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TEMPERATURE
Fahrenheit and Celsius Scales
Temperature is a measure of the degree of heat contained in a substance. Canada and almost
every other country except the United States use the Celsius (°C) temperature scale. In the
United States, Fahrenheit (°F) is still the official temperature scale, but more and more, you
see both °F and °C given together. Eventually, the United States will convert to the metric
system and use the Celsius (°C) scale.
In the Celsius scale, water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C. There’s logic to that. In the
Fahrenheit scale, water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F. There’s no logic to that. If you
work with the Celsius scale, you will soon learn that you are comfortable at 20°C and feel too
hot at 30°C.
°F = (1.8 x °C) + 32
For example, what is the temperature in Fahrenheit if the room temperature is 21°C?
°F = (1.8 x °C) + 32
°F = (1.8 x 21°C) + 32
°F = 69.8
The Kelvin scale and Rankine scale are used for scientific and engineering work.
Kelvin and Rankine Scales
Both of these scales have absolute zero as their minimum point. Absolute zero is the
theoretical temperature at which a substance would contain no heat and the molecular
particles in the substance are not moving. In theory, that’s as low a temperature as can be
reached. The Kelvin scale uses the same graduations as the Celsius scale. The Rankine scale
uses the Fahrenheit graduations.
Ambient Temperature
You will hear the term ambient air or ambient temperature, such as, “the ambient
temperature should not exceed 104°F (40°C).” In HVAC work it means the temperature of
the air surrounding the equipment.
HUMIDITY
Humidity is the amount of moisture in the air. In air conditioning we are concerned with the
relative humidity of the air. Relative humidity (rh) is the percent of moisture in the air as
compared to 100 percent of the moisture that air at that temperature can hold:
• An air measurement of 70°F, 50 percent rh means that the air contains 50 percent of the
moisture that the air is capable of holding at 70°F.
The amount of moisture that air can hold varies with the temperature. The warmer the air is,
the more moisture it can hold. For example, suppose that air at 60°F has an RH of 50 percent.
If the temperature rises to 80°F, the rh will decrease to 27 percent. The relative humidity has
gone down, but the amount of moisture in the air remains the same.
HEAT
Above absolute zero, every substance contains some heat. Things that feel cold still contain
heat. It‘s just that the amount of heat they hold (as measured by temperature) is less than the
temperature of our body. For example, ice contains some heat - but it contains less heat than
the same amount of water.
The unit of heat used in the United States is the British thermal unit (Btu). The unit of heat
in the metric system is the joule, or the kilojoule (kj), which is 1,000 joules:
• A Btu is the heat that will raise the temperature of one pound of water 1°F. It is roughly
equal to the heat you would get by totally burning a wooden match.
• A kilojoule is the rough equivalent of one Btu. To be more exact, one Btu is 1.055 kj.
You may want to remember these equivalents:
• 1 Btu = about 1kj = Heat needed to raise 1 lb. of water 1°F = About the heat of
burning one wooden match.
The capacity of refrigeration units is often rated in tons. For example, a chiller for a medium-
size commercial building might be rated at 200 tons. The term tons of refrigeration is also
used to refer to the cooling load on a room or building. One ton of refrigeration is the
amount of latent heat absorbed when one ton of ice at 32°F melts to water at 32°F during 24
hours. (Latent heat is explained later in this article.) One ton of refrigeration equals 12,000
Btu per hour (Btuh).
Delta T,
The difference between two temperatures is called the T, pronounced delta T. A technician
might take the air temperature on the upstream and downstream sides of a cooling coil. The
difference between the two temperatures is the T.
HEAT FLOW
There is a saying, “Heat flows downhill.” This means that heat always flows from a warmer
to a cooler solid, liquid, or gas. The greater the T , the faster the heat flow. Heat flow is a
basic principle of refrigeration - in fact, of all HVAC work. For example, in the refrigeration
cycle, the evaporator (cooling coil) is colder than the air flowing around it, so heat flows from
the warmer air into the evaporator. The air-cooled condenser in the cycle is hotter than the
ambient air, so heat flows from the hot condenser to the cooler ambient air.
HEAT TRANSFER
We just talked about heat flow. Heat transfer is the method by which heat flows. This is
another basic principle of refrigeration. The evaporator transfers heat into the refrigerant; the
refrigerant transfers this heat to the condenser; the condenser transfers the heat to a cooling
medium (such as water or outside air).
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
Conduction
Conduction is the flow of heat through a substance by contact of particles. If you hold one
end of an iron bar and heat the other end with a torch, soon the end you are holding will
become too hot to hold. This is because heat has transferred from one end of the bar to the
other by conduction. Heat from hot refrigerant transfers by conduction through the metal of a
condenser coil to the outside of the coil.
Convection
Convection is basically the transfer of heat by movement of a gas or a liquid. The heat that
travels through the walls of a condenser coil by conduction is carried into the air by
convection. The heat from HVAC supply air that is delivered into a room through an air
outlet moves throughout the room by convection, moving on air currents.
Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic energy. The rays from the sun turn into
heat when they strike an object that they cannot pass through. On a sunny day, any metal
exposed to the sun will become hot to the touch because of heat transfer by radiation.
• On a sunny day, the sun’s rays heat the outside of a building by radiation.
• This heat flows through the walls of the building by conduction to the interior surface of the
outside wall.
• The heat from the wall is transferred to the air in the building by convection.
SPECIFICS
When you see the word specific in terms like specific heat, specific volume, and specific
gravity, you know that it is a means of comparing values to a standard.
Specific Heat
The specific heat of a substance is the heat required to raise one pound of the substance 1°F.
The specific heat of water is 1. This means that 1 Btu will raise the temperature of one
pound of water 1°F.
The specific heat of liquid R-134a refrigerant is 0.34. This means that only 0.34 Btu is
required to raise the temperature of one pound of R-134a refrigerant 1°F. The specific heat of
standard air is 0.24 Btu per pound per degree Fahrenheit.
In the metric system, specific heat is stated as the amount of heat that must be added to one
kilogram of the substance to raise the temperature 1°K (Kelvin). The specific heat of water is
4.187 kj/kg °K (kilajoules per kilogram, Kelvin).
Specific Volume
The specific volume of a gas is the volume in cubic feet of one pound of a gas at standard
conditions (70°F at 14.7 psi). Compare the specific volumes of the following three gases:
These values show that hydrogen is much lighter than air and that carbon dioxide is heavier
than air.
Specific volume in the metric system is the volume in cubic millimeters of one kilogram of
the gas at standard conditions.
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a liquid or solid as compared to an equal volume
of water. The specific gravity of water is 1. Any solid or liquid that has a specific gravity of
less than 1 will float on water. Compare the specific gravities of the following three
substances:
These figures show that gasoline is lighter than water so it will float on water. Muriatic acid
is heavier than water so it will sink to the bottom of a container of water.
PRESSURE
To understand the refrigeration cycle, you must understand pressure and the terms used with
pressure. In the HVAC industry, pressure is measured in three ways:
• A glass tube is inserted into the mercury. The bottom of the tube is open and the top is
closed.
• The atmospheric pressure at sea level will push the mercury up into the tube to 29.92
inches. This is the same as the atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi.
• The glass tube is open at the top and connected to a tank by a hose.
• When a vacuum pump draws the air out of the tank, a negative pressure is created.
• This negative pressure draws the mercury up into the tube. In Figure 3, the vacuum in the
tank has drawn the mercury up to the 4.5 inch mark, so the vacuum in the tank is read as 4.5
inches Hg vac.
Mercury is a hazardous material, so in daily practice, other gauges are used to determine
negative pressures. However, measurements are still indicated in inches Hg. A compound
gauge can be used to measure pressure greater than zero in psi as well as pressures less than
zero in inches Hg vacuum.
