ABCM

1) FLAT SLAB

 Flat slab is a reinforced concrete slab supported directly by concrete

columns without the use of beams.

 Flat slab is defined as one sided or two-sided support system with

sheer load of the slab being concentrated on the supporting
columns and a square slab called ‘drop panels’.

 Drop panels play a significant role here as they augment the overall
capacity and sturdiness of the flooring system beneath the vertical
loads thereby boosting cost effectiveness of the construction.

 Usually the height of drop panels is about two times the height of
slab.

 Flat Slabs are considered suitable for most of the construction and
for asymmetrical column layouts like floors with curved shapes and
ramps etc.

 The advantages of applying flat slabs are many like depth solution,
flat soffit and flexibility in design layout.

 Even though building flat slabs can be an expensive affair but gives
immense freedom to architects and engineers the luxury of
designing.

 Benefit of using flat slabs are manifold not only in terms of

prospective design and layout efficacy but is also helpful for total
construction process especially for easing off installation procedures
and saving on construction time.

 If possible, try to do away with drop panels as much as possible and

try to make the best use of thickness of flat slabs.
  The reason is to permit the benefits of flat soffits for the floor
surface to be maintained, ensure drop panels are cast as part of the
column.

Types of Flat Slab Construction

Following are the types of flab slab construction:

o Simple flat slab

o Flat slab with drop panels
o Flat slab with column heads
o Flat slab with both drop panels and column heads

Uses of Column Heads

o It increase shear strength of slab
o It reduce the moment in the slab by reducing the clear or effective
span

Uses of Drop Panels

o It increase shear strength of slab
o It increase negative moment capacity of slab
o It stiffen the slab and hence reduce deflection

Advantages of Flat Slabs

 It is recognized that Flat Slabs without drop panels can be built at a
very fast pace as the framework of structure is simplified and
diminished.
 Flat slab construction can deeply reduce floor-to –floor
height especially in the absence of false ceiling as flat slab
construction does act as limiting factor on the placement of
horizontal services and partitions.
 This can prove gainful in case of lower building height, decreased
cladding expense and pre-fabricated services.

Types of Flat Slab Design

Multitudes of process and methods are involved in designing flat slabs and
evaluating these slabs in flexures. Some of these methods are as
following:

 For smaller frames, empirical methods are used but sub-frame

method is used in case of more irregular frames.
 The designs are conceptualized by employing appropriate software
but the fact is using sub-frame methods for very complicated design
can be very expensive.
 The most cost effective and homogenous installation of
reinforcements can be achieved by applying the yield line
method.
 Structures having floors with irregular supports, large openings or
bears heavy loads, application of finite- element analysis is
supposed to be very advantageous.
Benefits of Using Flat Slab Construction
Method

 Flexibility in Room Layout

 Flat slabs allows Architect to introduce partition walls
anywhererequired, this allows owner to change the size of room
layout. Use of flat slab allows choice of omitting false ceiling and
finish soffit of slab with skim coating.

 Saving in Building Height

Lower storey height will reduce building weight due to lower
partitions and cladding to façade
Approximately saves 10% in vertical members
Reduced foundation load

 Shorter Construction Time

Use of flat slabs requires less time for construction by the use of big
table formwork.

 Ease of Installation of Flat Slabs

All M & E services can be mounted directly on the underside of the
slab instead of bending them to avoid the beams.
  Use of Prefabricated Welded Mesh
Use of prefabricated welded mesh minimizes the installation time of
flat slabs. These mesh are available in standard size and provides
better quality control in construction of flat slab.

 Buildable Score
This allows standardized structural members and prefabricated
sections to be integrated into the design for ease of construction.
This process makes the structure more buildable, reduce the
number of site workers and increase the productivity at site, thus
providing more tendency to achieve a higher Buildable score.

2) WAFFLE SLAB

 Waffle slab is a structural component which is plain on its top and

contains grid like system on its bottom surface.

 The top slab is normally thin and the bottom grid lines are generally
ribs which are laid perpendicular to each other with equal depth.

 Waffle slab has two directional reinforcement.

 All the ribs are directed from column heads or beams. The depth of
ribs maintained is as same as depth of column head or beam.

