Polyester Fiber

Polyester fibre is a “manufactured fibre in which the fibre forming substance is any
long chain synthetic polymer composed at least 85% by weight of an ester of a
dihydric alcohol (HOROH) and terephthalic acid (p–HOOC–C6H4COOH)”.

From: Bioprocessing of Textiles, 2014

Related terms:

Nylon, Glass, Poly(propylene), Dye, Polyamide, Resistance, Fiber, Polyester

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Learn more about Polyester Fiber

Applications of Porous Ceramics

P.S. Liu, G.F. Chen, in Porous Materials, 2014

Comparison with Polyester Fiber Wool

Polyester fiber wool (Figure 6.9) has good elasticity and toughness, and it can be
used as a filler for sound absorption [37]. The porous oxide composites used in the
comparison testing have a thickness of 28 mm, whereas the polyester fiber wool has
a thickness of 44.14 mm. It can be seen in the coefficient curves (Figure 6.10) that
the sound absorption coefficient of the oxide composite is higher than that of the
polyester fiber wool in the frequency ranges of 500–1,600 Hz and 3,150–4,000 Hz;
meanwhile, it is lower in other frequency ranges. On the whole, the sound absorption
coefficients for these two materials are comparable, but considering the greater
thickness of the polyester fiber wool, the oxide composite is better in this regard.

Figure 6.9. The morphology of the polyester fiber.

Figure 6.10. Comparison of the sound absorption coefficient of porous oxide

composite and polyester fiber (44.14-mm thickness for the polyester fiber; 28-mm
thickness for the oxide composite).
> Read full chapter

Bioprocessing of synthetic fibres

Dr.C. Vigneswaran, ... Dr.P. Kandhavadivu, in Bioprocessing of Textiles, 2014

4.2.2 Polyester fibres – chemical structure

Polyester fibre is a “manufactured fibre in which the fibre forming substance is any
long chain synthetic polymer composed at least 85% by weight of an ester of a di-
hydric alcohol (HOROH) and terephthalic acid (p–HOOC–C6H4COOH)”. Figure 4.1
shows the chemical structure of polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The most widely
used polyester fibre is made from the linear polymer poly (ethylene terephtalate),
and this polyester class is generally referred to simply as PET. High strength, high
modulus, low shrinkage, heat set stability, light fastness and chemical resistance
account for the great versatility of PET.

Fig. 4.1. Chemical structure of polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

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Structure and properties of textile ma-

terials
S. Grishanov, in Handbook of Textile and Industrial Dyeing, 2011

2.8.2 Polyester fibre

Polyester fibre is an example from the large group of ‘truly’ man-made fibres since
they are produced from synthesised polymers which do not exist in nature. There
are many different types of polyester but all of them are produced by condensation
reaction and they all contain ester functional group COO. The most important type
of polyester is poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), commonly referred to simply as
polyester. This is the product of condensation reaction between ethylene diglycol
and therephthalic acid as follows:

[2.8]

This reaction is carried out at temperature reaching 290°C and a pressure of 400 kPa.
Polyester is a thermoplastic polymer which can be re-melted and remoulded. This
property is used in the production and recycling of polyester fibres. Typically poly-
ester fibres are produced as continuous filaments either from a granulated polymer
(batch process) or by a continuous polymerisation. In the batch process granules are
first dried at a temperature of about 170°C in order to reduce the moisture content
and thus prevent the hydrolysis of the polymer which leads to the deterioration
of its properties. The granules are then melted and extruded through a spinneret
at a temperature between 265 and 290°C. This process is often referred to as
melt-spinning; the production speed may be as high as 4000 m/min. The emerging
jets of polymer are immediately solidified by the flow of cool air. They are then drawn
at a temperature above Tg (69°C) to improve the orientation of polymer chains and
increase strength.

The structure of polyester fibres is a combination of crystalline and noncrystalline

regions.

The tensile properties of polyester fibres vary depending on the parameters of the
manufacturing process. Similar to other man-made fibres polyester can be produced
with a variety of characteristics: for example, high tenacity and low extensibility
(85 cN/tex and 7%, respectively) or with low tenacity and high extensibility (26 cN/tex
and 40%, respectively) (Lewin and Pearce, 1985).

