The University of Texas at Austin Maggie Becker Adv.

Reinforced Concrete Members

Civil, Arch. & Env. Engineering Jose I. Gualavisi D. CE 383L

Fiber-reinforced Polymer (FRP) Reinforcement

This paper presents an analytical description of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforcement in concrete
structures. The material properties, flexural and shear behaviors, bond and development, and applications
will be discussed.

1 INTRODUCTION
Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) is a material that can be used as a reinforcement for concrete structures. It
consists of small fibers embedded in a matrix. The original use of this material was for the automotive and
aerospace sectors, but in the last ten years has been increasingly used for a wide spread of civil engineering
projects. A major advantage to FRP in reinforced-concrete members is that the material does not corrode.
Corrosion is one of the primary factors which has led to the current unsatisfactory state of our infrastructure.
It causes damage such as delamination or spalling of concrete, loss of steel reinforcement, and in some cases
failure.

FRP can be used for the design of new structures, or the repair of existing structures that has failed or has
signs of oncoming failure. Because infrastructure owners can no longer afford to upgrade and replace existing
structures using the same materials and methodologies as have been used in the past, they are looking to
newer technologies and rehabilitation schemes, such as non-corrosive externally-bonded FRP reinforcement,
that will prolong the useful service lives of concrete structures and reduce maintenance costs (Committee I.
E., 2004).

The behavior of the reinforced members depends on the composite action between FRP reinforcement and
the concrete member. Therefore, it is required a good understanding of the mechanical characteristics of the
concrete, the FRP reinforcement and the bonding material between them. Besides of the mechanical
characteristics and the individual behavior of these materials, it is also important to comprehend the
composite behavior of the members. Consequently, many engineers have been doing some research to find
the bonding material that better reaches the desired composite behavior to have a good performance of the
structures.

2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

2.1 CONSTITUENTS
FRP reinforcing materials consist of high-strength fibers that are embedded in a matrix (resin). The fibers
have small diameters that provide strength and stiffness. The main purpose of the fibers is to carry the load
along the length. The main function of the matrix is to transfer that the fibers carry through shear stresses.
These develop of the interface between the fiber and the matrix. The matrix can also function as a protective
barrier to the fibers. In concrete structures, the fibers are typically carbon, glass, or aramid, and the matrices
are typically epoxies made of thermosetting or thermoplastic. The stress-strain relationship between the
matrices and the fibers is shown in Figure 3. (Committee I. C., 2007).

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The University of Texas at Austin Maggie Becker Adv. Reinforced Concrete Members
Civil, Arch. & Env. Engineering Jose I. Gualavisi D. CE 383L

Figure 1 Photo of different fibers and matrices Figure 2 Interaction between the fibers and matrix. (Committee
I. C., 2007)and (Sethi, 2015)

2.2 TENSILE STRESS AND STRAIN PROPERTIES

FRP reinforcing bars are typically linear elastic up to failure. They do not have a yielding plateau and strain
hardening like reinforcing steel bars do. As shown in Figure 4, FRP bars have a significant different tensile
behavior than steel reinforcement. The major differences are that the FRP does not yield, and they generally
have a much higher strength than the yield strength of steel. FRP reinforcement also has strains at failure
that are often considerably less than steel.

The specific properties of different FRP materials vary a great deal from one manufacturer to another and
depend on the fiber and matrix type, the fiber volume content, and the orientation of the fibers within the
matrix, among other factors. The variation can be seen in Figure 4 which plots various tensile stress-strain
relationships for various FRP systems. Different numerical weights, tensile strengths, tensile elastic moduli,
and strains at failure for different FRP strengthening systems are summarized in Table 1. In general, the
MBrace system has a higher tensile strength and the Tyfo system has the lowest tensile strength.

