.
 A cockroach has a single heart and thirteen chambers.
 Examples: Ants, files, cockroaches, shrimps, crabs, spiders and scorpions.

Phylum – Mollusca

 Free living aquatic forms (freshwater or marine), some amphibious.

 Body is soft and unsegmented enclosed in a glandular mantle covered usually by a shell.
 The soft-body is differentiated into three regions – head, visceral hump and foot.
 One of the largest phyla of invertebrate animals.
  Most molluscan blood contains a respiratory pigment called hemocyanin, a copper compound.
When oxygenated, such blood is bluish in colour; when deoxygenated, the blood is colourless.
 Examples: Clams, oysters, muscles, snails, slugs, squid, octopus, etc.

Phylum – Echinodermata

 Free living exclusively marine forms.

 Body is represented by a central disc covered by ossicles with spines called pedicellaria.
 Examples: starfish, sea urchin, sea cucumber, sea lily.

Phylum – Chordata

 Presences of a solid supporting structure on the dorsal side of the body called notochord.
 Presence of a dorsal hollow, tubular nerve cord.
 Presence of pharyngeal gill slits at least in the embryonic stages.
 Botany
Branches of Botany

 Botany is the branch of biology that deals with plants. It involves the study of the structure,
properties, and biochemical processes of all forms of plant life, including trees.
 Today, the principal branches of botanical study are morophology, physiology, ecology, and
systematic (the identification and ranking of all plants).
 Various subdisciplines include brylogy (the study of mosses and liverworsts), pteridology (the
study of ferns and their relatives), paleobotany (the study of fossil plants), and palynology (the
study of modern and fossil pollen and spores).
 In 1883, A.W. Eichler gave a system of classification for the whole plant kingdom. He classified
the plant kingdom into sub-kingdoms. They are Coyptogams and Phanerogames.

The cryptogams

 The Cryptograms are flowerless and seedless plants. They are simple plants like algae, mosses
and ferns while do not produce flowers, fruits and seeds. Crypotogams are considered as lower
plants.
 Algae are chlorophyll-bearing thallophytes. They, are mostly aquatic occurring in freshwater and
in sea. They exhibit autotrophic mode of nutrition.
 Bryophytes are the simplest land plants with undifferentiated plant body. They are adapted to
grow in water and on land.
 Pteridophyta are most advanced cryptogams. Vasucular tissues are present in the plant body.
Therefore, pteridophytes are also called vascular cryptogams.
Phanerogams

 They are seed-bearing plants.

 Gymnosperms are naked-seeded plants. The seeds are not enclosed in fruits.
 Angiosperms are flowering and seed-bearing plants.
 Plant Morphology

 Plant morphology or phytomor-phology is the study of the physical form and external structure
of plants. This is usually considered distinct from plant anatomy, which is the study of the
internal structure of plants, especially at the microscopic level.

The Root

 The root is underground part of the plant and develops from elongation of radical of the
embryo.
 It is non-green, positive geotropic and negative phototropic.
 Root provides stability, stores nutrients, and acts as the primary source of water and nutrient
acquisition.
 Two kinds of root systems can be distinguished in flowering plants: tap root system and
adventitious root system. Usually, dicotyledons possess tap root system and monocotyledons
adventitious root system.
 Modifications of Root: Roots are modified for support, storage of food, respiration.
 For support: Prop roots in banyan tree, stilt roots in maize and sugarcane.
 Forrespiration: Pneumatophores in Rhizophora (Mangrove).
 For storage of food: Fusiform (radish), Napiform (turnip), Conical (carrot).
The Stem

 Stem is the aerial part of the plant and develops from plumule of the embryo. It bears nodes
and internodes.
 It is negatively geotropic and positively phototropic.
 Modification of Stem: In some plants, the terms are modified to perform the function of storage
of food, support, protection and vegetative propagation.
 For Food Storage: Rhizome (ginger), Tuber (potato), Bulb (onion), Corm (colocasia).
 For Support: Stem tendrils of watermelon, grapevine, cucumber.
 For Protection: Auxillary buds of stem of citrus, Bougainvillea get modified into pointed thorns.
They protect the plants from animals.
 For Vegetative Propagation: Underground steam of grass, strawberry, lateral branches of mint
and jasmine.
 For Assimilation of Food: Flattened stem of Opuntia contains chlorophyll and performs photo-
synthesis.