• This pressure is connected to a U-shaped glass tube that is filled with water.
• The difference in height of the two water columns is the pressure in inches wg.
Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s Law says that if you apply pressure to a fluid (liquid or gas) in a confined container,
the fluid will apply the same pressure in all directions. This is why hydraulic systems work.
Refrigeration systems also operate on this principle. The refrigerant liquid and vapor fill the
available space.
You will not need to use Pascal‘s Law, but you should know what it refers to.
PRESSURES YOU NEED TO KNOW
Pressure is pressure - right? WRONG! You will be dealing with three different pressure
measurements.
• Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure placed on us by the atmosphere. Air has weight, and
at sea level, the weight of the air above us results in a pressure on us of 14.7 psi (or 29.92
inches Hg).
Elevation affects atmospheric pressure. As we go higher above sea level, there is less air
above us and therefore less pressure. At 5,000 feet elevation, atmospheric pressure is 12.23
psi (compared to 14.7 psi at sea level).
Temperature also affects atmospheric pressure. As air heats up, it expands and therefore
weighs less. (That is why hot air tends to rise.)
Standard air is dry air at sea level with a temperature of 70°F. It has a pressure of 14.7 psi.
For air conditioning calculations, the value of standard air is used for altitudes up to 2,000 ft.
and for temperatures between 40°F and 100°F.
Variations in pressure are important for refrigeration work. Refrigerant changes state (boils)
at a lower temperature when it is at a higher elevation which has less atmospheric pressure.
Gauge Pressure
The pressure you see on gauges is the pressure above or below atmospheric pressure. Gauge
pressure is the pressure in a system (apart from atmospheric pressure). It can be indicated by
the term psig (pounds per square inch gauge). In other words, 100 psig is 100 psi greater than
atmospheric pressure.
The pressure reading for a gauge is generally given as psi, although it is understood that it
means psig (gauge pressure).
Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. It is indicated by the
term psia (pounds per square inch absolute). A gauge pressure of 100 psig is the same as
114.7 psia (100 psi + 14.7 psi atmospheric pressure).
As pressure decreases, the change-of-state temperature also decreases. For example, at sea
level, water boils at 212°F. At 5,000 feet, water boils at 202°F. This principle is applied in the
refrigeration system:
• When the pressure is decreased, the refrigerant condenses or boils at a lower temperature.
The relationship between pressure and temperature allows the refrigeration system to make
use of the latent heat absorbed or released by a change of state.
LATENT HEAT
There are three states of a substance:
• Solid
• Liquid
• Gas
• Solid - Ice
• Liquid - Water
The term vapor can mean the same as gas, or it can mean a gas with droplets of liquid
suspended in it (also called wet vapor). The term vapor is used with refrigerants in the
refrigeration cycle.
Latent heat is the heat released or absorbed by a substance when it changes state, with no
change in temperature. For example:
If a pound of water is heated to 212°F, it will start to turn to steam. The temperature of the
steam will be the same as the water - 212°F. When the entire pound of water has evaporated
to steam, it will contain an additional 970 Btu. If you let the steam cool, it will condense back
to water and it will have released 970 Btu/lb.
When ice changes to water or water changes to ice, a latent heat of 144 Btu/lb is absorbed or
released by the same process:
Latent heat is the basis of refrigeration, because it means that relatively large amounts of heat
can be transferred using relatively small changes in temperature.
Each substance has different latent heat values. For example, compare the latent heat of
vaporization for water and Refrigerant R-134a:
The refrigerants (such as R-134a) have a lower amount of latent heat of vaporization
than water. However, in the refrigerants the change of state occurs at a lower
temperature and higher pressure. That is why they are used for the refrigeration
process.
HEAT OF COMPRESSION
When a gas is compressed, the energy used to compress it is turned into sensible heat and is
absorbed by the gas. This is the heat of compression. In the refrigeration cycle, the
compressor adds pressure to the low-pressure refrigerant vapor that comes from the
evaporator. This adds the heat of compression to the refrigerant, and this heat is transferred
from the refrigerant into the air by the condenser.
ENTHALPY
For all practical purposes, enthalpy is the total heat content of a substance:
• The enthalpy of a vapor = the sensible heat plus the latent heat that was required to form the
vapor at that temperature.
Engineers use enthalpy in design work, but it is not used in the field.
What Are the Different Types of Refrigeration
Systems?
While the four types of refrigeration systems have many similarities, they have just
as many differences. To help you get ahead of the curve, we’ve broken down each
one in some summaries below.
The most widely used refrigeration cycle method is mechanical compression. It has
applications in both air conditioning and commercial and industrial refrigeration.
Like all liquids, they absorb heat when they boil into a gas and release it when they
condense back into a liquid.
The basics of the process deal with moving the refrigerant from the low-pressure
side of the closed system to the high-pressure side. The liquid refrigerant boils at
40°F on the low-pressure side and absorbs heat from the warm indoor air.
On the high-pressure side of the system, the heat travels from the 110°F vapor
refrigerant to the cooler outdoor air, and the process repeats.
Part 2: Condensation
The high pressure, high temperature gas releases heat energy and condenses
inside the "condenser" portion of the system. The condenser is in contact with the
hot reservoir of the refrigeration system. (The gas releases heat into the hot
reservoir because of the external work added to the gas.) The refrigerant leaves as
a high pressure liquid.
Part 3: Throttling
The liquid refrigerant is pushed through a throttling valve, which causes it to
expand. As a result, the refrigerant now has low pressure and lower temperature,
while still in the liquid phase. (The throttling valve can be either a thin slit or some
sort of plug with holes in it. When the refrigerant is forced through the throttle, its
pressure is reduced, causing the liquid to expand.)
Part 4: Evaporation
The low pressure, low temperature refrigerant enters the evaporator, which is in
contact with the cold reservoir. Because a low pressure is maintained, the
refrigerant is able to boil at a low temperature. So, the liquid absorbs heat from the
cold reservoir and evaporates. The refrigerant leaves the evaporator as a low
temperature, low pressure gas and is taken into the compressor again, back at the
beginning of the cycle.
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Fridge system
Absorption Refrigeration
These systems rely on the process of absorption and heat, instead of an electrically
powered mechanical compressor, to move the refrigerant from the low-pressure side
to the high-pressure side. Unlike mechanical-compression refrigeration systems,
which typically use R-22 and R-410A for refrigerants, absorption refrigeration
systems use refrigerants that other substances are attracted to and absorb.
For example, residential HVAC chillers often use ammonia as the refrigerant and
water as the absorbent. The water is located in a component called the absorber,
where it sucks ammonia from the low-pressure side of the system and removes heat
while absorbing it. A pump sends the water-ammonia solution to a generator, which
boils it, separating the ammonia from the water before sending it to the high-
pressure side.
In addition to the process of absorption, heat is also used to move the refrigerant
throughout the system. The heat can derive from hot water, steam, natural gas or
other fuel sources.
Evaporative Cooling
The water absorbs the heat from the air and evaporates. The cooler air is channeled
into the home and the warm air out of it.
Evaporative coolers can reduce air temperature by 15° to 40°F but are best suited
for dry climates, such as those in the southwestern U.S. They’re also less costly to
install and use about a quarter of the energy of central air conditioners.
Thermoelectric Refrigeration
Thermoelectric refrigeration systems are unique from the three other types of
refrigeration in that no refrigerant or water is used. These systems use an electric
current and a thermocouple.
A thermocouple is made up of two different metal wires that are united at both ends.
Insulation separates the rest of the wires from each other. When the current is
directed on the thermocouple, one end will become hot and the other cool.
Reversing the current’s direction has the effect of swapping the cold and hot
junctions. The hot end will typically be placed outside of the area to be cooled with a
heat sink attached to it to keep it the same temperature as the surrounding air.
The cold side, which is below room temperature, is placed in the area to be cooled,
attracting heat out of the air.