 Because of the ribs and double reinforcement, it is more stable and

recommended for larger span slabs or foundations.

Characteristics of Waffle Slabs

o Waffle slabs are generally suitable for flat areas.
o Volume of concrete used is very less compared to others.
o The reinforcement in the waffle slab is provided in the form of mesh
or individual bars.
o The thickness of waffle slab recommended is 85 to 100 mm while
the overall depth of slab is limited to 300 to 600 mm.
o The width of beams or ribs provided in waffle slab are generally 110
to 200 mm.
o Spacing of ribs recommended is 600 to 1500 mm.
o Reinforced waffle slabs can be constructed for the span up to 16
meters while beyond that length pre-fabricated waffle slab is preferable.
o Waffle slab is good against shrinkage and it is lower than stiffened
rafts and footing slabs.

Waffle Slab Construction Procedure

The construction of waffle slabs can be done by three ways as follows.

o In-situ
o Precast
o Pre-fabricated

 In-situ waffle slabs are constructed by pouring concrete in the site

or field with proper arrangements.

 In case of precast waffle slab, slab panels are casted somewhere

and they are joined together with proper reinforcement and
concrete is filled.

 The third case, pre-fabricated waffle slab is costliest than the other
two methods. In this case, reinforcement is provided in the slab
panels while casting with some tension. Hence, they do not need
internal reinforcement in the site.

Benefits of Waffle Slab Construction

o Waffle slabs are used for larger span slabs or floors and used when
there is limited requirement for number of columns.
o The load carrying capacity of waffle slab is greater than the other
types of slabs.
o They provide good structural stability along with aesthetic
appearance. Hence, it is constructed for airports, hospitals, temples,
churches etc.
o The waffle slab can be made of concrete or wood or steel among
those concrete waffle slab is preferred for commercial buildings and other
two are preferred for garages, decorative halls etc.
o It has good vibration control capacity because of two directional
reinforcement. So, it is useful for public buildings to control vibrations
created by movements of crowd.
o Waffle slabs are lightweight and requires less amount of concrete,
hence it is economical.
o Construction of waffle slab is easy and quick with good supervision.
o Concrete and steel volume required is small, hence, light framework
is enough for waffle slab.
o Several services like lighting, plumbing pipes, electrical wiring, air
conditioning, insulation materials etc. can be provided within the depth of
waffle slab by providing holes in the waffle bottom surface. This system is
called as Holedeck.

Drawbacks of Waffle Slab

o Formwork tools required are very costly because of large quantity
requirement of pods and some special tools.
o Skilled workers are required during its construction.
o They are not suitable for sloped areas. If there is slope area, the
area must be leveled with filling or by excavating. For soil filling, good soil
should be used.
o They are not suitable against high winds or cyclonic areas because
of their light weight.

3) DIAGRID SLAB

 The diagrid structural system can be defined as a diagonal members

formed as a framework made by the intersection of different
materials like metals, concrete or wooden beams which is used in
the construction of buildings and roofs.

 Diagrid structures of the steel members are efficient in providing

solution both in term of strength and stiffness.
  But nowadays a widespread application of diagrid is used in the
large span and high rise buildings, particularly when they are
complex geometries and curved shapes.

Module Geometry of Diagrid Structural

System
1. Diagrid Optimal Angle
The diagonal member of the diagrid carries both shear and moment. So
the optimal angle of placing of the diagonals is dependent of building
height. The optimal angle of the columns for maximum bending rigidity in
the normal building is 90 degree and for the diagonals for shear rigidity is
35 degree.

2. Diagrid Module Dimensions

The module dimensions are majorly two:

1. Height: The height of the diagrid depends on the number of floors

stacked in one module of diagrid. The common number of floors stacked
for module of the diagrids are 2 to 6.
2. Base of the module: The base on which the diagrid is formed
usually depends on the height and the optimal angle of the diagrid.

Types of Diagrid Structural System and

Materials of Construction
The materials that are used in the diagrid construction are based on the
following factors.