Figure 3 Stress-strain relationship for fibers, matrices, and FRP Figure 4 Tensile stress-strain plots for various FRP strengthening
(Committee I. C., 2007) systems (Committee I. C., 2007)

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The University of Texas at Austin Maggie Becker Adv. Reinforced Concrete Members
Civil, Arch. & Env. Engineering Jose I. Gualavisi D. CE 383L

Table 1 Properties of Currently Available FRP Strengthening Systems (Committee I. C., 2007)

2.3 THERMAL PROPERTIES

Like many properties of FRP Reinforcement, the thermal expansion of the bars is dependent on the material
of the fibers and matrices. The thermal properties of the fibers are also drastically different in the longitudinal
and transverse directions therefore they have different values for the two directions. High temperatures can
have a negative effect on FRP bars and therefore should be carefully considered in fire resistant structures.
The FRP reinforcement itself cannot burn when embedded in concrete, but due to the lack of oxygen, the
epoxy can soften. This will occur at different temperatures depending on the epoxy but is generally around
110°C or 230°F. (Committee I. C., 2007).

2.4 KEY ADVANTAGES TO THE MATERIAL

The material properties of FRP reinforcement have many advantages to conventional steel materials. One
important property is that FRP bars do not corrode and have demonstrated durability in many harsh
environments (Committee I. C., 2007). They also high a higher strength-to-weight ratio than steel. For
example, FRP typically weighs one fifth the weight of steel and the tensile strength can be more than eight
times as high (Committee I. C., 2007).

3 FLEXURAL AND SHEAR BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS

There have been many studies that show great advantages to using FRP reinforcement. Yet, the material
must be studied for its unique behaviors to obtain efficient use. Flexural and shear strategies have been
researched to implement ways for both FRP reinforcing bars and concrete to act together to their full
potential.

December 7, 2018 3
The University of Texas at Austin Maggie Becker Adv. Reinforced Concrete Members
Civil, Arch. & Env. Engineering Jose I. Gualavisi D. CE 383L

3.1 FLEXURAL BEHAVIOR IN REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

The fundamental design methods for FRP reinforced concrete is like that of steel reinforced concrete.
Equilibrium, compatibility, and constitutive relationships between the materials define the principles of the
code. This will hold true regardless of what the reinforcing material is, but the unique material properties will
need to be accounted for (440, ACI 440R-07 - Report on Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures, 2007). FRP reinforcement is an elastic-brittle material of an anisotropic nature.
Therefore, when designing for flexure, the ultimate capacity of the reinforced concrete member will either
be defined by the rupture of the FRP reinforcement, the concrete crushing, or both simultaneously. Yet,
because the FRP bars do not have a yield plateau like steel does, there is little warning before failure. This
makes concrete crushing the desired mode of failure. Thus, strength-reduction factors or material-resistance
factors are generally lower for FRP-reinforced concrete members than for steel-reinforced concrete
members. In all cases, FRP design guidelines and codes are consistent with the applicable reinforced concrete
design codes. No attempt is made to adjust load factors; thus, only strength-reduction factors or material-
resistance factors are adjusted to reflect the use of FRP (440, ACI 440R-07 - Report on Fiber-Reinforced
Polymer (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, 2007).

With lower strength-reduction factors, it is often required to increase the reinforcement ratio higher than
the balanced reinforcement ratio. This can cause the entire concrete member to be stiffer since more energy
will be absorbed by the concrete rather than the FRP rupture. An advantage to a stiffer member is it is more
likely to satisfy serviceability requirements.

3.2 SHEAR BEHAVIOR IN REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

The use of FRP reinforcement instead of traditional steel bars is especially advantageous for shear
reinforcement since stirrups are commonly placed near the exterior of the reinforced concrete member. Bars
that are closer to the exterior are at greater risk of exposure. This would cause bars made of steel more likely
to corrode and fail where FRP bars would be unaffected (Oller, 2006).