This type of refrigeration is generally used for small cooling loads that can be difficult
to access, such as electronic systems.
The high pressure and medium temperature air then enters the
throttling valve (also called expander), where its pressure is
reduced suddenly and due to this its temperature also becomes
very low. The low temperature and low pressure gas then enters
the other heat exchanger (also called refrigerator) which
performs the function similar to the evaporator in vapor
compression cycle. The gas absorbs the heat from the
substance to be cooled and becomes hotter, while the
substance becomes cooler. There is no change in phase of the
gas in this heat exchanger. The high pressure and high
temperature gas then enters the compressor where the cycle
repeats.
CLASSIFICATION OF REFRIGERANTS
Primary refrigerants (Refrigerants that directly take part in the
refrigeration process).
Secondary refrigerants (refrigerants that are first cooled by the primary
refrigerants and then further used for cooling purpose).
Azeotropic mixture is a mixture of two or more liquids which, when mixed in precise proportion,
form a compound having a boiling temperature which is independent of the boiling temperature of
the individual liquids.
Hydrocarbons:
Most of the organic compounds are considered as refrigerant under this group. Most of them
possess satisfactory thermodynamic-properties but are highly flammable.
Inorganic compuounds:
The refrigerants under this group were universally used for all purposes before the introduction of
halo-carbon. refrigerants. Earlier they were used for different purposes due to their inherent thermo-
dynamic and physical properties, for example:
NH3 -33.30C
R-12 -29.80C
R-22 -41.30C
R-134a -26.220C
R-302 -45.60C
CO2 -78.00C
NH3 -77.80C
R-12 -157.80C
R-22 -1600C
CO2 -56.70C
SO2 -75.600C
The operating range is one of the major and important considerations in the selection of refrigerant
for the economical functioning of the refrigeration system. The pressure ranges for different
refrigerants are as follows.
The extreme pressure of CO2 for the normal working temperature range, as is evident from the
above table, make it suitable refrigerant.
High difference between the evaporator and condenser pressure results in high compression ratio.
The power required to run the compressor increases with increasing ratio. High pressure ratio also
requires more power and gives low volumetric efficiency.
The toxic effect of the refrigerant on the human body is one of the major considerations in the
selection of the refrigerant. This is because of the possibility of leakage of the refrigerant from the
refrigerant system. Toxicity of the refrigerant may cause the injury to the human body or even death
depending upon its percentage in air. It increase suffocation and poisons the air used for breathing.
The toxic effects of different refrigerants are listed below:
NH3 0.5 30
R-12 30 120
CO2 30 30-60
SO2 0.7 05
As is evident from the above table CO2 & R-12 are the least-toxic refrigerant.
(B)Flammability:
An ideal refrigerant should not have any danger of explosion in the presence of air or when exposed
to lubricating oil. Most of the commonly used refrigerants such as freons are non flammable.
Ammonia and methyl chloride burn with certain concentrations in the air. The refrigerants from
the family of hydrocarbon are highly flammable.
The refrigerant must be chemically inert with the materials used for the refrigeration system.
At the same time these materials must also be chemically inert in the presence of water or air. The
Freon refrigerant are non corrosive with all commonly used materials in the construction of
refrigeration system such as brass, copper, zinc, iron, tin,lead & aluminium.However these
refrigerants become acidic in presence of air and water. Therefore aluminium and magnesium must
not be used with freon refrigerants as they are readily attacked by acids. Freons also have high
solvent action on natural rubber so that synthetic rubber is used for gaskets.
Iron and steel are commonly used with ammonia refrigerant as it reacts with copper, brass and other
copper alloys in the presence of water.
(D) Chemical Stability:
An ideal refrigerant should be chemically stable and should not decompose at temperatures normall
encountered in the refrigeration system.
Freon refrigerant are unstable above 600°C but such temperature are never reached in a
refrigeration system under normal working conditions.
Ammonia gets readily dissolved in water and become alkaline in nature. Most vegetables, fruits
and meat products are slightly acidic in nature and when exposed ammonia reacts with these
products and spoils the taste.
Freons have no effect on food, meats, vegetables, flowers and dairy products. There will not be any
change in color taste or texture of stored products which is exposed to Freon.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
(A) Specific volume:
Low specific volume of the refrigerant at the suction into compressor is always desirable, because
it reduces the size of the compressor for the same refrigeration capacity. The reciprocating
compressors are always used for refrigerants with low specific volume at suction whereas the
centrifugal compressors are desirable for refrigerants with high specific volume. .
The volume of vapor per ton of refrigeration per hour for different refrigerants is as listed below:
NH3 1.56
R-12 5.58
CO2 9.45
SO2 5.85
The low specific heat of liquid refrigerants helps in increasing the sub cooling of liquid and high
specific heat of vapor helps in decreasing the super heating of vapor.
A refrigerant having both above properties gives considerably high refrigerating effect per kg of
refrigerant.
(D) Viscosity:
This property of refrigerant in both states carries importance for calculating heat transfer
coefficients in evaporators and condensers. This data is necessary for designing the pumping units
of the system. Low viscosity of the refrigerant in both states are desirable. For better heat transfer
and low power requirement for pumping operation.
The dielectric strength of different refrigerant vapors is compared with the dielectric strength of
nitrogen and ratio of two is termed as relative dielectric strength. The relative dielectric strength of
different refrigerant vapors are shown below.
Relative Dielelectric
strength 0.88 2.40 1.31 2.60
OTHER PROPERTIES
(A)Odour :
Odour of a refrigerant may be an advantageous or disadvantageous. Distinct odour of
the refrigerant helps in detecting the leak of the refrigerant.
Some refrigerant having specific odour spoils the refrigerated products when they come in contact
with them. Some eatables such as meat and butter which are highly sensitive to odour lose their
taste when exposed to NH3 and SO2.
In small concentration, NH3 has a pleasant odour but it becomes irritating with an increase in
concentration.
SO2 has very irritating and obnoxious odour even with very small concentrations.
The freons R-12, R-22, R-113 are more or less odourless.
refrigerants are listed below when the evaporating temperature is -15°C and condensing temp. is
+30°C.
Refrigerant Carnot NH3 CO2 R-12 R-22
The refrigerants NH3 & CO2 are Immiscible refrigerants. All Freons and most refrigerants from
hydrocarbon group are miscible. High viscous oil must be used with miscible refrigerants as the
effect of miscibility is to reduce the viscosity.
(E) Cost & Availability :
The refrigerant must be readily available and at a reasonable price. The cost of the refrigerant is
not very important in small units as the amount of refrigerant required for make up, in the event of
leakage occurring in the system is small.
The cost of the refrigerant, a high capacity refrigerating system is very important. The relatively
cost of the three commonly used refrigerants are as follows:
IMPORTANT REFRIGERANTS
AMMONIA (NH3)
Important properties of ammonia as refrigerants are as follows:
(1)it is toxic,flammable, irritating;and reacts with food products and spoils their taste.
(2)Anhydrous ammonia has no effect on lubricating oil but in presence of moisture, ammonia forms
an emulsion with oil that causes operating difficulties. The formed emulsion becomes effective
when the percentage of water exceeds 0.01%. It is not miscible with oil.
(3) It is highly volatile and becomes explosive when mixed with air and compressed therefore
air leaks must be avoided in ammonia refrigeration system.
(4)Ammonia attacks non-ferrous metals in the presence of water therefore copper and brass are
never used with ammonia refrigeration system.
(5) Ammonia can be used economically for -70°C evaporator temperature and its application for
further low temperature becomes highly economical and maintaining low vacuum required in the
evaporator becomes difficult.
The major engineering disadvantage of ammonia is its highly discharge temperature which
requires more efficient separators and can cause carbonization problems when it is single staged
with high compression ratio.