Polyester fibres can be produced as staple fibres suitable for blending with cotton
in the range of linear densities of 0.13–0.33 tex and average lengths from 38 to
60 mm or for processing on worsted/woollen systems at linear density in the range
0.33–0.67 tex and length 80–100 mm.

Polyester fibres are characterised by low moisture absorption, an ability to accumu-

late electrostatic charges on the surface, and tendency to the formation of entangled
bundles of fibres on the fabric surface (pilling effect).

Polyester fibres are resistant to the action of dilute acids, alkalis and organic solvents
but can be badly damaged at high concentrations.

Due to the highly crystalline and dense structure and the presence of benzene rings
which provide rigidity to the amorphous regions polyester fibres should be dyed at
high temperatures of up to 140°C and elevated pressures. Usually polyester fibres
are dyed with disperse dyes; some vat dyes of low molecular weight and azo dyes
can be used as well.

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Flame retardancy testing and regula-
tion of soft furnishings
S. Nazaré, R.D. Davis, in Handbook of Fire Resistant Textiles, 2013

17.5.3 Residential upholstered furniture

Polyester fiber battings, also known as polyester wrap, are commonly used to provide
enhanced aesthetic appearance in residential upholstered furniture. Polyester fiber
battings provide significant barrier effect when tested with smoldering cigarette
ignition; however, it fails to protect the underlying cushioning material when an
open flaming ignition source is used.62 The polyester fiber melts away from the
smoldering cigarette and extinguishes, whereas, once ignited, the polymer melt
burns vigorously in the presence of flaming ignition, resulting in substantial weight
loss and increased temperature of the system. Thus, the polyester fiber batting acts
as an additional fuel and the whole system fails.

Fire barrier fabrics created by bonding a highly fire resistant ‘layer’ to one of the
textile components are also commonly used in residential upholstered furniture.
Bonding is generally accomplished by mechanical processes such as stitch bonding
or needle punching, or thermal (heat bonding) processes. Adhesives can also be used
for laminating various layers of barrier material. Laminated/coated fabrics eliminate
the air space between the layers of barrier fabrics and maintain the aesthetics of the
exterior fabric while still providing better fire performance.61,67

In the US, there is currently no federal flammability regulation for upholstered

furniture employed in residential buildings, but CPSC has proposed a regulation
(CPSC 16 CFR 163468) that defines a smoldering and open flame metric for these
products. To comply with the 1634 open flame ignition test, it is anticipated that
barrier fabrics will be required for residential upholstered furniture.

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The chemistry, manufacture and ten-

sile behaviour of polyester fibers
J. Militky, in Handbook of Tensile Properties of Textile and Technical Fibres, 2009

Abstract:
Polyester fibers take a leading position among all chemical fibers. The unique prop-
erties of these fibers are due to the presence of aliphatic and aromatic parts in macro-
molecular chains and the regular molecular structure. Poly(ethylene terephthalate)
(PET) is the predominant polyester used for fiber production, not only because of
its good end-use properties and economy of production but in particular because of
the ease of physical and chemical modification, suppressing negative and enhancing
positive properties of PET. Despite the fact that PET and modified PET fibers were
widely investigated, there are still no fully described phenomena of predicting the
mechanical behavior and tensile failure based on the structure or manufacturing
parameters. One of the main reasons is the complex character of changes during
fiber manufacturing and modifications of structure during influence of stress field,
temperature, time and environmental factors.

This chapter provides basic information about chemistry, fabrication technology

and structure of PET and modified PET fibers. The structure evolution during
fiber processing (spinning, drawing and heat treatment) is discussed. The main
approaches to the modeling of tensile behavior of polymeric fibers focused on PET
are presented. The first part (Sections 9.2 and 9.3) reviews manufacturing techniques
of standard polyester fibres and their modifications. The basic routes for synthesizing
and treatment of polyesters are discussed. In the second part (Sections 9.4–9.8), the
technologies of spinning, drawing, heat setting and corresponding complex changes
in fibres are presented. The third part (Sections 9.9–9.11) describes the mechanical
behavior and tensile failure of polyester fibres. At the same time the influence of
internal structure on the mechanical characteristics of polyester fibres is discussed.
The influence of degradation processes due to the environmental effects on strength
and the fracture processes in PET fibers is described.