1. Availability of material
2. Erection time
3. Flexibility
4. Durability
5. Unit weight of the material
6. Labor cost
7. Lead time
8. Fire resistivity

The materials used in the construction of diagrid are

1. Steel Diagrid Structural System

The most commonly and popularly used material in the construction of
diagrids is steel. The sections commonly used are rectangular HSS,
rounded HSS and wide flanges. The weight and size of the sections are
made so as to resist the high bending loads. They can be quickly erected
and the cost of labor for the installation is low.

2. Concrete Diagrid Structural System

The most commonly used diagrid material is concrete. The concrete
diagrids are used in both type, precast and cast in-situ. As the precast
concrete sections are flexible, it allows them to fit perfectly in the
structure geometry. It also protects from fire damages. But the precast
concrete constitutes more to the dead load of the structure.

3. Timber Diagrid Structural System

The least used material in the construction of diagrids is timber. This
material has more disadvantages. The only advantage of this material
that the section of timber are easily available in any shape and size. The
installation cost is low.

The major disadvantages are that timber has lesser material strength.
Durability and weathering of timber are the major issues that makes for
the disadvantages of timber as a diagrid construction material.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Diagrid

Structural System
Advantages of Diagrids
  The advantages of the diagrid in the construction of the structure
majorly improves the aesthetic view of the building.

 The use of diagrid reduces the steel up to 20% compared to brace

frame structure.

 It doesn’t need technical labor as the construction technology is

simple.

 When glass material is used with the diagrid, it allows generous

amount of light inside the structure.

 These structures have majorly column free exterior and interior,

free and clear, unique floor plans can be implemented.

Disadvantages of Diagrids
 The major disadvantages of diagrid system are that it is still not
completely explored.

 This construction needs a skilled labor and the present crew has no
idea or the experience in installing diagrids.

 As the diagrid completely takes over the aesthetic appearance of

the building, the design is limited only to diagrid.

 The common language of floor to floor design is effected as a single

diagrid stacks over 2 to 6 floors in it.
 Only high rise building can install diagrids.
 If diagrids are not properly designed or installed, it effects the
economy and safety of the structure.

4) ONE WAY AND TWO RIBBED SLAB

 Ribbed floors consisting of equally spaced ribs are usually supported directly by
columns.They are either one-way spanning systems known as ribbed slab or a two-way
ribbed system known as a waffle slab.
 This form of construction is not very common because of the formwork costs and the low
fire rating.
  A 120-mm-thick slab with a minimum rib thickness of 125 mm for continuous ribs is
required to achieve a 2-hour fire rating. A rib thickness of greater than 125 mm is usually
required to accommodate tensile and shear reinforcement.
 Ribbed slabs are suitable for medium to heavy loads, can span reasonable distances,
are very stiff and particularly suitable where the soffit is exposed.


PRECAST CONSTRUCTIION

Precast concrete construction has many advantages over cast-in-situ

concrete structures as well as steel, wood, & masonry structures.
Precast concrete construction provides faster and more efficient
construction process.
Precast concrete construction system has its own characteristics, which
influence the layout, span length, construction depth, stability system,
etc. to a greater or less extend.
Theoretically, all joints between the precast concrete units can be made in
such a way that the completed precast structure has the same monolithic
concept as a cast-in-situ structures.
However, precast concrete construction is very labour intensive and
costly.
If the full advantages of precast concrete are to be realized, the structure
should be conceived according to its specific design philosophy.
Long spans, appropriate stability concept, simple details, etc. Designers
should from the very outset of the project consider the possibilities,
restrictions & advantages of precast concrete, its detailing, manufacturer,
transport, erection & serviceability stages before completing a design in
precast concrete.
Following are the few Properties of Precast Concrete Construction Process:
• Enables faster programmed times – not affected by weather or labour
shortages.
• Improves buildability – early enclosure of dry envelope enables follow-
on trades to start sooner.
• Produces a high standard of workmanship in factory conditions –
reduces potential for accidents, addresses on-site skill shortage.
• Has a high quality finish that can be left exposed – concrete’s thermal
properties can be exploited in low-energy buildings.
Primary Functions of Precast Concrete Construction
• Keep water out
• Prevent air leakage
• Control light
• Control radiation of heat
• Control conduction of heat
• Control sound
Secondary Functions:
• Resist wind forces
• Control water vapor
• Adjust to movement
• Thermal & moisture expansion/contraction
• Structural movements
• Resist fire
• Weather gracefully
• Easy to install
Architectural precast concrete provides architects with an exciting
medium when designing facades for a wide range of buildings, from
healthcare facilities to shopping malls, commercial office buildings to
sports stadiums.
Precast concrete provides:
• Complete thermal protection
• Continuous air/vapour barrier
• Effective rain screens
• Superior lifespan
• Reduced construction schedule and on-site labour
• High quality control standards
• Numerous finish options and colours
•
Elements in Precast Concrete Building Systems:

Following are the elements generally constructed in precast concrete

building construction:
• Precast concrete frame
• Precast concrete wall
• Precast concrete floor

1. Precast Concrete Frame Construction

Precast concrete frames involve an entire structure being fabricated off-
site. In addition, structural components can be supplied for incorporation
into a structure on-site.
Precast concrete frames are cast in the same way as precast concrete
cladding, but as they are designed as structural elements have heavier
reinforcement than is required for non-structural cladding.
Elegant connections are required between columns and beams to transfer
considerable forces without adversely affecting the visual appearance of
the frame.

2. Precast Concrete Wall Construction

Precast concrete walls are used for internal & external walls, lift shafts,
central cores etc. Precast wall system are mostly used in domestic
construction, both for individual housing & for apartments. The solution
can be considered as the industrialized form of cast in-situ walls or
classical brick or block masonry walls.
• The precast walls can be load bearing or only partition walls. The
surface of the elements is smooth on both sides & ready for painting
or wallpapering.
• Precast walls offer the advantage of speed of construction, smooth
surface finishing, acoustic insulation & fire resistance.

3. Precast Concrete Floors

Types of precast concrete floors:
• Hollow core floors
• Ribbed floors
• Concrete roof elements
• Massive slab floors
The principle advantages of precast floors are speed of construction,
absence of scaffolding, large variety of types, large span capacity, &
economy. Precast floors can also be classified according to their
manufacture into totally & partially precast floors.
Totally precast concrete floors are composed of units, which are totally
cast at the plant. After erection, the units are connected to the structure
& the longitudinal joints are grouted.In some cases a cast in-situ
structural topping screed is added.
Partially precast concrete floors are composed of a precast part & a cast
in-situ part. Both parts are working together at the final stage to achieve
the composite structural capacity. The main totally precast floor & roof
types are described hereafter.

Advantages of Precast Concrete Process

Precast concrete process provides following advantages:
• Structural efficiency
• Flexibility in use
• Optimum use of materials
• Speed of construction
• Quality consciousness
• Adaptability
• Protection of the environment

Advantages of Precast Concrete Construction

• Precast concrete construction is less expensive than real brick.
• Does not require an extensive footing like a real masonry wall. Can be
reset should it ever shift.
• More durable than real masonry – no mortar joints to let water in.
• Installs quickly and easily – most can be done in one day.
• Maintenance free – No need to paint or periodically replace slats as you
would with wood fences.

Disadvantage of Precast Concrete Construction

• System building is less flexible in its design concept than purpose-mode
structures
• Most design briefs can be fulfilled without too much modification to the
original concept
• Structural connection between the precast concrete units can present
both design & contractual problems

Concept of prefabrication?
Prefabrication is the method of construction which includes
assembling components of a structure in a manufacturing or
production site, transporting complete assemblies or partial
assemblies
It is combination of good design with modern high performance
components and quality controlled manufacturing procedures.
This work is carried out in two stages, manufacturing of
components in a place other than final location and their
erection in position.
Prefabricated sections are produced in large quantities in a
factory and then shipped to various construction sites.
This procedure may allow work to continue despite poor
weather conditions and should reduce any waste in time and
material at the site.
Precast concrete units are cast and hardened before being used
for construction. Sometimes builders cast components at the
building site and hoist them into place after they harden. This
technique permits the speedy erection of structures.

PreFabrication
The Prefabrication as defined will be done in two stages
• Manufacturing at factory condition and
• erection of components at the required location.

Prefab Building Components

Some of the prefabricated components are as explained below

Prefab Column to Column Connection

Columns: – A column is a vertical member carrying the beam

and floor loadings to the foundation. It is a compression
member and therefore the column connection is required to be
proper. The main principle involved in making column
connections is to ensure continuity and this can be achieved by
a variety of methods.