Ammonia has never been a popular refrigerant for marine use owing to its irritant and toxic
properties in the event of . a leak. However it does have cost advantage for large installations.
operating at low temperature e.g. fishing vessel. Any engineer in the. event of being posted to an
ammonia plant should ensure that all pressure relief devices (bursting disc and relief valves) are
correctly installed and piped to atmosphere so that in case of their relieving an excessive pressure
there will be no escape of gas-into the machinery space.
(2) It is chemically stable under all pressure and temperature conditions occurring in the System. It
is non reactive either with metals or oil in presence of air and water,therefore any metal can be used
With refrigerant.
(3) It is immiscible in oil and therefore will not dilute the, oil in the crankcase of the compressor.
(4)The major drawback of CO2 as a refrigerant is its bad thermodynamic properties. The very high
working pressures involved necessitate very rugged compressor, heavy piping and
robust condenser and evaporator as well as high power requirement.
(5) Another major disadvantage of this refrigerant is the requirement of low temperature coolant in
the condenser because of its low critical temperature.
REFRIGERATION-12(Ccl2F2)
Historically R-12 has been the first of the halogenated hydrocarbon refrigerants to become widely
available at reasonable cost and has been the most popular refrigerant of this group. The important
preperties of R-12 as refrigerant are as follows:
(2)Chemically, it is highly stable compound and does not break down even under extreme operating
conditions. However when brought into contact with an open flame or with an electric heating
element, it decomposes into highly toxic products.
(3)R-12 condenses at moderate . pressures under normal atmospheric Conditions and has a boiling
temperature of, – 29.80°C. At atmospheric pressure which makes it suitable for use in high,
medium and low temperature application. However it has the disadvantage of evaporator pressure
falling below atmospheric pressure when used for very temperature application.
(4) R-12 is oil miscible under all operating conditions and this not only simplifies the problem of
oil return but also tends to increase the efficiency of the system. The solvent action of the refrigerant
maintains the evaporator and condenser tubes relatively free of oil films which Otherwise would
tend to reduce the heat transfer capacity of these units.
(5)R-12 attacks natural rubber so that only butyle rubber is used for gaskets and other sealing
purpose.
(6) The power required per ton of capacity also compares favourably with that required for other
common refrigerants.
(7) It is odourless, so leak detection becomes difficult. Either soup solution or halide torch is used
for leak detection.
REFRIGERANT-22(CHClF2)
Important properties of Freon-22 as a refrigerant are as follows:
(2) It is suitable for low temperature application. It has been used extensively in domestic and farm
freezes and commercial and industrial low temperature systems down to evaporator temperature as
low as -87°C.
(3)The compressor displacement is 60% less with R-22 compared with R-12 for the same
refrigerating effect therefore a compressor gives 60% more refrigerating effect with R-22 than R-
12. This property reduces the size of the pipeline required with R-22 compared to R-12
(4) The pressure in the evaporator is above atmospheric for the evaporator temperature between -
30°C to -40°C where as the evaporator pressure with R-12 are below atmospheric for this
temperature range. Thus with R-22 low temperature is possible Without negative evaporator
pressure.
(5) Both the operating pressure and the adiabatic discharge temperature are higher for R-22 than
R-12. Power requirement are approximately the same because of high discharge temperatures
experienced with R-22, suction superheat should be kept to a minimum, particularly where
hermetic compressors are used. In low temperature applications, where compression ratios are
likely to be high, Water cooling of the compressor head and cylinders is recommended in order to
avoid overheating of the compressor.
(6) Although miscible with oil at temperatures found in condenser, R-22 tries to separate at
evaporator temperatures When the system is used for low temperature applications. The exact
temperature at which separation occurs varies considerably with the type of lube oil and amount of
oil mixed with refrigerant. Under these circumstances, oil separators: .should be used to ensure
the return of oil from the evaporator.
(7) The ability of R-22 to absorb moisture is considerably greater than that of R-12 and therefore
less trouble is experienced with freeze ups in R-22 systems. However any amount of moisture in
the refrigerating system is undesirable.
Refrigerant R-22 is now the most common refrigerant for a wide range of temperatures. Its ,
primary use is in packaged air conditioners, where because of space limitations, the relatively .
small compressor displacement required is decided advantage
Refrigerant R-502
Refrigerant-502 is an azeotropic mixture of 48. 8% by mass of R-22 and 51 .2% of R-115.
This refrigerant was introduced commercially in the early 1960’s for low temperature applications
and is particularly suitable for hermetic compressors. The important properties of R-502 are as
follows:
(2) The compressor discharge temperatures and motor winding temperatures are lower compared
with other refrigerants and lower temperatures especially in case Of hermetic compressors mean
greater reliability, longer life and less maintenance.
(3) R-502 compared with R-22 has less compressor displacement which reduces compressor size
and cost. This also reduces the power input and there by running cost for R-502.
(4)It has added advantage of positive evaporator pressure at low temperature. It has a boiling
temperature of -45.4° C and standard barometric pressure and a critical temperature of 91.78° C.
(1) It is environmentally safe, having no effect on the atmosphere’s ozone layer and a low global
warming potential.
(2) It is nonflammable and chemically stable with in the refrigerating system. However contact
with flames or hot surfaces may cause vapor decomposition and the emission of toxic gases.
(3)It is relatively non toxic. However it’s gaseous form is denser than air, and will displace air in
the lungs. This result in asphyxiation if excessively inhaled.
(4) The physical and thermodynamic properties of R-134a are similar to R-12. This makes it
Capable of providing similar levels of performance with only modest system and equipment
modification when used as replacement for R-12.
(6) The biggest disadvantage of R-134a as a refrigerant is its incompatibility with conventional
lubricants. It has very low solubility in conventional mineral oil lubricants. It requires a synthetic
Easter or polyalkylene glycol lubricant. R-134a is presently under extensive investigation for oil
miscibility and winding cooling characteristics.
PROPANE
Use of highly purified prepane as a refrigerant is gaining favor especially 1n systems designated
for R-12, R-220 or R-134a as it is capable of similar performances with minimum change. It is
designated as R-290 and is marketed under the trade name DURACOOL®. The explosion risks are
small. It is none toxic as well. It presents an attractive alternative to current refrigerants especially
in small capacity systems from operational safety point of View.
SECONDARY REFRIGERANTS
Under many circumstances it is not desirable to carry the heat from the refrigerated space directly
as refrigerant, than it is carried by using the secondary refrigerant. The secondary refrigerant is a
liquid which is cooled in the refrigeration machinery room and pumped around the refrigerated
space e. g. reciprocated again and again. The secondary refrigerant system circuit is commonly
used in large installations such as for cargo refrigeration on board ships. The main advantage of
this arrangement over direct cooling system is as follows:
(1) The primary refrigerant is only present in the machinery space and the risk of loss of leakage is
more readily controlled.
(2)Difficulties of oil recovery from the evaporators which are located in the cargo spaces quite a
distance away from the compressors are avoided.
(3) The pipelines used for carrying the heat by secondary refrigerant from the source is considerably
smaller compared with the pipeline used with direct expansion refrigeration system and this is
because the specific volume of the brine is considerably low compared with the specific Volume
of the refrigerant vapour. Therefore the pipeline diameter required for secondary refrigerant is
considerably lower.
(4) The secondary refrigerant system is more easily controlled to give accurate temperature control.
If a manual system, less skilled operators are required. If an automatic system, simpler automatic
controls can be used.
(6)The use of secondary refrigerant such as brine is also advantageous in Order to keep the coils
Researchers have determined that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) along with other chlorine and
bromine containing compounds have been largely responsible for accelerated depletion of ozone
in the earth’s stratosphere.