Shear behavior in reinforced concrete is less understood than flexural behavior. One approach for calculating
shear capacity that is used in ACI 318 is calculated by the combination of five components: a) shear resistance
in uncracked compressive concrete; b) aggregate interlock; c) dowel action from longitudinal reinforcement;
d) shear resistance from transverse steel; and e) the residual tensile strength existing between inclined cracks
(ACI 318, 2014). Each of these components will be affected by the FRP reinforcement properties.

FRP reinforcement has a lower shear stiffness than steel (Oller, 2006). When used in concrete members, this
causes larger crack widths which reduces the shear capacity from aggregate interlock, the tensile strength
between cracks, and the dowel action from longitudinal bars (Oller, 2006). According to a study by Tottori
and Wakui (Tottori, 1993)the dowel capacity for FRP reinforcement is 70% than that of steel reinforcement.
For typical bar sizes, it is likely the dowel action can simply be neglected since it will be a relatively small
contribution to the shear capacity (Fico R, 2008).

According to Fico et al. (Fico R, 2008) the uncracked concrete contribution to the shear capacity will also be
dependent on the reinforcement material. The contribution differs due to the change in neutral axis. The
neutral axis in a reinforced concrete beam will be lower when using FRP reinforcement than in steel before

December 7, 2018 4
The University of Texas at Austin Maggie Becker Adv. Reinforced Concrete Members
Civil, Arch. & Env. Engineering Jose I. Gualavisi D. CE 383L

the steel yields. This also differs since the FRP does not yield, therefore the compression area does not
decrease further with increasing load up to failure (Oller, 2006).

The stirrups depend on the shear stresses in the concrete member. The process is different for FRP
reinforcement than for steel since the FRP bars do not yield and are linear elastic up to failure (Oller, 2006).
According to Whitehead et. al. (Whitehead, 2005) it has been shown that FRP stirrups tend to fail
prematurely, particularly if crossed by a shear crack in the bend portion. This report also noted early failure
in areas of high bond strength. These areas may lead to overstrain, which can cause over stress and eventual
rupture (Whitehead, 2005). These factors highlight the importance of bond and the geometry of the FRP
reinforcement when resisting shear forces in reinforced concrete. Following the failure of the first stirrup,
the forces then go to the nearest stirrup and then failure progresses. Due to this behavior, the strain that the
FRP stirrups can hold must be limited.

FRP and steel reinforcement resist shear forces by the same mechanisms, yet due to the differing material
properties deeper and wider shear cracks will develop. Consequently, the shear capacity of a member
constructed with FRP reinforcement should be reduced more than the capacity is reduced with steel
reinforcement (Oller, 2006).

The current ACI design approach for FRP reinforced concrete (ACI 440) is consistent with the ACI design
approach for steel reinforcement (ACI 318) (440, ACI 440.1R-15 - Guide for the Design and Construction of
Structural Concrete Reinforced with Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Bars, 2015). This method designs based
on required strength due to the loads, fatigue and creep, rupture endurance, and makes sure serviceability
limits are met. It is common that the latter of the criteria control, particularly in FRP reinforcements that use
glass or aramid that have a relatively lower stiffness. This code reduces the shear capacity with the use of a
strength-reduction factor that is related to the ductility of the failure mode. Bond and development of
reinforcement

4 BOND AND DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMENT

Similarly to steel, the bond of FRP depends on many factors, such as, the geometry of the concrete member,
the system used to strengthen de member, the pullout resistance, the bond-stress distribution, the cover
splitting, the bond-crack appearance among others. Indeed, the efficiency of the FRP is achieved by enlarging
and ensuring the contact surface between FRP and concrete and delaying the FRP debonding.

4.1 BOND AND DELAMINATION

Cracking of the concrete substrate complicates the actual distribution of bond stress in an FRP laminate. The
general elastic distribution of interfacial shear stress and normal stress of the substrate in concrete
complicates the actual distribution along an FRP laminate bonded to uncracked concrete is shown in the
Figure 5 below.