• A precasting concrete haunch is cast on to the column with a

 locating dowel or stud bolt to fix the beam.
• A projecting metal corbel is fixed to the column and the beam
is bolted to the corbel.
• Column and beam reinforcement, generally in the form of
hooks, are left exposed. The two members are hooked
together and covered with insitu concrete to complete the
joint. This is as shown in the figure.
Waffle unit for flooring / roofing: – These are suitable for roofs /
floors spanning in two directions. They are laid in a grid
pattern. These units are cast in moulds. The saving achieved is
not much. Also Shuttering are complicated and costly. Time
consumption for construction is less

Advantages And Disadvantages

Advantages:

Prefab Column to Beam Connection

• Saving in cost, material, time & manpower.
• Shuttering and scaffolding is not necessary.
• Installation of building services and finishes can be done
immediately.
• Independent of weather condition.
• Components produced at close supervision .so quality is good
• Clean and dry work at site.
• Possibility of alterations and reuse
• Correct shape and dimensions and sharp edges are
maintained.
• Very thin sections can be entirely precast with precision.
•
Disadvantages:
• Handling and transportation may cause breakages of
members during the transit and extra provision is to be
made.
• Difficulty in connecting precast units so as to produce same
effect as monolithic. This leads to non-monolithic
construction.
• They are to be exactly placed in position, otherwise the loads
coming on them are likely to get changed and the member
may be affected.
• Disadvantages:
• High transport cost
• Need of erection equipment
• Skilled labour and supervision is required.

Prefabricated
Slab To Beam Connection
The prefab components and prefab structures eliminate space
and time over conventional constructions. Although
prefabrication is employed to a large extent in a wide variety of
countries, in India, construction industry, in spite of its
expansion continues to adopt same conventional methods. The
root of the economic problem is the fact that the majority of the
households do not have the confidence needed to construct
prefab houses. These structures are easy to erect as it is light
material. This type of prefab buildings were constructed in
earthquake prone areas of Lature and Gujarat.

The main difference between precast and prefabricated structures is the 
way their individual components are made.
• Precast Structures: casting concrete into a mould and then curing it in a 
controlled factory environment build a precast structure. Such individually
casted structures are then transported to construction sites for installation. 
They include components like corner support beams, walls, staircases, etc.
• Prefabricated Structures: These structures, too, are built in a controlled 
factory environment. However, the individual parts of a room or unit are 
built separately and then put together completely before the entire 
structure is transported to the site and assembled onto the foundation. 
Another difference here is that instead of concrete, materials used are a 
combination of energy­efficient wood, metal and glass. Modular 
construction companies like Mobile Modular and PCL are some 
companies that specialize in this type of construction.

Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a 
factory or other manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies 
or sub­assemblies to the construction site where the structure is to be 
located. The term is used to distinguish this process from the more 
conventional construction practice of transporting the basic materials to 
the construction site where all assembly is carried out.
The term prefabrication also applies to the manufacturing of things other 
than structures at a fixed site. It is frequently used when fabrication of a 
section of a machine or any movable structure is shifted from the main 
manufacturing site to another location, and the section is supplied 
assembled and ready to fit. It is not generally used to refer to electrical or 
electronic components of a machine, or mechanical parts such as pumps, 
gearboxes and compressors which are usually supplied as separate items, 
but to sections of the body of the machine which in the past were 
fabricated with the whole machine. Prefabricated parts of the body of the 
machine may be called 'sub­assemblies' to distinguish them from the other 
components.
The most widely used form of prefabrication in building and civil 
engineering is the use of prefabricated concrete and prefabricated steel 
sections in structures where a particular part or form is repeated many 
times. It can be difficult to construct the formwork required to mould 
concrete components on site, and delivering wet concrete to the site before
it starts to set requires precise time management. Pouring concrete sections
in a factory brings the advantages of being able to re­use moulds and the 
concrete can be mixed on the spot without having to be transported to and 
pumped wet on a congested construction site. Prefabricating steel sections 
reduces on­site cutting and welding costs as well as the associated hazards.