The commonly used secondary refrigerants are water, sodium chloride brine, calcium chloride
brine. Calcium chloride brine is the commonest secondary refrigerant used for cargo refrigeration,
water is used for air conditioning installations (with suitable safeguards to prevent its freezing) and
trichloroethylene is used for very less temperature installations such as fishing trawlers.
BRINES
When the temperature, required to be maintained, are below the freezing point of water then water
can not be used as a secondary refrigerant. In such cases brine solutions are used.
Brine is a solutions containing salt in dissolved condition in water. The freezing temperature of the
brine is lower than the freezing temperature of water and it decreases with the increase of salt
concentration but if concentration is increased beyond a certain point, the freezing temperature
increases instead of decreasing. The solution at this concentration is known as “eutectic solution”.
The lowest freezing temperature is achieved at eutectic point. The eutectic temperature of
calcium chloride brine is -55°C at corresponding salt concentration of 30% by weight.Calcium-
chloride brine is preferred over sodium chloride brine when the required temperature is below –
20°C. It is commonly used for industrial product freezing, industrial grocers cooling and ice
making plants. The major disadvantage of calcium-chloride brine is its dehydrating effect on foods
with which it may come in contact. Whenever calcium-chloride brine is used for freezing of food
items, it is necessary to design the system so as to prevent the brine from coming into contact with
refrigerated foods.
Cryogenic technology: Cryogenic is the science which study the production and
behavior of material at very low temperature (below 123 K) and study how to produce
low temp & what happens to materials if you cooled them down.
Cryogenic fluids with their boiling point in Kelvin[6]
Helium-3 3.19
Helium-4 4.214
Hydrogen 20.27
Neon 27.09
Nitrogen 77.09
Air 78.8
Fluorine 85.24
Argon 87.24
Oxygen 90.18
Methane 111.7
Insulation
Storage of a cryogen (say, LN2) is difficult, as there is a continuous boil off due to heat in leaks.
• These vessels cannot be sealed as boil off generates huge volumes of vapour, resulting in large
pressure rise. This may lead to bursting.
• For example, vapor to liquid volume ratio for a general cryogen is 175 (1600 for water).
• To avoid the pressure rise, the need of insulation is vital. Insulation or a combination of insulations,
minimize all these modes of heat transfer.
• The inner vessel is housed inside an outer vessel and these vessels are separated by some form of
insulation.
• The liquid boils off continuously due to the various modes of heat transfer.
Expanded Foams • Expanded foam is a low density, cellular structure which is formed by
evolving gases during the manufacturing process.
• In other words, it is a solid – gas matrix with void spaces. The solid connections together with gas
trapped in cellular spaces form a continuous path.
• The heat is transferred only by conduction (solid conduction). The contribution by convection and
radiation are negligible.
• This is because, the distance between the powder particles within the insulation is much smaller
than the gas mean free path.
• As a result, the gaseous conduction mechanism shifts from continuum to free molecular
conduction decreasing the apparent thermal conductivity.
The refrigeration plants on merchant vessels play a vital part in carrying refrigerated
cargo and provisions for the crew on board. In reefer ships, the temperature of the
perishable or temperature sensitive cargo such as food, chemical, or liquefied gas, is
controlled by the refrigeration plant of the ship. The same plant or a smaller unit can
be used for maintaining the temperature of different provision rooms carrying food
stuffs for crew members.
The main purpose of ship’s refrigeration plant is to avoid any damage to the cargo or
perishable material so that it is transported in good and healthy condition.
Refrigeration prevents growth of micro-organisms, oxidation, fermentation and drying
out of cargo etc.
Evaporators
Check the evaporators monthly for proper defrosting. Ice accumulation on the evaporator coil can
cause inefficiencies in the operation of the system, and can be detrimental to the coil surface itself.
Check for frayed wiring insulation and corroded terminals, and make certain all spade
connections are tight.
Do the blades turn freely? Check the blades for unusual wear patterns or stress fractures.
Clean the surface of each fan blade. Replace any worn blades and tighten the fan set screws.
On motors with lubrication fittings, apply the correct lubricant. Replace any motor that is
hard to rotate or has worn bearings.
Make certain heaters are in the correct position for maximum heat transfer to the evaporator
coil. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations.
All foreign material should be removed from the drain pan. The pan should drain freely.
The drain line should be free-draining with visible slope away from the evaporator.
The coil should be washed periodically to remove dust and other foreign materials that might
have been drawn into the fins. A commercial-grade cleaning foam can be used. Follow the
label directions of the appropriate cleaner to clean refrigerant coils.
Compressor Units
Every six months:
Check for frayed wiring insulation and corroded terminals. Replace damaged wiring.
Electrical contactors should be inspected closely for worn and pitted contact points. The
points should be cleaned and polished. Check for any discoloration in the conductors, which
may indicate a loose wire or a dangerous overcurrent condition. Any foreign material found
in the contactor should be removed.
Inspect the defrost timer motor. Clean the contact points and lubricate the gears of the clock.
Make certain the entire clock mechanism rotates freely.
Check the operation of the room temperature thermostat. Make certain the liquid line
solenoid valve closes completely and the compressor pumps down and cycles off.
The oil level should be at or between one-third and two-thirds of the sight glass.
Under most conditions, the timer should initiate the defrost. Make certain the defrost
termination temperature control stops the defrost cycle and allows the evaporator fans
approximately 2 min of delay time before restart.
Open, torn, or waterlogged insulation provides little benefit to the system. If the insulation is
in poor condition, replace it.
The liquid line sight glass should be clear and full of liquid refrigerant during normal
operation. If not, find and repair the leak, then charge enough refrigerant into the system to
maintain a clear sight glass.
a) Measure the suction pressure at the suction service valve of the compressor and determine
the saturation temperature corresponding to this pressure from a temperature-pressure chart.
b) Measure the suction temperature of the suction line about 1 ft back from the compres-sor
using an accurate thermometer.
c) Subtract the saturated temperature from the actual suction line temperature. The difference
is superheat.
Too low a suction superheat can result in liquid being returned to the compressor. This causes
dilution of the oil and eventual failure of the bearings, rings or, possibly, valve failure.
Too high a suction superheat will result in excessive discharge temperatures, which cause the
oil to break down and result in piston ring wear and piston and cylinder wall damage.
For maximum system capacity, suction superheat should be kept as low as practical.
(Heatcraft recommends the superheat at the compressor be no lower than 30°F.) If
adjustments to the suction superheat need to be made, the expansion valve at the evaporator
should be adjusted. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations.
9. Check all capillary and super hose lines for signs of wear.
Make certain all capillary and super hose lines are secure and do not rub against objects that
can cause refrigerant leaks.
Condensers
Every six months (sooner if local conditions cause clogging or fouling of air passages through the
finned surface), perform the following:
Check the fan blades for signs of stress or other wear features. If any unusual wear is seen,
replace the blade.
Any refrigeration unit works with different components inline to each other in series.
The main components are:
2. Condenser: Shell and tube type condenser is used to cool down the refrigerant in
the system.
3. Receiver: The cooled refrigerant is supplied to the receiver, which is also used to
drain out the refrigerant from the system for maintenance purpose.
4. Drier: The drier connected in the system consists of silica gel to remove any
moisture from the refrigerant
5. Solenoids: Different solenoid valves are used to control the flow of refrigerant into
the hold or room. Master solenoid is provided in the main line and other solenoid is
present in all individual cargo hold or rooms.
7. Evaporator unit: The evaporator unit act as a heat exchanger to cool down the
hold or room area by transferring heat to the refrigerant.
8. Control unit: The control unit consist of different safety and operating circuits for
safe operation of the refer plant.
LP or low pressure cut out is controlled automatically i.e. when the suction pressure
drops, the compressor stops and when the suction pressure rises again, the control
system starts the compressor. HP or high pressure cut out is provided with manual
re-set.The hot compressed liquid is passed to a receiver through a condenser to cool
it down. The receiver can be used to collect the refrigerant when any major repair
work has to be performed.