The Leaf
  Develops from shoot apical meristem, flattened, green structure, manufactures the food by
photosynthesis. It has bud in axil. A typical leaf has leaf base, petiole and lamina.
 A leaf has three main parts – Leaf base, petiole and leaf lamina. In addition, it may process two
laterial outgrowths of the leaf base, called stipules.
 Venation: The arrangement of veins and veinlets in the lamina of leaf.
 Modifications of Leaves
 Tendrils: (Climbing) – Sweet wild pea
 Spines: (Protection) – Aloe, Opuntia, Argemone
 Pitcher: (Nutrition) – Nepenthes
 Hook: (Support) – Cat’s nail
 Inflorescence: The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis.

The Flower

 A flower is amodified shoot. It is a reproductive unit in angiosperms.

 Flowers may be unisexual or bisexual, bracteates or ebracteate.
 A typical flower has four different kinds of whorls arranged successively on the swollen end of
the stalk or pedicel. These are calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium are reproductive.
 In a flower, there are 4 types of floral leaves:
 Sepal * Petal * Stamen * Carpel

The fruit

 The mature ripened ovary develops into fruit. The parthenocarpic fruits are formed
formed from ovary
without fertilsation.
Fruits are many types

 Simple fruit – formed from a single pistil (lily, apple, cucumber).

 Aggregate fruit – formed from a cluster of separate pistils borne in a single flower (raspberry).
 Multiple fruit – formed from the pistils of several to many flowers consolidated with other floral
or inflorescence parts.
 Berry – few to many seeded, fruit coat soft and fleshy throughout (grape, banana)
 Drupe – usually 1-seeded, fruit coat with fleshy outer and inner stony layers (peach, plum, olive,
raspbherry, almond).
 Pomes – are fleshy fruits with a paper-like core. With its contained seeds (lily).
 Accessory fruit – composed of the ripened ovary with other additional parts, such as receptacle,
bract, portions of perianth, etc. (apple, cucumber, fig).
 Achene – 1-seeded, fruit coat free from seed coat (buttercup, sunflower)
 Caryopsis (grain) – 1-seeded, fruit coat fused with seed coat (corn, wheat).
 Samara – 1-seeded, fruit with wing like outgrowth (ash).
 Nut – 1-seeded, thick hard wall, partially or completely surrounded by cup or husk (oak, hickory,
walnut).
 Follicle – single carpel splitting along one side only (milkweed, magnolia).
 Legume – single carpel splitting along both sides (bean).
 Capsule – compound pistil, splitting lengthwise or by pores (lily, iris, poppy).
 Classification of Fruits

The seed

 The ovules after fertilization develop into seeds.

 A seed is made up of seed coat and an embryo.
 An embryo is made up of an embryonic axis having plumule and redicle with one or two
cotyledons (One cotyledon Example – Maize, Two cotyled Example – Pea).
 After fertilization, the ovary is converted into fruits and ovules into seeds. Seed either may br
monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous. They vary in shape, size and period of viability.
 An insectivorous plant also called a carnivorous plant, captures prey items, such as insects,
spiders, crustances, mites and protozoans as a nitrogen source.
 Many insectivorous species live in freshwater bogs, where nitrogen is not present in adequate
amount, because the pH of the water is extremely acidic.
 Plant physiology is a discipline of Botany which deals with the functioning and physiology of
plants.
 Fundamental processes of plants like photosynthesis, plant nutrition, respiration, function of
plant hormones, tropism, photoperiodism, photomorphogenesis, environmental stress, seed
germination, transpiration and plant water relations are studied under plant physiology.
Photosynthesis


 Photo’ refers to light and ‘synthesis’ means preparation. Thus, photosynthesis is the process by
which the green plants use light energy of the Sun to synthesise carbohydrates. Carbohydrates
like the simple sugar (glucose) can be stored as starch.
 The green plants synthesise food by photosynthesis. Thus, photosynthesis is the most important
life sustaining process of nature.
 Photosynthesis is a series of biochemical reaction which can be essentially summarized as
follows:
 Thus, photosynthesis can be defined as a process which utlises carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll to synthesise carbohydrates like glucose.
 Genetics
 Genetics deals with the inheritance as well as the variation of characters from parents to
offspring.
 Inheritance is the process by which characters are passed on from parent to progeny.
 Variation is the degree by which progeny differ from their parents.
 William Bateson was the first person to use the term “genetics” to describe the study of
heredity and biological inheritance and the chief populariser of the ideas of Gregor Mendel
following their rediscovery in 1900 by Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns. Thomas Sutton in 1902
proposed that genes are located on chromosomes.

Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance

 Gregor Mendal conducted hybridization experiments on “garden peas” for seven years (1856-
1863) and proposed “laws of inheritance”.
 Mendel proposed that something was being stably passed down, unchanged, from parent to
offspring through the gametes, over successive generations. He called these things as ‘factors’.
 Now-a-days, we call them as genes.
 Genes therefore are the units of inheritance.
 Genes which code of a pair of contrasting traits are known as alleles, i.e. they are slightly
different forms of the same gene.

Law of Dominance

 Characters are controlled by discrete units called factors.

 Factors occur in pairs.
  In a dissimilar pair dominates (dominant) the other (recessive).

Law of Segregation

 The alleles do not show any blending and that both the characters are recovered as such in the
F2 generation though one of these is not seen at the F1 stage.
 The parents contain two alleles during gamete formation; the factors or alleles of a pair
segregate or separate from each other such that a gamete receive only one of the two factors.
 Homozygous parent products all gametes that are similar i.e contain same type of allele.
  Heterozygous parent produces two kinds of gametes each having one allele with equal
proportion.

Law of recombination

 Two characters determined by two unlinked genes are recombined at random in gametic
formation, so that they segregate independently of each other, according to the first law.

Sex Determination in Human Being

 The sex of an individual is determined by the chromosomes, a thread-like structure present

inside the nucleus of the body.
 A normal human being consists of 23 pairs of chromosomes. Amoung them, 22 pairs are
autosomes responsible for the expression of body characters and one pair of chromosome is sex
chromosome which determines the sex of an individual person.
 Males consist of xy chromosome and females consist of xx chromosome as sex chromosomes.
During gamete formation, only one of the either chromosome in male or female enters into
each gamete. So the gametes (sperm and egg) consist of one set of chromosome (haploid). In
the checker board, it is clearly given that the X-chromosome which fuses with Y-chromosome
can only produce a male child.
 A male child can get the Y-chromosome only from the sperm of a male parent and not from a
female parent who has two X-chromosomes
 Biotechnology

Techniques of Biotechnology

 Biotechnology deals with techniques of using live organism or enzymes from organism to
produce products and processes useful to humans.
 Two Core Techniques that enabled birth of modern biotechnology:
 Genetic Engineering: Techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material (DNA and RNA). The
techniques of genetic engineering includes creation of recombinant DNA, use of gene cloning
and gene transfer.
 Maintenance of Sterile: (microbial contamination-free) ambient chemical engineering processes
to enable growth of only the desired microbe/eukaryotic cell in large quantities.

Gene Therapy
 Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual’s cells and tissues to treat diseases
especially hereditary diseases. It does so by replacing a defective mutant allele with a functional
one or gene targeting which involves gene amplification. Viruses that attack their genetic
material into the hosts and introduce their genetic material into the host cell as part of their
replication cycle are used as vectors to transfer healthy genes or more recent portions of genes.
 Recombinant DNA technology has made it possible to engineer microbes, plants and animals
such that they have novel capabilities. Since the recombinant therapeutics are identical to
human proteins, they do not introduce unwanted immunological responses and are free from
risk of infection as was observed in case of similar products isolated from non-human sources.
Human insulin is made in bacteria, yet its structure is absolutely identical to that of the natural
molecule.
 Genetically Modified Organism have been created by using methods other than natural
methods to transfer one or more genes from one organism to other, generally using techniques
such as Recombinant DNA technology.
 Animals that have had their DNA manipulated to prossess and express an extra (foreign) gene
are known as transgenic animals.
 GM plants have been useful in increasing crop yields, reduce post-harvest losses and make crops
more tolerant of stress.
 Recombinant DNA technology has made it possible to engineer microbes, plants and animals
such that they have novel capabilities. Since the recombinant therapeutics are identical to
human proteins, they do not introduce unwanted immunological responses and are free from
risk of infection as was observed in case of similar products isolated from non-human sources.
Human insulin is made in bacteria, yet its structure is absolutely identical to that of the natural
molecule.
 Genetically Modified Organism have been created by using methods other than natural
methods to transfer one or more genes from one organism to other, generally using techniques
such as Recombinant DNA technology.
 Animals that have had their DNA manipulated to prossess and express an extra (foreign) gene
are known as transgenic animals.
 Bt Toxin is produced by a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt for short). Bt toxin gene has
been expressed in plants to provide resistance to insects without the need for insecticides; in
 effect created a bio-pesticide. Examples are Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato, potato and
soyabean, etc.