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The University of Texas at Austin Maggie Becker Adv. Reinforced Concrete Members
Civil, Arch. & Env. Engineering Jose I. Gualavisi D. CE 383L

Figure 5 Conceptual interfacial shear and normal stress Figure 6 Delamination caused by tension failure of the concrete
distributions along the length of a bonded FRP laminate cover (440, ACI 440.2R-08 - Guide for the Design and
(Roberts and Haji-Kazemi 1989; Malek et al. 1998). Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for
Strengthening Concrete Structures, 2008)

There are many constituent materials in FRP systems, the most common being resins, primers, putties,
saturants, adhesives and fibers. Resins are used in the manufacturing and installation of FRP systems. The
resins used in FRP systems have the following characteristics: Compatibility with and adhesion to the
reinforcing fiber; compatibility with and adhesion to the concrete; compatibility with and adhesion to the
FRP system—substrate interface; resistance to environmental effects; workability during installation; resin
pot life consistent with time needed for the application; and development of appropriate mechanical
properties for the FRP system. Primers provide better adhesive bond for resins or adhesives. Putty fillers fill
the small cavities in the substrate providing a smooth surface to bond the FRP system. Saturating resin is
used to saturate the reinforcement fibers and fix them in place to ensure an effective transfer load. Adhesives
are used to attach composites to themselves as well as to concrete. The most common adhesives are epoxies,
acrylics and urethanes. Epoxies provide a high temperature resistance and high-strength bond. Acrylics
provide moderate temperature resistance and rapid curing; and urethanes provide toughness.

4.2 MEMBERS WITH INTERNALLY BONDED FRP REINFORCEMENT

The load transfer between the fibers and the concrete is influenced by the bond characteristic, therefore, the
behavior of the structure depends on the integrity of the bond. Many test methods have been developed to
determine the bond strength of FRP rods and bars in concrete, such as, pullout tests, flexural bond tests,
direct axial tension tests. The pullout tests are used to determine the splitting tendency of the bar, but it is
not valid to determine the development length for flexural design. The flexural bond tests represent the
beam stress field more closely and establish the relative bond strength of steel reinforcing bars in concrete.
The direct axial tension test studies the bond strength indirectly from the width of the concrete block and
the crack spacing.
On the other hand, the transfer and development length of a tendon in a prestressed concrete member
depends on the perimeter configuration area, the surface condition of the FRP, and, the load transfer method
between the concrete and the fibers. The transfer length is the length needed to transfer the prestressing
force to the concrete. In general, the transfer length needed is shorter than that of steel. The following table
(Table 7.3 – ACI 440R-07) gives the typical values for transfer length and development length of different FRP
tendons.
Table 2 Typical transfer length and development length based on tests of various FRP tendons (440, ACI 440R-
07 - Report on Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, 2007)

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The University of Texas at Austin Maggie Becker Adv. Reinforced Concrete Members
Civil, Arch. & Env. Engineering Jose I. Gualavisi D. CE 383L

DIAMETER mm
MATERIAL TYPE 𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 /𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝒍𝒍𝒕𝒕 /𝒅𝒅𝒃𝒃 𝒍𝒍𝒅𝒅 /𝒅𝒅𝒃𝒃
(in)
Aramid Arapree 10.0 (0.39) 0.5 to 0.7 16 to 50 100
Leadline 7.9 (0.31) 0.5 to 0.7 50 to 80 175
Carbon
CFCC 8.3 (0.33) 0.5 to 0.7 50 N/A
Steel Seven-wire 12.7 (0.50) 0.75 50 to 60 106

4.3 MEMBERS WITH EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP REINFORCEMENT

In structural rehabilitation it is common to use externally bonded FRP plates or sheets as flexural and shear
strengthening. Delamination or debonding are a group of mechanisms that form when failure happens before
achieving their FRP capacity. Therefore, the behavior of the FRP-adhesive-concrete interface region is the
most important parameter in strengthening a concrete structure with externally bonded FRP. There are three
types of test methods to determine the bond behavior in strengthened concrete: shear bond, tension or
mixed mode (shear and normal stresses). The shear bond type test is one common test that is used to
determine the local interfacial shear bond behavior and the bond strain distribution. The tension type bond
tests determine the strength of the FRP-concrete bond under pure normal stresses. Finally, the mixed mode
bond test is a better representation of the interface bond behavior in structures reinforced with FRP sheets;
these methods are used to determine the fracture behavior of the bond interface.