The master solenoid is fitted after the receiver, which is controlled by the control unit.
In case of sudden stoppage of compressor, the master solenoid also closes,
avoiding the flooding of evaporator with refrigerant liquid.
The room or hold solenoid and thermostatic valve regulate the flow of the refrigerant
in to the room to maintain the temperature of the room. For this, the expansion valve
is controlled by a diaphragm movement due to the pressure variation which is
operated by the bulb sensor filled with expandable fluid fitted at the evaporator
outlet.The thermostatic expansion valve supplies the correct amount of refrigerants
to evaporators where the refrigerants takes up the heat from the room and boils off
into vapours resulting in temperature drop for that room.
The refrigerant inside the compressor housing is totally in contact with the
motor rotor and stator windings.
To avoid any short circuit within the motor winding the refrigerant used must
have a high dielectric strength and must be fully compatible with the
insulation material.
The electric motor is directly connected to the compressor with a single shaft
avoiding the use of any coupling or mechanical seal and leaving no chance
of refrigerant leaking into the atmosphere.
The crankshaft is designed to circulate lubricating oil from the pump to all
bearing surfaces.
Condensers.
This is the most common type of condenser used in systems from 2 TR up-to thousands of TR
capacity. In these condensers the refrigerant flows through the shell while water flows through
the tubes in single to four passes. The condensed refrigerant collects at the bottom of the shell.
The coldest water contacts the liquid refrigerant so that some subcooling can also be obtained.
The liquid refrigerant is drained from the bottom to the receiver. There might be a vent
connecting the receiver to the condenser for smooth drainage of liquid refrigerant. The shell
also acts as a receiver. Further the refrigerant also rejects heat to the surroundings from the
shell. The most common type is horizontal shell type.
BELLOWS CONTROLLER
Notice in Figure 2 that the oil pump discharge pressure acts to open the differential pressure switch.
Conversely, the crankcase pressure acts to close the switch. One has to remember that the
difference between these two pressures is the net oil pressure, as illustrated in the equation below:
So, if there is a fall in net oil pressure below 9 psid (pounds per square inch differential), the
pressure differential switch will close and a heater in series with the pressure differential
switch will be energized. There is usually a 2-minute (120-second) time delay before the
heater will warp a bimetallic strip. This warping action will open the timing switch contacts
that are in series with the motor starter or contactor coil (Figure 2). This action takes the
motor out of service, and its mechanism must be manually reset on most controls.
Notice that manually pushing the reset button will reset (close) the timing switch contacts
once the bimetal strip cools down. The reason for the 2-minute time delay is to prevent
nuisance trips of the oil safety controller. Often, there are times when the crankcase may have
liquid refrigerant in it from an imperfect system.
The 2-minute delay gives the crankcase time to clear any unwanted refrigerant during periods
when refrigerant migration or flooding has occurred. It also avoids nuisance shutdowns
during short fluctuations in net oil pressure on start-ups.
Note: The resistor in series with the heater and the differential timing switch is simply a
voltage drop resistor used to make the control versatile. Depending on how the resistor is
wired, the control can be used on 230- and/or 115-volt systems.
Remember, when the compressor is off, the net oil pressure is 0 psi and the differential
pressure switch contacts are closed. The heater in the oil safety controller will not be
energized during the off-cycle because it is wired to the line side of the motor starter contacts
(Figure 2). When the motor starter contacts are opened, it opens the heater circuit by opening
Line 2 (L2). At start-up, when the motor starter contacts close and the compressor starts, the
differential pressure switch contacts will stay closed and the heater will be energized until at
least 9 psid of net oil pressure is developed. As mentioned before, this 120-second time delay
prevents nuisance trips of the controller at start-ups.
Where does all the heat come from that we need to remove?
Transmission load
Product Load
Then we have Product loads which account for typically 55-75% of the
cooling load. This accounts for the heat that is introduced into the cold room
when new products enter. Its also the energy required to cool, freeze and
further cool after freezing. If you’re just cooling the products then you only
need to consider the sensible heat load. If you’re freezing the product then
you need to account for the latent heat also as a phase change occurs.
During this time energy is used but you will not see a temperature change
while the product changes between a state of liquid and ice. There is
additional energy required to further chill this food down below the freezing
point which is again sensible heat. You also need to account for the
packaging as this will inherently be cooled also. Lastly if you’re cooling fruit
and vegetables then these products are alive and they will generate some
heat so you’ll need to account for the removal of this too.
Internal load
The next thing to consider is the internal loads which account for around 10-
20%. This is the heat given off by people working in the cold room, the
lighting and equipment such as fork lifts trucks etc. So for this you’ll need to
consider what equipment will be used by the staff members in order to move
the products in and out of the store, how much heat will they and the
equipment give off and the daily duration.
Equipment Load
Then we need to consider the refrigeration equipment in the room which will
account for around 1-10% of the total cooling load. For this we want to know
the rating of the fan motors and estimate how long they will run for each
day, then we want to also account for any heat transferred into the space
from defrosting the evaporator.
The last thing we need to consider is infiltration which again adds 1-10% to
the cooling load. This occurs when the door opens so there is a transfer of
heat into the space through the air. The other consideration is ventilation.
Fruit and vegetables give off carbon dioxide so some stores will require a
ventilation fan, this air needs to be cooled down so you must account for this
if it’s used.
Transmission load
Cargo Refrigeration
A reefer ship is a type of ship that is used for the purpose of carrying refrigerated
cargo. Reefer ships are mainly used to transport spoilable goods. In today’s times
refrigerated carriers play a very vital role in transporting food products that are
necessary for daily use but face the threat of perishing very fast. Through
refrigerated shipping, this situation can be avoided and the refrigerated cargo can
reach the intended destination without any loss or decay.
Foodstuffs that are generally transported with the help of such ships are food grains,
fruits, fish, milk products and meat. The main reason why these types of ships came
into existence was because some countries were not equipped to produce and
process these products. On the other hand, some countries had an excess of such
products, making it easy and feasible to use such refrigerated carriers to supply and
export them wherever required.
There are ships that are used as multi-purpose vessels. In such ships, the
refrigerated part is below the areas reserved for passengers.
There are refrigerator ships that use the concept of refrigerated containers.
Refrigerated containers are huge rectangular containers that are used solely for the
purpose of cargo transportation.
There are ships that use specific ramps to load and haul the refrigerated cargo.
These ships are the most common ones that are used in today’s times.
Secondary refrigerants are usually liquids, and are used to transfer heat from the substance
being cooled to a heat exchanger where the heat is absorbed by a primary refrigerant. In an air
conditioning system it could be said that air is acting as a secondary refrigerant.
These fluids are cooled by a primary refrigerant then exposed to the source, being sensibly
heated by that source, thus absorbing its energy, and the warmer fluid returned to the chiller,
rejecting the heat to the primary refrigerant.
High temperature applications such as air conditioning use chilled water as the secondary
refrigerant while low temperature applications use brines, glycols and oils.
Large refrigeration plants often use secondary refrigerants to transport the cooling capacity
from the plant room to the point of use.
A Basic Secondary refrigeration System.
Non corrosive
Inexpensive
High specific heat
Good heat transfer characteristics.
Chemically stable
Low viscosity
The simplest secondary refrigerant is water, much used in air conditioning work above 0 °C, the
corrosion problem is minimal with a closed system. Used where application of control and
flexibility allows some expenditure above the minimum.
Obviously, water has its limitations for lower temperature work due to its freezing, but this
disadvantage can be overcome by adding a salt to form a brine. In general brines can be divided
into four classes:
1. Brines with a salt base, commonly being water solutions of calcium or sodium chloride.
2. Brines with a glycol base, commonly water solutions of ethylene or propylene glycol.
3. Brines for low temperature heat transfer being pure substances, such as methylene
chloride, trichloroethylene, Rll, acetone, methyl or ethyl alcohol.