Cloning

 Cloning is the process by which an entire organism is reproduced from a single cell taken from
the parent organism and in a genetically identical manner.
 This means the cloned animal is an exact copy in every way of its parent.
 Molecular Cloning: Molecular cloning focuses on making identical copies of DNA molecules. This
type of cloning is also called as reproductive cloning.
 Therapeutic Cloning: Therapeutic cloning involves the cloning of human embryos for the
production of stem cells. The embryos are eventually destroyed in this process.
 Dolly was a female domestic sheep and the first mammal to be cloned from an adult somatic
cell, using the process of nuclear transfer. She was cloned by Ian Wilmut, Keith Campbell and
their colleagues.
 Noori is a female pashmina goat, the first pashmina goat to be cloned using the process of
nuclear transfer. Shah and six other scientists at Sher-i-Kashmir University took two years to
clone Noori, using the relatively new ‘handmade’ cloning technique involving only a microscope
and a steady hand.

Test Tube Baby

 The technique of in-vitro fertilization and in-vitro development followed by the embryo transfer
in the uterus of the normal female to start the development and finally leading to normal birth
is called test tube baby.
 It is basically conceived by artificial insemination.
 Methodology involves the following steps:
 Removal of unfertilized ovum from reproductive tract of a female.
 Ovum is kept under aseptic conditions.
 Fusion of sperm and ovum in a culture medium, outside the female body to form the zygote.
 Zygote is stimulated to develop in vitro p to 32-celled stage.
 Developing embryo is implanted on the endometrium of the uterus at 32-celled stage. So, the
pregnancy in the woman starts and further the development of the child continues in the womb
till it is born.
 Methodology involves the following steps:
 Removal of unfertilized ovum from reproductive tract of a female.
 Ovum is kept under aseptic conditions.
 Fusion of sperm and ovum in a culture medium, outside the female body to form the zygote.
 Zygote is stimulated to develop in vitro p to 32-celled stage.
 Developing embryo is implanted on the endometrium of the uterus at 32-celled stage. So, the
pregnancy in the woman starts and further the development of the child continues in the womb
till it is born.
 The world’s first test tube baby (a baby girl) named as Louise Joy Brown was born on July 25,
1978 in Great Britain.
 India’s first test tube baby was born in Kolkata on October 3rd, 1978. Her name is Durga.
 Agriculture and Animal Husbandry

Agriculture

 Agriculture is the mainstay of India.

 Agriculture and allied sectors are the important source of raw material and demand for many
industrial products, particularly fertilizers, pesticides, agricultural implements and a variety of
consumer goods.
 They contribute nearly 22% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of India. About 65-70% of the
population is dependent on agriculture of their livelihood.
 The agricultural crop year in India is from July to June. The Indian cropping season is classified
into three main seasons (i) Kharif and (ii) Rabi based on the monsoon and (iii) zaid crops.
 The Kharif cropping season is from July-October during the south-west mansoon and include
rice, maize, sorghum, pearl millet/bajra, finger millet/ragi (cereals), arhar (pulses), soyabean,
groundnut (oilseeds), cotton etc.
 The Rabi cropping season is from October-March (winter). The crops growth between AMarch
and June are summer crops. The rabi crops include wheat, barley, oats (cerals), chickpea/gram
(pulses), linseed, mustard (oilseeds) etc.
 Zaid Crops: In india, the crops grown on irrigated lands which do not have to wait for monsoons,
in the short duration between rabi and Kharif crop season, mainly from Zadi crops. The zaid
crops are two types – Zaid kharif crops and Zaid rabi crops. Examples- Musk-melon, Water-
melon, gourd, etc.

Animal Husbandry

 Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock by applying
scientific methods.
 Animal husbandry includes domestication of animals to obtain animal products like milk, meat,
wool, skin and hyde etc. and to use them for draught and transportation.
 India has about 20 per cent of the world’s cattle population.
 Cattle population in India belongs to three: breeds These include: (i) milich breed, (ii) draught
breed, and (iii) mixed or general breed.
 At last, due to ecological imbalance, climate change, global warming and green house effect
affect the physical pattern which needs to be dealt very cautiously in order to feed the people.