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An introduction to fibre structure

W.E. Morton, J.W.S. Hearle, in Physical Properties of Textile Fibres (Fourth Edition),
2008

1.7.3 Polyester (PET) fibres

Polyester fibres are very similar to polyamide fibres: both are made in the same
way, by melt-spinning and drawing, from linear condensation polymers. The PET
molecule contains two sorts of group. There is an aliphatic sequence, —CO · O-
 · CH2 · CH2 · O · CO—, containing about the same number of chain links as
the —CH2— sequences in nylon; this aliphatic sequence would be flexible at room
temperature and would give rise only to weak van der Waals interactions with neigh-
bouring chains. The differences from polyamides are mostly due to the benzene ring.
This will give some stiffness to the chain and, in particular, will impede deformation
of disordered regions. Furthermore, there is an appreciable electronic interaction
between neighbouring benzene rings, which gives intermolecular bonding with a
function similar to the hydrogen bonding in polyamides. The crystal lattice of PET
is shown in Fig. 1.49.

1.49. Crystal structure of polyester fibre (Terylene), viewed from side and above, and
(right) configuration of molecules in the crystal [70].

Two interesting comments on polymer constitution can be made in connection with

polyesters. Firstly, aliphatic polyesters, which were originally studied by Carothers
along with polyamides, are unsuitable for use as textile fibres. The influence of the
benzene ring is needed to give firmness to the structure. Secondly, it is only when
the benzene ring lies on the chain axis, because it is joined at opposite ends, that the
molecular shape leads to close enough packing for easy crystallisation. If the ring is
off axis, as in the chemically similar phthalate and isophthalate forms, with the ring
joined at adjacent or next-but-one positions, then the shape impedes crystallisation.

PET does not crystallise as readily as nylon. The rapidly quenched, undrawn fibre
from slow-speed spinning is amorphous. However, as the chains are pulled into
alignment during drawing of the fibre, they lock into crystalline register. This can be
demonstrated by the fact that, during drawing, the optical orientation factor, giving
the overall orientation, increases continuously; but the X-ray diffraction orientation
factor indicates axial orientation of the crystals as soon as the crystallisation is
sufficient to give the diffraction pattern. The crystallinity of drawn fibre is about
50%. The crystallites are more elongated than in nylon, with a probable length/width
ratio of 2 or more. Subject to the above comments, the structure of polyester fibres
is micellar with chain folding or more uniform order/disorder, which is similar to
that described for polyamide fibres and shown in Fig. 1.18.

The engineering development of high-speed spinning had important consequences

for polyester fibre production. The amorphous undrawn fibre is not very stable. Its
structure changes with time, especially if ambient temperatures are high. Conse-
quently, drawing must take place at a controlled time after wind-up of the undrawn
fibre. As wind-up speeds increase, there is competition between the rate of ori-
entation as the filament is elongated and the rate of relaxation of the molecules
within the attenuated filament. Above about 3000 m/min, thread-line orientation
is high enough to cause crystallisation on cooling. This enables the wind-up of a
partially oriented yarn (POY), which is stable and suitable for supply to yarn texturing
companies. The development of orientation is then completed by drawing due to
the difference of input and output speeds on a draw-texturing machine. There is an
economic advantage related to production rates in dividing the orientation process
in this way. For untextured yarns, drawing of POY can be combined with other
processes, such as warping.

As wind-up speeds are further increased, crystallinity increases. Above about 5000-
 m/min, it is possible to produce polyester yarns that can be used in textiles without
further processing, though they are more extensible than conventional polyester
yarns. Information on the effect of spinning speed on polyester fibre formation,
structure and properties is given in a number of research studies by several authors
in the book edited by Ziabicki and Kawai [71] The uncertainty about the structure of
the melt-spun polyester fibres is illustrated by Fig. 1.50, which shows two views of
a polyester fibre spun at 5000 m/min by different authors in this book. Admittedly,
these were drawn to refer to particular ideas, but nevertheless they give very different
impressions of the nature of the structure.

1.50. Two views of the structure of PET filaments spun at 5000 m/min, both from
the same book: drawn by (a) Heuvel and Huisman [69] and (b) Shimizu et al. [71].

As with nylon, additional thermal processing gives more highly oriented, hightenac-
ity polyester yarns.

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Flame retardancy of textiles: new ap-

proaches
S. Bourbigot, in Advances in Fire Retardant Materials, 2008

2.4.2 Polyester
Polyester fibres are the main synthetic fibres used in the industrial manufacturing
sector and can be found in several areas of application. Polyester fibres are used
in apparel for overcoats, jackets, leisure and sportswear, protective clothing, and
so forth. In home furnishings, their uses range from drapery and curtain fabrics
to furniture coverings, pillows and pillow stuffing, and table and bed linen to wall
and floor coverings. As polyester fibres are easily flammable, flame retardancy is a
significant issue.

One of the classical solutions to flame retard polyester is to incorporate a

comonomeric phosphinic acid unit into the PET polymeric chain (trade name Tre-
vira CS).20 Trevira CS polyester does not promote any char formation and there
is evidence that the phosphorus compound acts in the gas phase. Several flame
retardants have also been designed for polyester extrusion (bisphenol-S-oligomer
derivatives from Toyobo, cyclic phosphonates (Antiblaze CU and 1010) from Rhodia
or phosphinate salts from Clariant). Note that the cyclic phosphonate may also be
applied as textile finish as well as a melt additive. All those flame retardants were
developed in the 1980s (except the phosphinate salt) and their modes of action have
been described in the literature20 but very little on this topic has been published
recently.

In the recent published literature, Chen et al.65 proposed the use of a novel anti--
dripping flame retardant, poly(2-hydroxy propylene spirocyclic pentaerythritol bis-
phosphonate) (PPPBP) (Fig. 2.8) to impart flame retardancy and dripping resistance
to PET fabrics. Flammability of PET fabrics treated with PPPBP was investigated by
the vertical burning test which showed a significant enhancement of the flame
retardancy (producing a non-ignitable fabric) and either a significant reduction of
melt dripping at low levels or absence of dripping at higher levels of PPPBP.

2.8. Synthesis scheme of poly(2-hydroxy propylene spirocyclic pentaerythritol bis-

phosphonate) or PPPBP.(from ref. 65)

The same authors investigated in detail the mechanism of flame retardancy of their
FR PET fabrics.66 They showed that it is a condensed-phase mechanism via char
promotion (Fig. 2.9) in which PPPBP produces phosphoric or poly-phosphoric acid
during thermo-decomposition leading to the formation of phosphorus-containing
complexes at higher temperatures. They suggest that the high yields of char are
protected from thermo-oxidation by the presence of phosphoric acid contained in
the charred residue and because of the high thermal stability of C = C groups in the
char.

2.9. Flame retardancy mechanism of FR PET fabrics treated with PPPBP.(from ref. 66)

Concurrently, a new halogen-free FR master batch for polyester has been developed
in our laboratories which at only 5 wt-% incorporation enables PET to obtain
classification according to several standards such as the NF P 92 501 or NF P 92
503 (M classification), FMVSS 302 or BS 5852 (Crib 5).67 Further studies are still in
progress to investigate the mode of action.

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Chemistry of dyeing
D.P. Chattopadhyay, in Handbook of Textile and Industrial Dyeing, 2011

4.3.3 Principles of disperse dye application

Polyester fibres are extremely crystalline, hydrophobic in nature and have a high
glass transition temperature (Tg). Hence the fibre requires a high temperature
around 130°C for its dyeing. To obtain such a high temperature high pressure
(HTHP) is required. This method of dyeing is therefore called the HTHP dyeing
method. For dyeing using the HTHP method special equipment is required which
can withstand such conditions. Alternatively, the fibre can be dyed in a boiling
dyebath at atmospheric pressure in the presence of some plasticisers which are
capable of reducing the Tg of the fibre. These agents are known as carriers; the
method of dyeing is therefore called the carrier dyeing method. There are various
explanations available for the mechanism of carrier action. Amongst them the most
modern explanation is the reduction of the Tg. Many scientists claim that the carriers
work by swelling the fibre but there are many carriers available that cannot swell the
fibre and still they are efficient in their carrier action. As disperse dyes are insoluble
or only slightly soluble in water, they are applied from an aqueous dispersion in
the presence of a dispersing agent. Disperse dyes require slight acidity for their
exhaustion into the fibre. The acidity is achieved by adding acetic acid to achieve
a pH of 4.0–4.5. The insolubility of the disperse dyes enables them to leave the
dye liquor as they are more substantive to the hydrophobic polyester fibre. Heating
the dye liquor will accelerate the strike rate and the diffusion of the dyes inside the
fibre structure. Once within the fibre polymer system, the dye molecules are held by
hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces.

The desirable characteristics of a carrier are (a) ready availability, (b) low price, (c)
non-toxic and lacking an unpleasant odour, (d) efficiency in terms of the amount
required to have a satisfactory effect, (e) easy removal from the dyed material, (f )
non-volatile, (g) inert to the dye and fibre, (h) biodegradable and (i) compatible
with other dyebath auxiliaries. There are many organic compounds which act as
carriers but only a few exhibit sufficiently attractive properties to be used in
commercial dyeing. Carrier dyeing is relatively expensive and most of the carriers
are not environmentally friendly. Many of them have an unpleasant odour and affect
the light-fastness of the dyed materials if not removed efficiently after the dyeing
is over. Because of these limitations the HTHP process is preferred. Besides these
two batch methods there is one process for continuous dyeing of polyester available
which is known as thermofixation or the thermosol method. This was developed
by Dupont in 1949. The process comprises impregnating polyester fabric with an
aqueous dispersion of disperse dye and drying and exposing the dried fabric to
heat at a temperature of 180–230°C for a few seconds to effect the fixation and the
uniform distribution of dyes within the fibre Moorhouse (1996).

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Absorbent Technology
Ludwig Rebenfeld, in Textile Science and Technology, 2002

5.6 Polyester Fibers

While polyester fibers are inherently hydrophobic, the absorptive capacity of a
poly(ethylene terephthalate) fiber can be increased by chemical modifications and
treatment. For example, treatment in aqueous hydroxyamine solutions provides
hydroxy sorption sites on the fiber [63]. After twelve clear water washings of materials
treated with ethanolamine, diethanolamine and 2-diethylaminoethanol, the time
for absorption of a water droplet was one to two orders of magnitude less than
the absorption time of an untreated sample. In another approach to increased hy-
drophilicity in polyester, water soluble aliphatic polyamide polymers are coextruded
with the polyester [64]. After fiber formation the polyamide is extracted with water
to leave a more porous absorptive polyester substrate.

5.6.1 Deep Grooved Fibers

A particularly interesting development among specialty polyester fibers for ab-
sorbency applications are deep-grooved fibers. These are fibers produced by melt
spinning from poly(ethylene terephthalate) polymer with novel cross-sectional
shapes that create deep grooves or channels along the longitudinal axis of the fiber
[65]. A cross-sectional view of a deep groove polyester fiber is shown in Figure 14.
The grooves provide ducts to move liquid spontaneously by capillary forces, and also
spaces to trap and store liquid for increased effective absorbency [66].

Figure 14. Cross-sectional view of a deep groove polyester fiber (4DG Fiber7);
courtesy of L.R. Dean, Eastman Chemical Company.

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Identifying and analyzing textile dam-

age in the textile industry
W.D. Schindler, in Identification of Textile Fibers, 2009

15.9 Analysis of damage to polyester fibers

Polyester fibers (polyethylene terephthalate, PET) are chemically relatively stable,
damage due to acid or alkali is therefore rare. At extreme pH values, however,
hydrolytic degradation occurs, for example as used in the alkaline titre reduction
of polyester textiles. Thermal damage is more common, caused by setting, pressing,
pleating or singeing fiber blends containing PET or thermally bonding nonwovens at
too high temperatures. Another form of thermal damage is the thermal deformation
due to heat of friction, which can occur during sewing and cutting or punching out.
Mahall has described many examples of this.1 The damage due to excessive heat and
mechanical effects, for example during primary spinning,101 secondary spinning102
or tension during setting, primarily causes structural differences in the PET fibers
which lead to barry dyeings and shade differences across the fabric.

As a test dyeing for detecting structural differences in PET C.I. Disperse Blue 79 (for
example, Dianix Navy Blue NNG, Foron Navy S-2GL or Ostacet Navy Blue 2 GLS) has
been recommended, for example for 30 minutes at 130 °C.103 Another test dyeing
uses a mixture of a blue dye which shows up structural differences very markedly
and a yellow dye which does not have this property.104

Differences in draw ratio in PET fibers can be analyzed by microscopic determination

of their specific birefringence, whereby higher tension results in a higher bire-
fringence whereas the influence of temperature varies.105 Section 15.3.7 described
how the thermal prehistory of PET can be analyzed with the aid of the so-called
effective temperature or middle endotherm peak temperature (MEPT) determined
by differential scanning calorimetry. The term ‘effective temperature’ was introduced
by Berndt and Heidemann.106 In this publication a review of many other testing
methods for analyzing structural differences in PET is given, including an evaluation
of how well they respond to the influence of heat and tension. Table 15.6 shows that
the methods of thermal analysis are fairly well suited for this purpose.

Photolytically damaged polyester fibers can be recognized under the microscope

by means of the apparent coarsening of delustrant grains,108 as described in Sec-
tion 15.4.4, and by the fluorescence in UV light of the degradation products oxy-
and 2,5-dihydroxy terephthalic acid.109, 110 This fluorescence microscopy enables a
differentiation between photo- and thermal damage, but only if optical brighteners
do not superimpose on the weak fluorescence of the terephthalic acid derivatives.

15.9.1 Polyester oligomers as a cause of damage

PET oligomers are low-molecular-weight side-products of the polycondensation
reaction with two to about ten repeat units. These linear and cyclic oligoesters
are possibly also formed during the melt spinning process. The total content of
oligomers is 1 to 3%; 70 to 90% of this amount occurs in the form of the cyclic
trimer cyclo-tris-ethylene glycol terephthalic acid ester, c(G-T)3. A large percentage of
the cyclic trimer diffuses onto the fiber surface under high temperature (HT) dyeing
conditions and from there into the dyebath. c(G-T)3 is practically insoluble in water
 up to 100 °C and at 100 to 140 °C only to the extent of 1 to 5 mg/l. Thus during
dyeing and in particular during cooling down of the dyebath it can precipitate and
deposit on the goods being dyed or on the interior surfaces of the dyeing vessel.
The problems which thus arise are particularly great when dyeing loose fibers or
yarns. These problems include dust formation, poor running properties, difficult
spinnability and increased wear on thread guides and needles. With piece dyeings
the oligomer deposits can cause light spots, especially due to a filtration effect on
the HT beam dyeing machine (possible perforation imprints on the fabric roll),111 but
less so with knitted goods in jet dyeing machines. In addition, the fabric then lacks
brilliance, a cloudy greyness gives an uneven fabric appearance. Oligomers which
adhere to the fiber surface particularly interfere (surface oligomers, as opposed to
core oligomers). They are often mixed with spinning oils and other auxiliaries or
with dyes and can be difficult to remove. PET oligomers still repeatedly cause
complaints.

The first indication of damage due to PET oligomers is often the appearance of the
fault: light grey deposits, which are partially easy to remove mechanically and form
dust. In addition, when an isolated sample is shaken in isopropanol a marble-like
suspension with mother-of-pearl lustre is formed.112 Detection methods for PET
oligomers, especially for c(G-T)3:

• IR spectra resemble that of the PET fiber;

• TCL detection, especially by comparing with authentic samples;

• melting range 305 to 327 °C, according to their purity (marked difference to

PET fiber dust, which melts at 250 to 255 °C), possible confirmation by means
of mixed melting points: a mixture of approximately equal parts of sample and
authentic cyclotrimer should not show any marked depression of the melting
point;
• microscopic detection by recrystallization on the microscope slide (dissolve in
dichloromethane, c(G-T)3 crystallizes out after concentration by evaporation
of the solvent112 or formation of crystals after melting the sample on the
microscope slide.1 The crystals thus formed are usually hexagonal, sometimes
also in the form of needles or star-shaped and they appear golden yellow to
multicolored in polarized light.112

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