4. Brines for special or unusual applications due to availability, extreme temperature range,
experimental usage, etc. Typical examples are a petroleum product, synthetic oil, a
silicone fluid, or sugar brine.
1 and 2 act on the phenomenon that water with a salt or other soluble material added has a
depressed freezing point. The freezing point will obviously depend on the amount of salt in the
water (i.e. proportion or concentration of the salt or material in the water. Each mixture has a
concentration at which the freezing is a minimum. This concentration is the Eutectic
Concentration. The minimum freezing point is the Eutectic Temperature and the point in the
Temp/Conc. diagram is the Eutectic point. Two physical change lines exist on either side of the
Eutectic Point namely the freezing line and crystallising or solubility line. The freezing line is
found by taking a liquid or concentration below the eutectic Concentration, cooling it and in the
form of ice, crystals will appear at a certain temperature leaving a liquid of higher
concentration. Continued cooling will result in more crystals, further increase of concentration
and so on. The freezing line is obtained by joining the respective freezing points.
The solubility line is found by taking a liquid sample whose concentration is above the eutectic
concentration and cooling it. In this situation salt crystals will form at a certain
temperature, reducing the concentration.
Further cooling causes more crystals to form and so on. The crystallising line is obtained by
joining the respective points of crystallising. In practice the line around the Eutectic Points are
vague and rarely published.
Calcium chloride brine is the commonest secondary refrigerant used in industrial and marine
refrigeration systems.
Water is used for air conditioning installations (with suitable safeguards to prevent its
freezing).
The density of the brine solution used has to be increased as the minimum temperature to be
used decreases. The freezing point varies as in the table below.
1·20 40 -21 -6
1·21 42 -23 -9 5
In the absence of air, calcium chloride is not severely corrosive (steel brine pipes remain in good
condition internally, but steel brine header and makeup tanks suffer severe corrosion at the
brine/air interface). However, it is desirable to keep the brine slightly alkaline, with pH between
8·0 and 8·5. If found to be acid (e.g. litmus test papers), caustic soda should be added.
Brine heaters contain steam heated coils within a shell through which brine is circulated. When
warm brine is required for defrosting, the steam should be put on first and the brine now
restricted by first cracking the inlet brine valve until the brine has risen in temperature to
above O°C, (32°F). An initial high flow rate of cold brine can cause freezing of the steam
condensate with subsequent blockage. A brine temperature of 43°C (110°F) is suitable for
defrosting.
1. Cost —generally aqueous solutions are cheaper than the pure liquids even allowing for
mixing inhibitors and water treatment.
2. Corrosion —primarily, with salt based brines corrosion is controlled by density
regulation, with high density fluid having less air trapped between the more closely
packed molecules. (Limited by extra pumping power required and with a high alkalinity. It
is recommended that pH values of 7.5 to 8.5 should be considered, no galvanising
present 9 — 9.5.
3. Corrosion inhibitors in the form of Chromic Acid or Sodium Dichromate used to be
added but due to the heavy metal content, disposal, handling and control of these
substances makes them prohibitively difficult to use. Unfortunately, there is no simple
method for determination of sodium dichromate concentration. and a sample of brine
should be sent for analysis at least every six months when this treatment is being used.
4. The more modern tendency is use only suitably corrosion resistant materials such as
ABS plastic, copper, cupro-nickle and cast iron (grades of stainless steel lower than 316
are not suitable as the oxide layer is not adequate to stop the chloride leaching the iron
out of the alloy and causing pin hole perforations).
5. The glycol solutions are generally less corrosive, but may require inhibitors for specific
applications.
6. The pure ‘brines’ are not corrosive provided they are not contaminated with impurities
such as moisture. Also, methylene chloride and trichloroethylene must not be used with
aluminium or zinc and they will attack most rubber compounds and plastic.
7. Toxicity — is important if there is exposure to food or operating personnel. Sodium
chloride and propylene glycol have low toxicity and inhibited propylene glycol is being
increasingly used in food plants. All other brines are toxic to some extent or produce
odours, requiring closed circuits.
8. Flash Points — of acetone, methyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol require precautions against
fire and explosion.
9. Specific Heat — of the brine determines the required mass flow rate at a given
temperature rise for the cooling load in question. The low temperature brines have a
specific heat value, about one—third to one quarter of the water soluble brines.
10. Density — is not a significant factor other than from corrosion control and possible
pumping costs.
11. Stability — is necessary at high temperatures where the brine may be heated.
Methylene trichloride may break down into acidic products above 140 °F.
12. Viscosity — of brines affects pumping costs and the heat transfer coefficients.
Obviously the viscosity of water based brines increases as they approach freezing. The
pure substances have the property of low viscosity nearly down to freezing.
13. Freezing Point — is the low limit that the brines can be used. In practice to avoid the
risk of freeze up operating temperatures should be maintained 5 to 7 °C (10 to 15 °F)
above the freezing point.
14. Vapour Pressure — is important for brines used in an open system, especially if the brine
warms to room temperature between usage. Possible risks are vapour losses, toxicity and
inflammability.
15. Water Solubility — of a brine in an open or semi—open system can be important due to
the risk of dilution of a salt based or glycol based brine, or the formation of water ice in
a pure brine which will be pumped around the system and deposited on heat exchange
surfaces.
16. Foaming — occurs if carbon dioxide in one of its phases has been immersed and bubbles
through the brine for cooling OR an agitation may introduce air into the brine with risk
of corrosion. An anti—foaming substance such as octyl—alcohol or triamylamine may be
added to the brine.
The evaporators (brine coolers) pumps and distribution valves in industrial installations and on
cargo ships are usually located together within an insulated brine room, to provide ease of
access and to eliminate the need for insulating individual items and pipes. Entering a brine room
for the first time can be bewildering and consulting the brine diagram of a complex installation
may at first increase the bewilderment. However, the system is basically very simple, the
complexity arises from duplication of components and alternative cross connections.
Part (a) above, is the basic diagram with one chamber battery circulated with brine from one
evaporator, in a closed circuit with a header tank to allow for expansion and contraction of the
brine.
Part (b) above, shows the addition of headers which enable a number of spaces to be served.
(c) above, shows the addition of a second evaporator, air vent pipes have also been added at
this stage.
Part (d) above, shows the addition of a third pair of headers served by a brine heater and third
pump, so that any battery can be individually defrosted by circulating the warm brine. Also
introduced is a brine "injection cross connection from the delivery of pump No. 1 to the suction
of' pump No. 2. Brine injection is used so that evaporator No. 1 can assist evaporator No. 2 when
No. 1 is set to deliver brine at a lower temperature than No. 2. A further refinement of this
injection is the by-pass arranged across the inlet and outlet of evaporator No. 2 so that the
cooling, of the brine circulating in No. 2 system can be achieved entirely by injection if desired.
In practice, there also has to be a brine make-up tank. In which solid calcium chloride is
dissolved, for topping up the system. An overflow connection from the header tank, a safety
pressure relief line from the brine heater, and a sighting connection to which the return from
any space can be diverted, are all arranged to terminate over this make tip tank. These have
been omitted from the above circuits for clarity.
A typical secondary refrigerant system using ammonia as the primary refrigerant in the three
independent chillers and Calcium chloride brine as the secondary refrigerant.
The pipe grids for this type of system (Figure 11.18) were
arranged so that they cover as much as possible of the roof and
walls of the chamber. The greatest coverage was needed on
those surfaces which formed external boundaries and the least on
divisional bulkheads and decks.
The delivery openings are arranged with the largest furthest away
from the fan where the air pressure is at its lowest and the
smallest nearest to the fan. Correct cargo stowage is important
as voids in the stow could allow the air to short circuit to the
suction side of the cooler.