Common FRP system forms suitable for the strengthening of structural members are: Wet layup systems;
Prepreg systems; Precured systems; and, Near-surface-mounted (NSM) systems.
Wet layup FRP systems consist of dry unidirectional or multidirectional fiber sheets or fabrics impregnated
with a saturating resin on site. The system is saturated and cured in place. The most common Wet layup
systems are: Dry unidirectional fiber sheets (fibers in one planar direction), dry multidirectional fiber sheets
(at least two planar directions), and, dry fiber tows (wound or mechanically applied).
Prepreg systems are partially cured multidirectional or unidirectional fiber sheets or fabrics pre-saturated
with resin. These fibers are bonded with or without additional resin application and cured in place. The most
common types of prepreg FRP systems are: Unidirectional fiber sheets (fibers in one planar direction);
multidirectional fiber sheets (fibers in at least two directions), and; fiber tows (wound or mechanically
applied)
Precured systems are a variety of composite shapes manufactured off site. To bond the precured shapes to
the concrete surface an adhesive, primer, and putty are used. The three common types of precured systems
are: precured unidirectional laminate sheets; precured multidirectional grids, and; precured shells to provide
seismic confinement.
Near-surface-mounted (NSM) FRP laminates and bars is another strengthening technology commonly used
in members in which the concrete surfaces are weak, very rough, or require significant surface preparation.
To install the bars or laminates, first a groove is cut, roughed and cleaned; then, the groove is filled halfway
with an adhesive and the bar or laminate is placed; finally, the rest of the groove is filled completely with the
structural adhesive. The groove dimensions control the mode of failure of NSM FRP bars and strips. Widening
of the groove reduce the induced tensile stresses at the epoxy-concrete interface and the debonding of NSM
bars. Therefore, failure within the epoxy, the concrete, or both, controls the debonding. Additionally, a
groove size-to-bar diameter ratio equals to two is recommended. The epoxy offers superior mechanical
performance as groove filler with respect to cement paste; the most suitable types of bar for NSM

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The University of Texas at Austin Maggie Becker Adv. Reinforced Concrete Members
Civil, Arch. & Env. Engineering Jose I. Gualavisi D. CE 383L

applications are CFRP ribbed and CFRP spirally wound bars. Sena Cruz and Barros (2004) concluded that the
concrete strength had marginal influence on the pullout behavior and that various parameters defining the
local bond stress-slip relationship were dependent on the slip at peak bond stress. For NSM systems, the
minimum dimension of the grooves should be at least 1.5db (db = FRP bar diameter) when an epoxy-based
paste is used to embed the bar (De Lorenzis and Nanni 2001; Hassan and Rizkalla 2003). When a rectangular
bar with a large aspect ratio is used, the limit may lose significance due to constructability. In such a case, a
minimum groove size of 3.0ab x 1.5bb is suggested, where ab is the smallest bar dimension. In addition, the
minimum clear groove spacing for NSM FRP bars should be greater than twice the depth of the NSM groove
to avoid overlapping of the tensile stresses around the NSM bars.

Figure 7 Minimum dimensions of grooves (440, ACI 440.2R-08 - Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP
Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures, 2008)

For proper development length, 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 expressed in in. (mm), of externally bonded FRP systems (Figure 8
Transfer of force in NSM FRP bars ):

𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓 ∗𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓
⎧� 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
50∗𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑙𝑙𝑑𝑑 =
⎨ 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓 ∗𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
�2∗𝑓𝑓
⎩ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

Figure 8 Transfer of force in NSM FRP bars (440, ACI 440.2R-08

- Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded
FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures, 2008)

where 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 is the thickness the FRP system and 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is the average tensile strength of the masonry. Instead of
specific data, when 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 is unknown it may be assumed equal to 0.1𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚′ (specified masonry compressive
strength, psi (MPa))
External unbonded tendons is another effective reinforcement method using FRP. This type of tendons is
strained less than bonded tendons, but the provided strength is significantly less than that of a bonded
tendon. Additionally, the behavior of the unbonded tendons depends on the anchorage, and at the saddle
point a cushion material or Teflon must be used to reduce the friction between the tendons and the saddle.

December 7, 2018 8
The University of Texas at Austin Maggie Becker Adv. Reinforced Concrete Members
Civil, Arch. & Env. Engineering Jose I. Gualavisi D. CE 383L

4.4 STRUCTURALLY INTEGRATED STAY IN PLACE FRP FORMS

This kind of formwork take advantage of the FRP and the concrete in addition to reducing the construction
time and simplifying the construction. Some of the studied configurations of SIP FRP are shown in Figure 9
below.

Figure 9 Examples of different configurations of SIP FRP form systems for structural concrete members (440, ACI 440R-07 - Report on
Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, 2007)

The composite action of SIP FRP-concrete, and the load transfer depends on their interface bond. There have
been proposed three methods to achieve the required bond strength. 1) Mechanical interlock–
Circumferential ridges, or a grid of pockets on the inside of the FRP form, or extensions of the FRP shell into
the concrete provide enough mechanical interlock. 2) Chemical bond between concrete and FRP using special
concrete adhesives. The cost and the difficulty of application are the disadvantages of this method. 3)
Shrinkage-reducing admixtures used in concrete mixtures help to keep the concrete engaged with the FRP.
In axial members, the bond between the FRP and the concrete is less important than that in flexural
members. The needed bond in axial member could be achieved using shear connectors or adhesives.
Longitudinal ribs can increase the compressive and buckling resistance, while the horizontal ribs help to
maintain the cross-sectional shape of the skin.

4.5 DEBONDING.
In reinforced concrete members having relatively long shear spans or where the end peeling has been
effectively mitigated, debonding may initiate at flexural cracks, flexural/shear cracks, or both, near the region
of maximum moment. Most externally bonded FRP failures are due to debonding. There are five common
debonding modes that have been observed in FRP applications. The first of them is the axial intermediate
crack debonding. This type of debonding have occurred only in laboratory on direct pull tests (no curvature
in the concrete substrate). The second mode is the plate end debonding, in which the end debonding
propagates through the cover concrete. Using transverse clamping reinforcement (U stirrups of FRP) or
extending the FRP curtailment into the uncracked region of a beam can avoid plate end debonding. The third
mode is the Intermediate crack-induced which initiates at flexure or flexure-shear cracks and spreads in the
direction if the decreasing moment. The presence of clamping reinforcement reduces the intermediate crack-
induced debonding. The fourth mode is the critical diagonal crack-induced debonding that is associated with
the most critical shear crack in the member. Controlling the formation of the shear crack is the method to
mitigate the critical diagonal crack-induced debonding. Finally, the interfacial shear-induced debonding; this
mode is related to the shear interface between stress concentrations, such us in prestressed members where
cracking is blocked.

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The University of Texas at Austin Maggie Becker Adv. Reinforced Concrete Members
Civil, Arch. & Env. Engineering Jose I. Gualavisi D. CE 383L

4.6 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH STRAIGHT BARS

Development length is the shortest length of bar in which the stress can increase from the initial zero stress
to the ultimate strength. The bond capacity of FRP is developed over a critical length 𝑙𝑙𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 . To develop the
effective FRP stress at a section, the available anchorage length of FRP should exceed the value given by the
following equation. (Teng et al. 2001)

⎧0.057 ∗ 𝑛𝑛 ∗ 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓 ∗ 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 → 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

⎪ �
�𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′
𝑙𝑙𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
⎨ 𝑛𝑛 ∗ 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓 ∗ 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓
⎪ � → 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
⎩ �𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′

Where 𝑛𝑛 is the number of plies of FRP reinforcement, 𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓 tensile modulus of elasticity of FRP in psi (MPa), 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓
nominal thickness of one ply of FRP reinforcement in in. (mm), and, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′ specified compressive strength of
concrete in psi (MPa)

4.7 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF BENT BARS

Based on the results of the Ehsani et al. (1996b) study, the expression for the development length of a 90-
𝑑𝑑
degree hooked bar was proposed as follows: 𝑙𝑙𝑏𝑏ℎ𝑓𝑓 = 𝐾𝐾4 ∗ 𝑏𝑏
�𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′

The K4 factor is 1820 (150 for SI units) for bars with 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 less than 75,000 psi (517 MPa). This factor should be
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
multiplied by � � for bars having a tensile strength between 75,000 and 150,000 psi (517 and 1034
75,000 517
MPa).
In addition, a value of 1.3ℓd is recommended for all splices.

5 APPLICATIONS
In structural engineering, FRP can be applied to strengthen beams, columns, piles, piers and slabs in buildings
or bridges. For strengthening beams FRP increases the strength of beam, deflection capacity of beam and
stiffness; in addition, FRP strips can be pasted in 'U' shape around the sides and bottom of a beam, resulting
in higher shear resistance. Columns can be wrapped with FRP to restrain the lateral expansion and increase
their strength; in seismically active regions is very common to use FRP as confinement in structurally deficient
RC columns to increase their rotational capacity and hence their ductility in plastic hinge regions. Slabs are
strengthened bonding FRP strips at their tension face. In the case of beams and slabs, the effectiveness of
FRP strengthening depends on the performance of the resin chosen for bonding. Typically, carbon fiber was
applied to prestressed bridges, and, glass FRP for non-prestressed reinforcement. Prestressed applications
of FRP reinforcement have predominated to strengthen bridges. The double-T panels are used in a multi-
span prestressed concrete bridge system utilizing internal bonded tendons and continuous externally draped
tendons.

Furthermore, strengthening materials for masonry structures have been studied the last years, and, the
conclusion is that bonded strips or sheets to the surface of masonry according to its principal tensile stress
field could be used as an alternative strengthening material. In terms of design, masonry strengthened with

December 7, 2018 10
The University of Texas at Austin Maggie Becker Adv. Reinforced Concrete Members
Civil, Arch. & Env. Engineering Jose I. Gualavisi D. CE 383L

FRP strips or sheets may be treated in the same manner as RC, following the procedures of modern design
codes (Triantafillou 1998).

It is possible to use FRP in rehabilitation of structural members even after these have been severely damaged
due to loading conditions. FRP materials bonded to the tension face of a concrete bean or slab to provide
additional tensile reinforcement. Applying FRP to the sides oriented perpendicularly to the longitudinal axis
of a concrete beam provides additional shear reinforcement. Wrapping a column with FRP sheets, increase
the strength and ductility of the concrete.

Figure 10 Flexural Figure 11 Shear Figure 12 Confinement

The San Patricio County bridge (Molded Fiber Glass (MFG) developed a molded U-shaped girder for use with
a reinforced concrete deck called a hybrid FRP bridge system.); Crowchild Trail Bridge, Alberta – Canada (GFRP
C-bars were used to provide the continuity and to minimize the transverse cracks of the steel free deck over
the intermediate bridge piers.); Hall’s Harbor Wharf, Nova Scotia (The pile caps contain an outer layer of
GFRP V-Rod reinforcement under low stress protects an inner layer of minimum steel reinforcement. The
deck panels contain synthetic fiber-reinforced concrete. The panels also contain GFRP rods to reinforce
against uplift force created by wave action during severe storms.); Laurier Taché Parking Garage, Gatineau
(Glass FRP V-Rod bars have been used in the structural slabs of the largest PWGSC’s parking structure);
Highway 40 East-Montreal (Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement with GFRP bars)

6 CONCLUSIONS
Fiber reinforced polymer is a useful material for the reinforcement in concrete structures. The material is
non-corrosive, has a high tensile strength, and is lightweight. The behavior of the material acts differently
than steel as it is perfectly elastic until failure, and ruptures without warning. The design method for FRP
reinforcement uses the same procedures as steel for flexural and shear design yet uses lower reduction
factors for capacity.

FRP reinforcement could be used externally bonded, internally bonded or as a structurally integrated SIP
form. In all these types of FRP applications, bond is necessary to transfer forces from concrete to the FRP
reinforcement in flexural and shear solicitations. In addition, bond failure modes must be considered properly
to reach the desirable behavior of the reinforced members, and therefore, the desired strength in the
structure. On the other hand, not only bond must be taken into account but also a development length to
attain the effective FRP stress and achieve the bond capacity of FRP.

FRP reinforcement should not be considered as a replacement of steel in structural intervention applications
but as an alternative to the conventional reinforcement method of addition of missing steel reinforcement.
Some of the field applications are strengthening of beams, columns, walls, bridge girders, and in
rehabilitation of members after having been damaged due to loading conditions.

December 7, 2018 11
The University of Texas at Austin Maggie Becker Adv. Reinforced Concrete Members
Civil, Arch. & Env. Engineering Jose I. Gualavisi D. CE 383L

7 REFERENCES
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Farmington Hills: American Concrete Institute.

440, C. A. (2008). ACI 440.2R-08 - Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for
Strengthening Concrete Structures. Farmington Hills: American Concrete Institute.

440, C. A. (2010). ACI 440.7R-10 - Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
Systems for Strengthening Unreinforced Masonry Structures. Farmington Hills: American Concrete Institute.

440, C. A. (2012). ACI 440.3R-12 - Guide Test Methods for Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites for Reinforcing or
Strengthening Concrete and Masonry Structures. Farmington Hills: American Concrete Institute.

440, C. A. (2015). ACI 440.1R-15 - Guide for the Design and Construction of Structural Concrete Reinforced with Fiber-
Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Bars. Farmington Hills: American Concrete Institute.

ACI 318, A. C. (2014). ACI 318-14 - Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete. American Concrete Institute.

Committee, I. C. (2007). Design Manual No. 3 - Reinforcing Concrete Structures with Fibre Reinforced Polymers.
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Committee, I. E. (2004). An Introduction to FRP Strengthening of Concrete Structures. Canada: ISIS Canada.

Fico R, P. A. (2008). Assessment of Eurocode-like design equations for the shear capacity of FRP RC members. Compos
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Hoult, N. A. (2008). Does the Use of FRP Reinforcement Change the One-Way Shear Behavior of Reinforced Concrete
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Lawrence C. Bank, P. P. (2006). Application of FRP Composites to Bridges in the USA. Tokyo-Japan: Japan Society of Civil
Engineers (JSCE).

Newhook, J. G. (2001). Bending Behavior and Deformability of Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Reinforced Concrete
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Oller, E. M. (2006). Shear Strength of FRP-Reinforced Concrete Beams without Transverse Reinforcement. ACI
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Sethi, S. (2015). Environmental effects on fibre reinforced polymeric composites: Evolving reasons and remarks on
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Tottori. (1993). Shear capacity of RX and PC beams using FRP reinforcement . Detroit, Michigan: American Concrete
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Whitehead, P. A. (2005). Novel Shear Reinforcement for Fiber-Reinforced Polymer-Reinforced and Prestressed
Concrete. ACI Structural Journal.

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