Container cooling
Methods of insulation
Air Conditioning
Dew point
When a mixture of dry air and water vapour has a saturation temperature
corresponding to the partial pressure of the water vapour it is said to be
saturated. Any further reduction of temperature (at constant pressure)
will result in some vapour condensing. This temperature is called the dew
point, air at dew point contains all the moisture it can hold at that
temperature, as the amount of water vapour varies in air then the partial
pressure varies, so the dew point varies.
It can be seen that cooling a superheated vapour at constant pressure will
bring it to the saturated vapour line, or Dew point. It can also be seen
that cooling at constant temperature raises the partial pressure until the
dew point is reached.
Therefore from the above equation for determining the relative humidity,
%R.H. = m/mg x 100 = p/pg x 100
= pdew/pg point x 100
where g refers to the sat condition. This means dry air contains the
maximum moisture content (100% R.H.) at the saturation conditions.
Psychrometric chart
This chart is used for finding the relative humidity of air which has been
measured using a 'wet and dry bulb' thermometer. This is a pair of
thermometers, one of which has its bulb wrapped in a damp cloth. The
drier the air, the greater the evaporation of water off the cloth and
therefore the lower the reading on the 'wet bulb' thermometer.
Typical system
The core components of the system such as the oil separator, filter drier
and condenser are dealt with on the Fridge system page, instead described
are those components which are generally unique to air conditioning
plant.
Compressor
May be reciprocating or rotary. In nearly all cases a method of varying
the quantity of delivery is incorporated. For reciprocating compressors
this may take the form of an unloader and for rotary variable speed drive.
Protection
The compressors have protection systems similar to their fridge
counterparts with High Pressure and Low Pressure cut outs that require
manual resets. In addition to this an interlock is fitted so that the
compressor cannot be started if the air handling unit fan is not running.
Should the fan be stopped the compressor will cut out.
An alternative to this is to fit solenoid valves before the compressor, as in
the diagram above, which open only when the fan is running. The
compressor will trip on Low suction pressure.
The purpose of both these systems is to prevent liquid returning to the
compressor.
Air Handling Unit
One or more is fitted. In the diagram above a single unit contains two
individual evaporators which are independently supplied by a compressor.
A belt driven fan delivers air to the evaporators via a fine mesh air filter.
This filter is removed on a regular basis and washed in a soapy solution
containing disinfectant.
The air passes over the evaporator where it is cooled and releases water
vapour. The water condenses and is fed away via a drip tray and
pipework, the water is quite clean and can be used for domestic purposes
after treatment although this practice is not common. On the above
design a catcher has been fitted to remove water droplets entrained in
the air, these are not always fitted.
A perforated pipe is fitted after the evaporator allowing low quality steam
to be fed into the air improving its humidity when too dry.
Contamination of ships air conditioning systems by
legionnella bacteria
Legionnaires disease is caused by bacteria which flourishes in stagnant
water or sludge . It can also be found in wet matrix filters, which may be
found in the ships filtration system for the air conditioning plant.
Main danger areas
Air inlet arrangements-This may be direct or indirect from the air
conditioning room via jalousies, which, when incorrectly designed may
lead rain water onto the filters. It may also be allowed to accumulate in
the space where drainage is not efficient
Filters-These filters made of a 25mm thick synthetic material can trap
water as well as insects and soot and provide a rapid growth area for the
bacteria. Regular washing is essential
Cooler unit (dehumidifier)-Ineffective drainage can allow water to
stagnate in the catchment sumps. Also, where air velocities are high over
the block, air can become entrained and carry moisture into the air
stream. An efficient moisture eliminator is required.
Humidifier-Steam humidifiers, where fitted, do not appear to be a
problem. However, adiabatic humidifiers of which the water spray type
appears to offer a special hazard. The enclosed tank and matrix elements
provide an ideal breeding ground for the bacteria which may then be
carried into the air stream when sprayed.
Plenum Insualtion-Where the PVC GRP facing of the rock wool insulation
and sound deadening breaks down the considerable levels of water may
be present.
Recommended countermeasures.
Filters-Should be washed in 50ppm solution on a regular basis
Coolers-Special attention to drainage arrangements as well as
superchlorinating the condensate sump every 3months.
Plenum insulation-Insulation to be examined at refit and damaged areas
resealed.
Ventilation methods
Ventilation is the provision of a supply of fresh untreated air
through a space. Natural ventilation occurs when changes in
temperature or air density cause circulation in the space.
Mechanical or forced ventilation uses fans for a positive
movement of large quantities of air. Natural ventilation is used
for some small workshops and stores but is impractical for
working areas where machinery is present or a number of
people are employed.
Forced ventilation may be used in cargo spaces where the
movement of air removes moisture or avoids condensation,
removes odours or gases, etc.
Machinery Space/Engine
room
The machinery space requires ventilation. As a result of its
large size and the fact that large volumes of air are consumed
. Machinery spaces of category A in every ship shall be
ventilated so that an adequate supply of air is maintained for
the safety and well-being of personnel and the operation of
machinery, including boilers, at full power in all weather
conditions. The ventilation of machinery spaces should be
sufficient under all normal conditions to prevent accumulation
of oil vapor. Ventilation is therefore provided in sufficient
quantities for machinery air consumption and also to effect
cooling. The usual distribution arrangement is shown in
Figure.
Ventilation Arrangements
in machinery Rooms
Several axial-flow fans provide air through ducting to the
various working platforms. In particular trunkings open at
Diesel Engine turbochargers and near boiler F.D fans to
facilitate easy air suction for these machineries. The hot air
rises in the centre and leaves through louvers or openings,
usually in the funnel. Purifier working platform is provided with
an exhaust blower with its exhaust outlet trunking opening in
the funnel area. Ventilation openings shall be arranged. The
outdoor air intake openings and discharge air openings must
be protected against the ingress of rain and seawater.
Under pressure occurring in the machinery space will affect
the efficiency and performance of the IC engines,
Overpressure may lead to leakage of hot air into the
accommodation.
The blower suction side has provision for putting air suction
filters and a blower flap is provided for shutting off the blower
trunking in case of engine room fire. At least one engine room
blower is reversible and this is also supplied power from the
emergency bus bar.
Remote stopping of all blowers is possible from bridge and fire
control room in the event of engine room fire.
The machinery control room, as a separate space, may be air
conditioned with an individual unit; this climate control
provides the personnel with a comfortable working area
isolated from machinery space, and for the satisfactory
operation of modern control equipment which requires a
carefully controlled environment.
Normal maintenance: Greasing of blower fan bearings and
motor bearings, cleaning of air suction filters, testing of blower
flaps, testing of blower fan trips from bridge/fire control station,
overhaul of blower fan motors during dry dockings.
Schematic arrangement of
Tanker cargo Pump room
Ventilation
VENTILATION SYSTEM
DUCTS
Important points considered in designing of duct of
ventilation system
Ventilation ducts shall be of non-combustible material.
Short Flexible bellows of combustible material may be used
for connecting fans to the ducting in air conditioning or fan
rooms.
Ducts provided for the ventilation of machinery spaces of
category A shall not pass through accommodation spaces
unless fitted with automatic fire dampers close to the
boundaries penetrated.
Ducts provided for the ventilation to accommodation
spaces, shall not pass through machinery spaces of category
A, unless automatic fire dampers are fitted close to the
boundaries
Ducts are to be routed in such a way that neither machinery
nor switchgear can be endangered by condensation or spray
water.
o Duct penetrations through “A” class divisions shall be of
an approved type 3.
o Ventilation duct inlets and outlets are to be fitted with
protective screens with a mesh size not exceeding 13
mm.
o The exhaust ducts from galley ranges shall be
constructed of insulated “A” class divisions. Each
exhaust duct shall be fitted with: