FISHERIES - REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A review of earlier research in the area of fisheries is a pre requisite to plan this

study in the proper perspective. This will help the researcher to have an indepth idea on

the important issues on fisheries. Various literature are reviewed in order to device a

suitable methodology for analyzing marine fishing in the coastal district of

Nagapattinam. The present review in this study elicits prominent issues related to trends

in fish production, productivity differentials and impact analysis of mechanization,

determinants of fish productivity, and other general studies including regulatory aspects

of fisheries. They are arranged in chronological sequences.

Studies Relating To Trends In Production Of Fish Variety (Macro Level)

The review presents a terse account of the trends in fish production at macro

level. This may help us to understand better the impact of the fisheries development

programmes on fish production.

Srivastava et al (1986) analysed the trends in marine fish production. The study

revealed that despite mechanization of small trawlers after mid sixties, the growth rate of

fish production decelerated during the post mechanization period as compared to pre-

mechanisation period in most of the states except in West Bengal, Orissa, Maharashtra

and Gujarat. The states showing a higher growth rates during the post mechanization

period were the ones where the level of mechanization was low. The catch per unit effort

1
increased during the post mechanization period. The species, which were characterized

by accelerated growth, were demersal species.

Subha Rao (1986) made a study to examine the trends in the total fish production

of Andhra Pradesh and compared the same with all India fish production at different

points of time. Andhra Pradesh was lagging behind in the long term trend of annual

growth of fish production than that of India as a whole during the period 1961-81. The

catching pattern with reference to percentage distribution of different species in different

year showed a declining trend in most cases. The common feature in all the species was

the heavy fluctuations.

Alagaraja (1987) studied that though there was an increase in the total marine

fish landings during the year 1971-84, the trend was not uniformly increasing. There are

fluctuations in the total as well as group wise landings.

James (1987) made an attempt to outline the growth and changes taken place in

the marine fisheries over the past four decades in India. There was an increasing trend in

the total marine fish production. However after an initial spurt in the catches during the

first two years of the second plan, the marine fish production stagnated during the major

part of the second and third plan periods and began to increase again towards the end of

the third plan. Interestingly, the sudden increase in marine catch during the fourth plan

period coincided with the increased financial outlay for fisheries and the sudden increase

2
in marine fish production during the fourth plan period was due to the introduction of

small mechanized boats.

Srinath (1987) made a study on the marine fish landings in India. He found out

that the landings registered a three fold increase. The realization of export potential of

the marine products especially prawns resulted in substantial increase in mechanized

crafts. The introduction of purse seiners in the early eighties aimed to exploit the pelagic

resources. Motorisation of indegeneous crafts helped to certain extent sustain the growth

of marine landings. It was observed that during 1961-65 and 1976-80, Elasmobranches

landings showed a declining trend in the South East region. However in the North West

region, the landings showed an increasing trend. Oil sardine showed wide fluctuations

over the years. Perches landings increased over the years. In the South West region,

sudden spurt in the landings of Perches was due to the intensification of mechanization.

Pomfrets landings showed an increasing trend. Mackerels landings showed a wide and

wide fluctuations.

He found out that the South – West and South – East region accounted for more

than ninety five per cent of Mackerel landings. In the South West region, Mackerel

landings gradually declined from 1971 onwards. The landings of Seer fishes increased

over the years except in the South East region. Penaeid prawn landings were maximum

in the South-West region. In the North West region the rate of increase declined

considerably. Non Penaeid prawns were abundant in the North West region along the

3
Maharashtra coast. In spite of the increase in the mechanization, the landings did not

respond positively to the increased effort.

Devaraj et al (1994) studied the coastal fisheries and aquaculture management in

the East Coast of India. The marine fish production in the East Coast increased by three

times in thirty years. The landings increased in all the marine states. The contribution of

West Bengal and Orissa along to the total East Coast landings increased from 3 per cent

to 11 per cent. The percentage contribution of Tamilnadu and Pondicherry did not

decrease and it remained almost constant at 58 per cent in 1960 – 64 and 1990 -94.

Ayyappan and Krishnan (2007) analysed the trends in marine fish production.

India’s total fisheries production is estimated to be about 8.60 million metric tons (Mmt)

per annum. Allocation for Fisheries Sector in the IX Plan was Rs.2,070 Crores. During

2005-06 the Fisheries Sector contributed 1.04 per cent of the total GDP and 5.34 per cent

of the Agricultural GDP.

From the studies reviewed, it could be concluded that the marine fish landings

have increased over the years. But the growth rate is not considerable. The feature of the

landings is characterized by the wide fluctuations. Introduction of small-mechanised

boats increased the growth rates of fish production with fluctuations. Prawn catching

gained considerable importance from the early seventies, because of its high export value.

4
Studies Relating To Productivity Differentials

This section makes an attempt to review the past works of some scholars with

regard to the productivity differentials in fishing industry. Macfarlane (1957) analysed

labour productivity in the primary fishing industry of the maritime British Columbia in

Canada. This study outlined the various concepts of productivity in the context of the

fishing industry and attempted to measure the labour productivity in selected segments of

the primary fishing industry of the two provinces of Canada. FAO in the publication

entitled costs and earnings investigations of primary fishing enterprises (1961) outlined

the principles, concepts and definitions followed on costs and earnings studies in primary

fishing enterprises.

A few micro studies about the economics of different crafts gears combinations at

selected centers along Indian coast showed the comparative efficiency of the bigger size

boats (Krishana Iyar et al., 1970). However the gross income in relation to investment

is good in the indigenous fishing units and giving out proportionately higher rate of

production than the mechanized boats. The country crafts require comparatively less

investment and that it can be economically put into action even when the fish in the sea is

scanty (Noble and Narayanan Kutty 1978).

Bhushan (1978) evaluated the technological changes in the fishing industry of

Kerala. He brought out the fact that the changes in technology while contributing to

increase in production resulted in structural and organizational changes in the industry

5
involving greater division of labour, higher skills, changes in ownership pattern and

changes in the mode of sharing the output. Under the Bay of Bengal Programme (1980),

the FAO brought out an evaluation of the traditional fishing crafts developed in Kerala.

The return per unit of investment of non-powered boats has been found to be

twice that of the powered boats and generate almost seven times more direct employment

than the mechanized boats (James, 1981).

Kurien and Rolf William (1982) made a detailed study on the costs and earnings

of artisanal and mechanized fishing units in Kerala. The study suggested that the

performance and potential of the artisanal fisheries might justify the greater attention and

support accorded in the past. The study highlighted the profitability of different

investment options. Krishna Iyer et al (1983) studied the economic efficiency of 9.82 m

and 11m fishing trawlers along Kerala coast. They concluded that the number of fishing

trips per year determined the profit and loss of the trawlers.

The size of investment in marine fisheries has been so modest that it can be said

to be insignificant as compared to other sectors. (Kalawar, 1985; Chua Thia-Eng,

1986). The over increasing costs and over concentration of mechanized boats in the

inshore region with bottom operated trawl nets decrease the fish productivity and the rate

of return for the non-mechanized boats, whereas the operational efficiency of fishing is

concerned, the mechanized boats proved to be more efficient with regard to fish catches

both in terms of physical quantity and value (Subba Rao, 1986).

6
 Subba Rao (1986) studied the economics of non-mechanised and mechanized

boats in terms of costs and returns with a view to assess the operational efficiency and

economic viability. The operational efficiency of fishing boats was judged primarily by

i) distance or area covered in the sea,

ii) duration of fishing operations,

iii) no. of days boats were operated in relation to normal fishing days,

iv) average fish catch per boat,

v) rate of return per annum.

The mechanized boats proved to be more efficient in respects of

i) distance of the area covered in the sea.

ii) duration of fishing.

iii) no of days boats were operated in relation to normal fishing days.

The mechanized boats secured eight-fold increase in fish output over traditional output.

He worked out the

i) net profit per boat per year

ii) return per crew member employed in a boat,

iii) return per Rs.100 of investment,

iv) benefit cost ratio.

It was found that the net profit per boat per year was slightly higher for the non-

mechanised boats. As regards return per crew employed, the gross return and

7
employment generated for Rs.100/- of investment, the non-mechanised boats had an edge

and thus the traditional boats exhibit more economic viability.

Sathiadhas and Panikkar (1988) made a study on costs and earnings of

traditional fishing units along Trivandrum coast. Considering the catch and revenue in

different seasons, monsoon period was found to be more productive and profitable.

Balan et al (1989) conducted a study on the impact of motorization of country

craft in Kerala. They found out that return to capital and labour were comparatively more

for motorized units. Diversified fishing and extended area of operation became feasible

due to motorization. The study highlighted that the landings of motorized crafts

increased substantially during the last decade. In all the Five year and Annual plans the

share of the fishery sector never exceeded 0.5 per cent on an average. The capital

investment in fishing industry trailed behind all the other sectors of the Indian economy

particularly when compared with agricultural investment (Rao and Rao, 1989). \

Sehara et Karbhai (1989) studied on the gill net fisheries by OBM units along

North West coast of India. It was observed that the fishermen prefer an OBM (Outboard

Motorised) unit since the capital investment is lesser and the profit investment rate is

higher. Thus traditional boats exhibit more economic viability than mechanized boats.

Datta and Dan (1989) assessed the economic efficiency of different gear

combinations in Orissa coast. The estimated gross returns from trawlers were

8
considerably higher than the income from other types of fishing units. He found out that

in terms of factor productivity that the non-mechanised units were more efficient.

Panikkar et al (1990) made an attempt to study the comparative economic efficiency of

mechanized boats operating at Cochin Fisheries harbour in Kerala. The study showed

that purse seiners were more efficient than the other two types of mechanized units.

Sathiadhas and Panikkar (1991) examined the economics of catamarans fishing

along Madras coast. They found out that the catamaran owners could enhance their

earnings by increasing the size of crafts as well as number of gears. Sivasubramanian

(1991) analysed the performance of catamarans operating along Andhra coast. Most of

the fishermen usually set out to sea without suitable gear or had only one kind of gear

when at least three kinds were needed to capture different species during different

seasons.

Korakandy (1994) made a study on technological change and development. He

viewed that the production conditions had not undergone any materials change in the

traditional sector. The only remarkable change in the traditional sector was the use of

synthetic materials for the fabrication of nets. The real output per fishermen came down.

Initially the technology changes in the primary marine fishing industry of Kerala led to

significant increase in the productivity (catch per man hour of effort) of the fishermen in

the mechanized sector. However the productivity of mechanized sector declined since

1976 and estimated profits to trawlers showed a perceptible fall since 1979. Motorisation

9
of the traditional crafts was started with vigour in response to the fall in fish output of the

traditional sector.

Shanbhogue et al (1994) attempted to show the overcapitalization in the inshore

marine fisheries of Karnataka. The number of trawlers operated in Karnataka coast were

more than sufficient to exploit the demersal species.

It is observed from the studies above that the mechanized boats are efficient in

respects of catch and catchment area covered. Further, in terms of labour productivity,

wages, quantum of fish catch, gross revenue, the mechanized boats are more efficient.

However, the capital turnover ratios, rate of returns to capital are better for non-

mechanised boats. Hence non-mechanised boats show economic viability. The returns to

capital and labour are more to the OBM units.

An Overview of Small Scale Fisheries in India

According to the Expert Consultation Committee on Small-Scale Fisheries

Development of FAO (1980), “Small Scale Fisheries refer to that sector of fisheries

which is labour intensive and is conducted by artisans whose level of income, mechanical

sophistication, quantity of production, fishing range, political influence, market outlets,

employment and social security and financial dependence keep the fishermen subservient

to the economic decisions and operating constraints placed upon them by those who buy

their production”.

10
 Reviewing the present status and role of small-scale fisheries of India, Bapat and

Kurian (1981) pointed out that land is definitely going to be a limiting factor in

increasing food production. Swaminathan (1981) pointed out four major points of

distinction between small-scale and large-scale fisheries. First is that the human being

play a much more important role in small scale fisheries than in large scale fisheries.

Second is capital input, where small-scale fisheries are labour-intensive and large-scale

fisheries are capital intensive. The third distinction is an ecological one associated with

environmental pollution and related repercussions in large scale industries. The fourth is

in the kind of energy used. The small-scale industries use the recycling or renewable

type of energy. In large scale industries more and more energy of non-renewable type is

used.

Sexana (1983) indicates that the two terms of small-scale and large-scale fisheries

are highly relative and are determined by technological, economic and social parameters.

For simplicity and statistical purposes small / traditional / artisanal fishermen in India

may be defined as those fishermen who are owning and or operating non-mechanised

boats while those who own and or operate mechanized boats may be categorized as

medium fishermen.

Under marine fisheries, inshore fishing, off-shore fishing and deep-sea fishing

could be specified and various authors discussed the same (Silas et al., 1976; Sudersan

and Joseph, 1978; Mathai, 1983). Inshore Fisheries refers fishing in inshore waters

11
upto 10 fathoms (1 fathom = 6 ft.) (approximately 20 m) depth from the coast. Fishing

operations in these areas are mainly conducted by small non-mechanised fishing boats.

Off-shore fishing denotes fishing in the area between 10 and 40 fathoms depth, which is

done mainly by mechanized fishing boats, which are made of wood and vary from 25 to

50 ft. in overall length. The boats are equipped with oil engines.

Deep-sea fishing indicates the exploitation of fishing resources beyond 40

fathoms. For this purpose the boats have to be larger in size to undertake fishing voyage

of 7 to 10 days duration. The vessels are made of steel and normally exceed 50 feet in

overall length and are equipped with engines of 200 HP and above.

Studies Relating To The Impact Of Mechanisation

In recent years, there has been a marked increase in the use of mechanization

boats in marine fisheries. In the context of the rapid progress of mechanized fishing, the

question really is whether the role of mechanization of fishing craft is merely to provide a

man made source of energy to replace human energy or does it have anything wide

technological significance? In this portion, the review highlights the impact of

mechanization as detected in the previous studies.

According to Sankar Rao1 (1955) mechanisation of fishing means only the

introduction of motorized and mechanized crafts for fishing purposes. His contention

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

12
1. Sankar Rao , N., from Trawler to Table, (Dorchester Printing Works, Calcutta,

1955), p.19.

was that the mechanized sector was superior to the traditional sector because of the great

depth range of operations, better catch compositions, and hence better income to the

fishermen. Further, the motorization of traditional crafts with out-board motors was

acceptable to the fishermen in view of the higher margin of income, low capital and

operational costs compared to mechanized boats.

The Programme Evaluation Organisation of the Indian Planning

Commission Study2 (1971) has examined, inter alia, the organization, administration,

funding, supplies and operational efficiency of fishing boats, the general impact of the

programme and other related issues like processing, marketing, storage, transport, etc. of

fish products. This study analysed the cost and returns analysis on investment and the

analysis of productivity of boats operating in public, co-operative and private sectors.

The major objectives of the study were to study the organizational and administrative

problems in the implementation of the programme of mechanization;

(a) to study the problems faced by the programme with regard to

(i) provision of engines and equipments like twins, gear, hull etc;

(ii) facilities of berthing, cold storage, transport, marketing and

arrangements for repairs, etc;

(b) to study the operational efficiency of mechanized boats in public, cooperative

and private sectors in terms of costs and returns;

13
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Planning Commission, Evaluation of the Programme of Mechanisation of Fishing
Boats – 1971, Programme Evaluation Organisation – Study No.83, Government of
India, 1971.

(c) to assess, on a limited basis, the impact of the programme on employment,

earnings and levels of living of the fishermen.

The sample size of the study was 382 mechanised boats (303 private, 40 public

and 39 cooperative sectors), 67 country boats and 1214 fishermen engaged on

mechanized and country boats operating at 27 fishing centres in the 8 coastal states

formed the sample for the study. The maritime states were stratified into three categories

on the basis of the average number of fishing boats per fishing area. The three categories

were

(a) the States of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Orissa and West Bengal which had small

centres having an average size of less than 30 boats.

(b) States having medium size Centres viz, Mysore, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh

where the average size of Centres was between 30 and 99 boats and

(c) Tamil Nadu with large centres where the average number of boats per centre

exceeded 100 boats, 12 mechanised boats were selected from each of the small

centres, 18 boats from medium size centres and 24 boats from large centres.

In the study, a systematic sampling with probability proportional to the number of

boats in each centre was applied for the selection of fishing centres. Boats were selected

for each centre after categorizing them into public, cooperative and private sectors with

probability proportional to their number. Three fishermen were selected at random from

14
each sector. Two fishermen co-operative societies engaged in the fishing trade,

preferably those owning or operating mechanized boats were also selected for each

centre. Besides, two or four country boats along with two fishermen per boat from the

different categories of the fishing centres were also selected at random. The study was

taken up in November 1969, and completed in April 1970. Data were collected for the

Second and Third Plans and for the years 1966-67 to 68-69.

The important findings of the study were:

i) In terms of administrative set up, there had been considerable strengthening

of the Fisheries Department and a number of development institutions had

also been created in the important maritime states.

ii) Facilities such as marketing, refrigeration, cold storage, processing, harbour

and landing, repair and maintenance and training of fishermen were not

adequate. All weather berthing facilities, their proper maintenance, the

supply of fuel, ice and fresh water, proper landing quay, storage and

processing facilities near the harbour or at a reasonable distance were rare in

most of the fishing harbours.

iii) The Indo-Norwegian Projects contributed to a substantial increase in the

fishery activities of the coastal areas in different States. Foreign collaboration

provided necessary technical know-how and equipment for locating and

developing fishing centres, introducing modern techniques and helping

fishermen to take to mechanization.

iv) The average operational cost of a mechanized boat worked out to Rs.17,700

15
 and was four times that of a country boat. The sector wise comparison reveals

that the operational cost was substantially low in the public sector

(Rs.11,200) while in the private and cooperative sectors it was higher

(Rs.18,300 to 19,800). The operational cost of a bigger boat was more than

double than that of a smaller boat.

v) The production of marine fish in terms of landings increased at an average

annual rate of 4.6 per cent during the period 1961 to 1968. The export of

marine products also registered a significant increase over the years. From a

level of Rs.42 million in 1962-63, the export earning had jumped to Rs.247

million in 1968-69.

vi) The number of mechanized boats effectively in operation on 1.3.1969 in the

eight coastal States stood at 6515 which was less than the number actually

introduced. Of the total number of boats in operation as on 31.3.1969, 75 per

cent were in the private sector, 20 per cent in the cooperative sector and the

remaining 5 per cent in the public sector.

vii) The study revealed that carts, trucks, insulated vans and rail wagons were

being used for transportation of fish from the landing sites to markets or for

exports. It was also revealed that about 50 per cent of the average catch was

sold locally.

viii) Considerable progress was made in the installation of new plants, creation of

additional capacity for cold storage and preservation of fish during the Second

and Third Plans. Out of the 27 selected fishing centres, 11 reported the

existence of ice plants while cold storage facilities were available in 12

16
 centres. The available capacity of storage facilities per centre broadly worked

out to 69 tonnes for ice plant and 177 tonnes for cold storage. This was not

very high, but even this low capacity was not fully utilized by fishermen. The

development of processing industry was taken up mainly in the public sector.

ix) The average rate of gross return on an investment of Rs.100 on a mechanized

boat in 1968-69 worked out to 75 kgs., valued at Rs.69. It was substantially

higher in the private sector boats than those of the cooperative and public

sectors. An investment of Rs.100 on a country boat yielded a gross catch four

times higher in quantity and more than two times higher in value of the catch

obtained by a mechanized boat.

x) Govt. loans and subsidy formed about 95 per cent of the total investment

made on mechanized boats in the co-operative sector and 62 per cent in the

private sector. Country boats were largely self financed.

xi) The co-operative sector was the largest defaulter in the matter of repayment of

loans. The loans outstanding in Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra

ranged between 83 per cent and 100 per cent.

xii) The normal fishing days varied from 130 in West Bengal to 277 in Tamil

Nadu. The normal fishing days worked out to 234.5 in the private sector and

165.9 in the public sector.

xiii) The gross return per manday in respect of mechanized boat was 28.1 kgs

valued at Rs.25.7. It was highest in Tamil Nadu (Rs.36.7) followed by Orissa

(Rs.31.5), Mysore (28.4) and Andhra Pradesh (Rs.27.8). The lowest was

reported from West Bengal (Rs.6.9).

17
 xiv) Training facilities existed in all the States except West-Bengal.

xv) The pattern of functioning of the co-operative societies varied from State to

State. Their performance in general had not been satisfactory.

xvi) Generation of income and employment due to mechanization programme

differed across the States and Sectors. The fishermen in Tamil Nadu were

employed for 266 days during 1968-69 followed by 222 days in West Bengal.

It was lowest, i.e, 108 days in Mysore. The highest average annual family

income (Rs.3612) was obtained by the fishermen in the private sector and

lowest (Rs.1909) in the co-operative sector.

Rao and others3 (1971) had made an attempt to study the relative costs and

earnings of fishing boats with a view to finding out different items of input costs for fish

production and the extent of profit or loss in operating a mechanized boat. They

conducted this study for one month during the October and November 1970, they found

that “by continued exploitation of the nearer grounds by the small boats, the fish stocks in

these ground are likely to be affected and owing to high costs of fuel and labour, these

boats may be in a position to fish in deeper waters economically”. They suggested that

the mechanized boats of 40 to 90 horse power would be ideal for making good profits.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Rao, P.S. Chowdary, D.K. and Pati. K.C., “Costs and Earnings of Fishing Boats at
Sassoon Docks”, Souvenir of Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Bombay, 1971,
pp. 40-42.

18
 Joan Galtung4 (1975) has analysed the implications of capital intensive nature of

fishing technology on primitive fishermen. He found that the new technology in fishing

had benefited only a few and accentuated inequality income and living conditions of the

fishermen. He also doubted that the impact of new technology on small fishermen.

Prakasam5 had analysed the impact of mechanization on fishing and

occupational pattern of the fishermen in Vypeen Island in Kerala at different intervals

from 1970 to 1973. According to him the entry of non-fishermen and middlemen into the

industry resulted in exploitation of fishermen in the study area. He argued that the

mechanization and the consequent entry of higher communities into the occupation had

removed the social stigma attached to this occupation. The non-fishermen community

had taken over the mechanized method of fishing. Moreover, fishing is also getting

modernized and the involvement of neo-fishermen from non-fishermen community are

advancing and leave the actual fishermen far behind with their outmoded gears and poor

catch.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. Joan Galtung, “Technology and Dependence”, Yojana, Vol. XIX, No.8, May 15,

1975, pp 4-9.

5. Prakasam, M.S., “Impact of Mechanisation of Fishermen”, Voluntary Action, Vol.16,

19
 No.283, p. 14-18.

Selvaraj6 (1975) on behalf of the Madras Institute of Development Studies has

undertaken a socio-economic study of small fishermen in Tamil Nadu. The sample size

was 125 of 50,000 families spread over in seven districts of the State. The study found

that “the landings by the catamarans are poor and inadequate to maintain the small

fishing families even at the subsistence level. They are exploited by the motor-boat

owners. The co-operative societies serve only the motor-boat owners and are not

beneficial to small fishermen. There is a wide and widening divergence between motor-

boat owners and catamaran fishermen in respect of their income levels. This is due to the

varying productivity of their crafts”. In the study area there were no organized marketing

and transport facilities. The fishermen were at the mercy of the middlemen.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, the Programme Evaluation

Organisation7 undertook in 1979-80 an evaluation study of 5 selected fishing harbours.

The study report was published in September, 1981. The study covered the following

aspects.

(i) The extent to which harbour facilities were created and investments made;

(ii) Increase in the number of fishing boats and efficiency in operation since the

creation of the harbour facilities;

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6. Selvaraj, C. Small Fishermen in Tamil Nadu, (Madras Institute of Development

20
 Studies, Publication No.9, Sargam Publishers, Madras, 1975), p2-11.

7. Planning Commission, Evaluation Report of The Fishing Harbour Projects, PEO

Study No. 117, Government of India, 1981.

(iii) Increase in the fish landings due to the creation of additional facilities;

(iv) Marketing and distribution pattern;

(v) Types of benefits flowing as a result of creation of the facilities and also the

extent to which small fishermen were being benefited with regard to

employment, earnings and acquisition of assets; and

(vi) Problems of traditional fishermen vis-à-vis operators of mechanized boats and

deep sea fishing vessels.

The study was conducted in 5 fishing harbour projects selected for the study

included two major harbours of Cochin (Kerala) and Visakhapatanam (Andhra Pradesh)

and three minor harbours of Karwar (Karnataka), Port Blair (Andaman & Nikobar

Islands) and Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu). Primary data were collected from boat owners who

were listed under three categories:

(a) mechanized boat owners,

(b) Purse-Seine and / or trawler owners and

(c) traditional boat owners. It was proposed to take a sample of 10 mechanised

boat owners, 5 purse-seine / trawler owners and 10 traditional boat owners through

circular sampling method. However, due to non-availability of these categories in one

harbour or the other, the total sample size had eventually to be limited to 40 mechanised

21
boat owners, 10 trawlers / purse-seine boat owners and 40 traditional boat owners. Port

Blair Harbour did not contribute to the sample for canvassing of respondents in the

categories of mechanized boat owners and traditional boat owners.

The major findings of the study are

(i) Three of the five selected harbours, viz, Cochin, Karwar and Visakhapatanam

were being fully utilized and even beyond their targeted capacities. The

Tuticorin Fishing Harbour was yet to come up to the envisaged capacity

whereas Port Blair Fishing Harbour counstructed at a cost of Rs.68 lakhs

remained largely unutilized due to the lack of basic infrastructure. The latter

was being utilized mainly for berthing of inter-island passenger ferries and

cargo boats. Major commercial houses had already started showing interest in

the development of fishing industry as had been seen in Cochin,

Visakhapatanam and Port Blair.

(ii) There was a huge time over-run in the completion of the selected fishing

harbours which ranged from 24 months in the case of Port Blair to 78 months

in the case of Cochin. The resultant price escalation forced a cost over-run

(of actual expenditure over the envisaged expenditure) varying from 34

percent in the case of Cochin to an astronomical 177 percent in the case of

Port Blair. There was a noticeable time lag between the initiation of project

formulation and the date of clearance of projects which was mainly attributed

to the non-finalisation of project reports on time. The tardy progress of

construction was imputed to the non-availability of land, problems in securing

the services of suitable contractors, escalation in input prices, delay in the

22
 sanction of revised estimates, lack of co-ordination between different

departments of the State Governments in regard to the provision of

infrastructural facilities like water, power, drainage etc, and procedural delay

in sanctioning the construction of complementary facilities.

iii) The selected harbours, excluding Port Blair, showed an impressive track

record in several aspects. First, there was an increase in the number of

mechanized boats, which ranged from 94 percent to 410 percent, leading to a

considerable increase in fish landings. Secondly, there was a sizeable increase

in the exports of marine products ranging from 22 percent to 99 percent. The

graph of export value was kept rising also by the sharp rise in the international

price of shrimp. Thirdly, the switching over to mechanized fishing led to an

increase in employment per catch which varied from 31 percent to 100 percent

at different harbours. Fourthly, the approximate monthly income per

mechanized boat increased by 289 percent in the case of Karwar, 634 percent

in case of Tuticorin, 460 percent in Visakhapatanam and 225 percent in

Cochin when compared to the approximate income per boat prior to

mechanization.

iv) Concealed in this bright scenario was the predicament of the traditional

fishermen. Increased operational activities of mechanized boats and trawlers

near the coastline adversely affected the fish catch and earnings of the

traditional fishermen. The conditions for grant of loans were such that the

relatively well off sections of the Community were mostly benefited. The role

of fisheries cooperatives was very limited. Traditional boat owners did not

23
 have any organized facility for fish landing nor did they have any arrangement

for registration of non-mechanised boats, nor the services of any extension

organization.

v) Visakhapatanam and Cochin fishing harbours were administered by the

respective Port Trusts. These Trusts imposed different charges and levies for

berthing, landing and water supply and for the maintenance and upkeep of the

harbours. Karwar and Tuticorin fishing harbours were controlled by the

respective State Fisheries Departments which were ill-equipped for the

purpose. The jetty at the Port Blair fishing harbour was looked after by the

Port authorities. No levy was reported to be charged by the administrative

authorities of Karwar and Port Blair fishing harbours.

vi) Institutional finance for acquisition of mechanized boats was provided by the

commercial banks through medium-term loans on rigid conditions. It was

observed that some small mechanized boat owners had to de-commission their

boats due to difficulties in replacement of worn-out engines.

vii) The marketing of fish was dominated by middlemen and commission agents.

In Karwar, however, the District Cooperative Marketing Federation, which

managed the sales of fish landing on 6 percent commission at prices fixed by a

committee of the fishermen, the purchasers of fish and the officials of the

federation did an exemplary job.

viii) The respective State Governments had developed training facilities for the

traditionally backward coastal fishing community. Nevertheless, the shortage

of trained personnel was highly felt.

24
 The study suggested for an integrated credit service should be provided to the

fishermen so as to link credit with marketing of fish catches. This is necessary to

eliminate the presence of middlemen or commission agents from the marketing of fish

landings. User charges should be levied to defray the administrative and maintenance

expenses of the harbours. A separate administrative authority should be instituted for

efficient planning, supervision and running of the fishing harbours. This authority should

be entrusted with the responsibility of registration of boats, maintenance of statistics

relating to the operation of boats, specie-wise landing of fish catches and marketing

intelligence.

The lot of the traditional fishermen should invariably be improved. The

suggestions mooted in this regard include

(a) demarcating areas for traditional boats, mechanized boats and deep sea

vessels;

(b) initiating legislation on lines of a model bill, as was suggested by the

Government of India, to enforce fishing zones;

(c) providing fish landing facilities and auction centres in the form of mini-

harbours meant exclusively for the traditional fishermen;

(d) crafting specific programmes for traditional fishermen which enable them to

acquire traditional boats under self-employment schemes;

(e) advancing co-operative loans to them for consumption purposes;

(f) providing registration facilities at a nominal rate;

25
 (g) forming fishery extension organization to train them.

N. Durairaj (1981)8, in his research work has outlined the status of fisheries,

production trend, market and price behaviour, income distribution, indebtedness and

problems pertaining to choice of technology by fishermen in Thanjavur district. He

found that the depth of the fishing area was an important factor for more production and

efficiency which was more for mechanized fishermen than others in his study area.

According to him the mechanized fishing is more efficient in his study area. His finding

was that 56 percent of what consumers pay for fish reached the fishermen and the rest

enjoyed by the middlemen. His important suggestion was to regulate the money lending

practices in the fishermen villages.

Planning Commission’s the Programme Organisation9 (1981) undertook this

study to assess the impact of fishing harbour projects on the living conditions of

traditional fishermen and their problems of evacuation and rehabilitation. The important

objectives of the study were: to assess the impact of fishing harbour on the living

conditions of traditional fishermen in terms of employment, income, indebtedness, health

and social status; to examine change, if any, in the fishing frequency, the quantity and

quality of fish catch by the traditional fishermen after commissioning of fishing

harbours / fish landing centres; to ascertain the extent to which the facilities created at the

fishing

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8. Durairaj, N, A Study of Marine Fishing Industry in Thanjavur District, Madurai

26
 Kamaraj University, Madurai, 1981, pp. 203-209

9. Planning Commission, Evaluation Report of The Fishing Harbour Projects, PEO

Study No. 117, Government of India, 1981.

harbours / fish landing centres are availed of by the traditional fishermen, and to identify

problem, if any, faced by the traditional fishermen evacuated from the project are

including that of their rehabilitation. The study was conducted in 3 major and 5 minor

harbours and 1 fish landing centre was selected from out of 8 maritime states. One major

/ minor harbour and one fish landing centre were selected from each State and two

fishermen villages were selected, one nearest and the other farthest from each selected

major / minor fishing harbour and fish landing centre. Further, 1210 traditional

fishermen were interviewed. Thus in all eight States, eight Harbours, eight Fish Landing

Centres and 32 villages and 1210 traditional fishermen were covered. The study was

conducted between June and September, 1993. The reference period of the study was

1992-93.

The important findings were:

i) All the sample fishermen families were traditional fishermen, who were

evacuated in 1985 and rehabilitated in 1988.

ii) It was reported by more than 60 percent traditional fishermen that they never

availed berthing facility or fish landing facility as distance from harbours /

landing centre was one of main reasons for not availing such facilities.

iii) There was no school in the selected villages of two fishing harbours

Visakhapatnam and Cochin and fish landing centre at Sabelia.

27
iv) Radio signaling facility for carrying out fishing activities safely was available

only at two fishing harbours and at one fish landing centre.

v) The quantity of fish catch showed an increase of 7.03 percent in the fish

landing centre while in the case of harbours, it decreased by 21.07 per cent

after commissioning of harbour and landing centre projects.

vi) More than 82 percent traditional fishermen were satisfied with the quantity of

fish catch while 56 percent of traditional fishermen reported the quality of fish

catch as better before commissioning of the project.

vii) After commissioning of the project, the percentage of traditional fishermen

covering a distance from 11 to 20 nautical miles was increased from about 11

percent to 17 percent.

viii)An amount of Rs.15.2 lakhs was taken as loan by 47 traditional fishermen

from money lenders for boats only.

ix) Although 796 (65.78 percent) traditional fishermen consulted private

physician in case of illness in the family, yet more than 60 percent of total

traditional fishermen reported no change in their health condition even after

commissioning of the project.

x) After commissioning of the project, the percentage of traditional fishermen

participating in the cooperative societies as members increased from 29.04

percent (356) to 40 percent (481).

28
 Food and Agricultural Organisation10 (1983) conducted a study in Tamil Nadu

during 1980. The study has observed that in the State there were 46,000 fishing craft and

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
10. Food and Agricultural Organisation , Marine Small Scale Fisheries of Tamil
Nadu: A General Description, December, 1983, pp 1-22.

gear, consisting of 2750 mechanised and the remaining was non-mechanised. In this 73

percent were traditional craft or kattumarams, and the rest plank-built boats and canoes.

Among the districts, the Ramanathapuram District had the largest number of mechanized

craft. Contrary to this the Kanyakumari District had largest number of kattumarams. The

study traced the history of fishing boat mechanization to 1954-55 when the designing of

suitable mechanized fishing craft was undertaken in collaboration with the Food and

Agricultural Organisation. Since then mechanized boats have been built in the public as

well private boat yards. In the State the plank built, dug-out canoes had increased from

4246 to 11,492 in 1980 and the percentage increase was 170. The Kattumarams had

increased from 22,217 in 1959 to 31,851 in 1980 and the percentage change was 43. The

total numerical change in the non-mechanised craft from 1959 to 1980 was 43 percent.

Babaji11 (1985) had analysed the socio-economic profile of traditional fishermen

as well as mechanized boat owners. He also studied the fish consumption pattern of

people in Visakapatnam. According to him the governments help given to the fishermen

for the past 30 years had improved the traditional fishermen only to little extent. The

fishermen cooperatives were inactive and the fish marketing continue to be primitive.

29
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

11. Babaji, U., “Development of Marine Fisheries – A Study of Socio-Economic,

Production, Marketing and Consumption Characteristic of Marine Fishery Sector in

Visakapatnam”, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis of Andhra University, Waltair, 1985, pp

174-189.

Srivasthava et al (1986) assessed the impact of mechanization. He analysed the

growth in output. He divided the entire period of mechanization (1956-81) into two

periods. Viz pre-mechanisation period (1956-69) and post mechanization period (1970-

81). The study showed that despite mechanization of small trawlers, the growth rate of

fish production decelerated during the post mechanization as compared to pre-

mechanisation in most of the States. The fishing effort increased and it was observed that

during the post-mechanisation period, demersal species growth rates accelerated and

pelagic species decelerated.

Annigeri (1987) observed that the fishery exploited during 1979-84 showed that

the purse seiners showed high rate of exploitation. They found out that the introduction

of more number of purse seiners beyond the present MSY level would definitely

imbalance the standing stock resulting into the depletion of stocks.

Devadoss et al (1987) worked out the maximum sustainable yields for sharks and

rays using the schaffer model. The study indicated that there was scope for increasing the

30
trawling effort at Visakhapattinam, Mandapam and Rameswaram whereas reduction of

trawling effort was suggested for Madras, Kakinada, Tuticorin, Calicut, and Bombay.

Sreekrishna and Shenoy (1987) analysed the role of fishing technology in the

research and development of marine fisheries in India. They attempted to assess the

impact of mechanization on the fishing technology with the advent of synthetic fibres, the

fishermen of Gujarat and Maharastra increased their catch substantially with the use of

nylon for gill net. They observed that the introduction of high opening bottom trawl nets

demonstrated its effectiveness in catching off bottom fishes like pomfrets, carangids

besides demersal fishes. Introduction of some gear handling devices on board which

facilitated easy, efficient, faster and safer handling of gear helped the Indian fishing to

grow at a quicker pace.

Krishnarajan and Raju12 (1988) in their work on sub-sector analysis of

mechanization of marine fishing had thoroughly studied the effect of mechanization of

country crafts on total fish production. They are for tapping the untapped potentials and

recommended for liberal subsidy to acquire crafts, gears and outboard motors.

R. Sathiadhas13 studied the present status of the utilization of wind energy for

fishing operations by sail boats using three different types of gears in Tuticorin. He has

calculated input output efficiency, capital efficiency and break even analysis in his study.

Yet another study of Sathiadhas, R. and Panikkar, K.K.P., (1989) compared the socio-

economic status of fishermen carrying on traditional fishing at one village and

mechanized fishing in another village in the Madras Coast21. They found that the average

31
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

12. Krishnarajan, V and Raju, S., “Sub-sector Analysis – Mechanisation of Marine

Fishing”, Evaluation and Applied Research Department, Madras, January, 1988,p6.

13. Sathiadas, R., “Comparative Economic Efficiency of Sail Boats Operating

Different Gears in Tamil Nadu”, Marine Fisheries Information Service, No.97,

July, pp 8-16

annual income and per capita income were higher in the village where mechanized

fishing was performed. The diversified fishing activities resulted from mechanization

and better infrastructure facilities were the factors responsible for higher income at

mechanized fishing centres.

James14 (1990) had studied the total marine potential and the average production

in the mechanized and traditional fishery sector. According to him the coastal area had

been more or less fished at optimum level. But the potential in off-shore and deep sea

fishing had not been fully tapped. He suggested that for joint ventures with countries

having expertise in high sea fishing for tapping the vast off-shore and deep sea fishery

resources.

Kurien (1990) made an attempt to study the impact of new technology introduced

into Kerala’s fishing over the past three decades of fisheries development planning. The

period from 1956 to 1966 considered being the slow phase of modernization, from 1967-

1980 as the rapid period of modernization. After 1980, it was a dilemma phase of

32
modernization. He observed that in the slow modernization phase (1956-66) the step was

taken to upgrade the existing traditional technologies. The efforts were taken to supply

wood for traditional boats, cotton for nets and setting up of fish curing yards for

processing. Secondly there was the introduction of small mechanized gill nets boats. By

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

14. James P.S.B.R., “Marine Fisheries not Fully Tapped”, The Hindu Survey of Indian

Agriculture, Chennai, 1990, pp 203-205.

the mid 1960’s the efforts of the Indo Norwegian Project showed that it was possible to

exploit the coastal prawn resources more efficiently by using small mechanized boats

fitted with more powerful engines and bottom trawl nets in order to cater the international

market which would earn foreign exchange. Attention was focused on techniques like

freezing and canning. Despite the continued rapid introduction of new trawlers, there

was an alround decline in the growth of fish production.

During the Dilemma Phase i.e., 1980 onwards there was a fall in the share of the

fishermen using traditional technologies. It was observed that the basic objective of an

improvement in the lives of the fishermen could hardly been achieved. From 1980

onwards the State of Kerala was compelled to rethink its earlier technology policy. A

major drive was made towards modernization of traditional crafts. During this phase,

many innovations in technology were introduced in the forms of disco nets and the

growing use of fish aggregation devices. The emphasis was given to welfare schemes for

33
fishermen. It was observed that as a result of the policy, the catch of pelagic and

demersal species as a whole increased marginally.

John Kurien and Sebastian Mathew15 have brought the fact that under the aegis

of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research Fisheries development was emphasized on

par with agricultural and livestock development. They emphasized the need for more

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

15. John Kurien and Thangappan Achari, T.R., “Overfishing along Kerala Coast
Causes and Consequences,” Economic and Political Weekly, September 1-8, 1990,
pp. 2011-2017.
scientific advancement as a pre-requisite to exploit our marine wealth to its optimal

extent became an important concomitant in our national perspective for increased food

production and for improved well-being of the country’s millions. They listed the

existing Central Indtitutes in fishing industry viz., CMFRI, CIFRI, CIFT, CIFE, NIO, and

CRTRI. These organizations are concerned with scientific issues pertaining to the

oceanographic, biological and technological dimensions of fishery research. They found

that the artisanal fishermen by and large object to the reckless operations of mechanized

boats and are appalled by the lack of respect to the sea. There is a code of inherent

ecology-preserving norms practiced intuitively by the artisanal fishermen all over the

country. In this regard they suggested for a systematic documentation of these norms

along with the manner in which they are translated into technological design is warranted.

34
 Mahapatra, P16., (1990) has explained the need for extension mechanism to

fishery in general and in brackish water in particular. He emphasized the need for

technology in input and output management, extension education and training and

fisheries extension methods.

17
Varambally (1990) had explained the performance of the marine products

exports from 1981 to 1988. His main point of contention was that the exports had to

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

16. Mahapatra, P., “Fisheries Extension Approaches and Experiences in India with
Focus on Orissa”, Fishing Chimes, November, 1990, pp 25-27.

17. Varambally, K.V.M., “Exports Potential of Marine Products”, Facts for You,
November 1990, pp 29-33.

adopt new marketing strategy to promote Indian marine products in other countries,

understand the changing consumers’ preferences and scan the global market to identify

the strength, weaknesses, opportunity and threat to India’s marine exports in the

international markets.

Srivastava and Others18 (1991) have analysed the various aspects of fishery

sector-marine, brackish water and inland fisheries. They also explained the present

constraints and future prospects that characterize the fishery sector, commercial

marketing and processing of fishery products. They also discussed about the policy

support, investment opportunities and financial assistance requirements of the fishery

industry over the next five years.

35
 Katar Singh19 (1993) has critically examined the role cooperatives in managing

marine fisheries based on the experience of Kerala and Japan. The study explored the

problems and prospects of creating and granting sea tenure to fishermen’s co-operatives.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

18. Srivastava, U.K., Dholakia, B.H., Vathsala, S., and Chidambaram, K., Fishery

Sector of India, (Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1991), p. 424.

19. Katar Singh, “Co-operative Sea Tenure as an Instrument of Managing Marine

Fisheries: Lessons from Kerala and Japan’s Experience”, Indian Journal of

Agricultural Economics, Vol. 48, No.3, July-September 1993, pp 537-542.

This study is partly based on two case studies conducted by this author in

collaboration with other researchers viz, Nair and Singh and Balakrishnan et.al., and

partly on a survey of literature by Murukami. The case studies were conducted in

Trivandrum and Quillon districts of Kerala. In the study, an over view of the Kerala

experience, organization and structure of fishermen’s cooperatives, role of primary

fishermen’s cooperatives, promotion of new fishing technology, marketing of fish,

management of fisheries, an over view of Japan’s experience, analysis and discussion and

lesson and implications were discussed. With regard to new technology in fishing the

fishermen’s cooperatives have helped their members to acquire motor boats. This will

definitely led to higher catch per unit of fishing effort and reduction of physical effort and

drudgery in day-to-day fishing operations. This new technology also provided the

36
artisanal fishermen access to the outer seas. However, he observed in this study that

mechanization has led to over-capitalisation in the sector, over-exploitation of marine

fisheries beyond the level of maximum sustainable yield and pollution of sea water. The

author has analysed the functions of the cooperatives in Japan and said, of the six

functions the administration and fishing rights system is the most important one. In

Japan, the fishery cooperatives are granted sea tenure and therefore they are able to

undertake both propagation and regulation activities in sea waters under their jurisdiction.

According to this study such a policy is a novel and recommended for India also in the

marine fishery.

Korakandy (1994) made an attempt to study the process of technological

changes in Kerala’s fish economy. He highlights the notable improvements in fishing

methods. The bottom trawling technique in the country was improved with several

modifications. Purse seining by mechanized vessels was introduced in Kerala in 1979

and along lining was also undertaken subsequently. Several improvements were made in

the design and use of mechanical fishing accessories, ancillary fishing equipments and

electronic testing devices.

Mukul (1994) has found that the conflict between traditional fisherfolk and the

mechanized trawler owners over fishing rights has intensified in several parts of Tamil

Nadu. The study gave several facts in the clashes between small fisherfolk and

mechanized boats in different parts of the Kerala.

37
 Yet another study in Kerala20 has observed that the initial approach to fisheries

development based on raising the productive capacity of existing facilities by developing

artisanal fishing relying on traditional methods gave way by the mid-sixties to the

‘modernising growth oriented model’ which saw the traditional base of fishing as a

hindrance and sought to introduce specialized capital-intensive techniques. Artisanal

fishermen adversely affected at two levels i.e., organized protest against destructive

fishing and the adoption of new technology to enhance their declining harvest.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

20. Sathiadhas, R. and Panikkar, K.K.P., “Socio-economic Status of Marine Fisheries

along Madras Coast”, Marine Fisheries Information Service, No.96, July 1989, pp 1-
6.

Sakthivel21 (1994) found that the marine fishes in the Indian EEZ are being

formed in the near shore waters by small vessels. In the small-scale sector, there are

about 1.7 lakh non-motorised and 15,000 motorised craft, including catamarans, dug outs

and plank boat. In the mechanized industrial sector there are 23,000 small mechanized

boats and 159 deep sea trawlers, four tuna liners and 50 chartered vessels. The traditional

and most of the mechanized boats and trawlers fish up to 50 meters deep, only 10 percent

of the 2.02 million square kilometers of India’s EEZ. In the total marine fish production

the share of mechanized boats was 1.6 million tones and the non-mechanised 0.39 million

tones and motorized country craft 0.21 million tones. He observed that export of fish

from India to Japan had declined in recent years because of the invasion of farm fresh

shrimps from Thailand, China, Taiwan, Indonesia, Philippines and Vietnam. India needs

38
to establish large canning units as established in Thailand. This would accentuate the

export potential to Indian fishing industry.

Radhakrishna22 (1995) had observed that the fish production in India has been

increasing and it was 4.77 million tones in 1994, of which the marine fish account for 2.7

million tones. In India’s EEZ the potential marine fish resources amount to 3.9 million

tones, of which 2.5 million tones are available within the 50 meter depth zone. The

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

21. Sakthivel., M., “Time for Diversification”, The Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture,

1994, pp. 145-149.

22. Radhakrishna, K., “Strategies to Boost Landings”, The Hindu Survey of Indian

Agriculture, 1995, pp 126-127.

traditional and mechanized boats fish upto 80-100 meter depth which results in

overfishing. He recommended that marine fish production can be increased through

rational management of coastal resources, extension of fishing operations into offshore

and deep sea areas to tap new fishing grounds and new potential varieties, mitigation of

loss and wastage in handling and processing and finally adopting eco-friendly, low-cost

mariculture of a variety of species that have potential domestic and export markets.

23
K. M. Shajahan (1996) has critically analysed the Deep Fishing Policy (DFP)

of the Government of India. According to him the report of the Sudarshan Committee on

operations of deep sea fishing vessels on which is based the proposed deep sea fishing

39
policy, is an attempt to divert the attention of the fishermen community and the public at

large from the dangerous repercussions conducted by joint venture / chartered (Deep Sea

Fishing ) DSF vessels in the Indian seas. As per the new DSP from 1991 the Government

has allowed the private Indian enterprises to enter into joint ventures with foreign

counterparts for exploiting the hitherto underexploited fishery resources beyond the

inshore area, using state-of-art technologies. The Government also allowed the big DSF

vessels to perform fishing in the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone. He quoted from the

report that it is tantamount to completely underestimate the technical capabilities of the

traditional or small scale mechanical fishing units in India.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

23. Shajahan, K.M., “Deep Sea Fishing Policy A Critique”, Economic and Political
Weekly, Vol. 312, No.5, February 3, 1996, pp 263-266.

According to Maglin Peter24 (1998) one of the important marketing channels of

fish is through women fish vendors. They form an important link between the producer

and the ultimate consumer. It is because these people carry fish from the sea shore to the

local retail markets. The major objectives of the study are to study the basic amenities

available in the local fish markets, to identify the various exploitive practices prevailing

in the local fish markets, to assess the consequences of ‘clean-city, green-city’

programme of Thiruvananthapuram Corporation on women fish vendors, and to

formulate appropriate intervention strategies based on the study findings. This study was

conducted in 81 local markets in two market area during April-May 1998.

40
 The exploitative practices prevailing in the study were toll collection, exorbitant

interest, unnecessary collections, theft and social evils. The major findings of the study

were:

i) The fish vending activity by women folk is a traditional occupation. But this

is neither recognized nor appreciated.

ii) No proper employment protection is assured to the women fish vendors for

peaceful engagement in their traditional occupation. Entry of male merchants

into the scene also displaces women fish vendors.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

24. Maglin Peter, “A Study on Fish Market Amenities and Exploitive Practices”, Paper

Presented in the Third Congress on Traditional Science and Technologies of India

held at Gandhian Institute of Studies, Varanasi on 28th October – 2nd November

1998.

iii) Because of the lack of basic amenities, the women fish vendors face hardships

and health problems of various kinds.

iv) The employment of women fish vendors are badly affected due to various

hardships and displacement which ultimately low income to family.

Tomy Chacko25 (1998) in his study has listed the merits of motorization as

agreed by the fishermen: “Can operate large boats and nets. Can fish farther offshore and

find more fish. Can reach the shore faster with the catch, and market the fish in fresh

condition. Can catch more fish to less time, provided the fish are present. Can operate

41
several cruises a day. Can operate in rougher seas (to a point). Reduces manual labour

involved in propulsion”.

The author has elicited the experiences of the motorized fishermen with more than

10 years of experience in the profession: “Huge investment, operational and repair costs.

Exploitation by commission agents and middlemen, who virtually control fishing and

marketing along the coast through their financing of most activities. These agents take 5

to 10 percent of every catch regardless of the loan amount until the entire loan is repaid

which seldom occurs. Frequent and often heavy repair costs. The main reasons for this

are rough handling by fishermen who are unskilled in the operation. Lack of reasonably

priced fuel. Most fuel requirements are met by black marketers, who charge exorbitant

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

25. Tomy Chacko, “Artisanal Fishing along the Allepy Coast, Southwest India”, Human

Organisation, Vol. 57, No.1, 1998, pp 60-61.

prices. Over exploitation of fish by trawlers and motorized boats, which results in

depletion of fish populations. This forces fishermen to return with empty boats, which in

turn necessitate further borrowing from commission agents and reinforcement of

fishermen’s debt”. In this regard the author recommended for low cost motorized fishing

methods to save the fishermen from high cost fishing operation.

Devaraj26 (1999) applauded the dramatic advances in Indian marine fisheries for

the past 50 years. India occupies the seventh position in the global fish production. He

42
observed certain problems of the fishery sector like socio-economic problems and clashes

between the traditional and mechanized fishermen. The author found that all along the

Indian coast commercial shrimp hatcheries and growouts have come up. The CRZ rules

and regulations have helped to evolve eco-friendly and diverse aquaculture practices.

Further, the investment climate is ripe enough for rapid growth in certain key sectors

such as oceanic fisheries and sea farming.

Maarten Bavinck29 (2001) in his study on caste Panchayats and the regulation of

fisheries along Tamil Nadu’s Coromandal Coast has considered the ramifications of non-

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

26. Devaraj, M., “Regarding the Momentum”, The Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture,
1999, pp 121-123.
29. Maarten Bavinck,”Caste Panchayats and Regulation of Fisheries along Tamil
Nadu’s Coromandal Coast”, Economic and Political Weekly, March, 312, 2001 pp

1088-1094.

state panchayat action in the field of marine resource management. He investigated how

fishermen panchayats are involved in regulating access to and usage of fish resources,

and also examined the mechanization regulation and other occupational settings. His

main point of contention is that the establishment of a strong mechanized boat fishing

sector and state involvement in the fishery field are now putting caste panchayat under

pressure. However, panchayats continue to play a critical role in whatever resource

management is taking place.

43
 Maarten Bavinck30 (2002) articulated that Indian marine fisheries have been

riddled with conflict since 1960s. The study highlights that “It proceeds from the

observation that, contrary to the Act, there is no unified structure for fisheries

management in Tamil Nadu. In the districts situated along the state’s long coastline,

government authorities have adopted varying solutions to the conflicts taking place

between artisanal and trawler fishermen. Rather than originating in government

directives from Chennai, these ‘solutions’ have roots in local political history. They are

coarsely and opportunistically-woven into the state’s legal fabric”. The important

observation by the author is that the district administrators do not act according to their

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

30. Maarten Bavinck, “ The Adaptive and Extended State: Myths and Realities in
the
Regulations of Marine Fisheries in Tamil Nadu, India, Paper presented to 13th
International Congress Commission on Folk Law and Pluralism, Chiang Mai, April 7-
10, 2002.
own preference. He suggested that the State should follow a bottom-up approach. Such

perspective focuses on the interface of society and the State, and follows reactions up the

administration.

From the studies discussed above, it can be concluded that the earlier policy

approach of the govt. was directed towards the mechanization of small boats in order to

exploit the coastal resources. However, the increase in fish production was not in

commensurate with the increase in the fishing efforts and the share of the traditional

sector declined. The earlier fisheries development policy did not promote the living

44
conditions of the traditional fishermen. Hence the earlier policy has been revised since

1980 and the attention is now focused on the fishermen welfare measures and on the

increasing motorization of traditional crafts.

Studies Related To The Determinants Of Fish Production

In this portion the review highlights some of the factors determining fish

productivity. Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE) is a widely applied tool for measuring fish

productivity. CPUE is computed by multiplying the average crew size and time spent in

a trip, by dividing average catch per trip. But mere presentation of CPUE measures may

not serve the purpose of evaluating fish productivity and may even mislead if one blindly

look at such measures. Hence effort is made to highlight various factors which have

bearing on CPUE.

The study of Anderson (1973) showed that fishery resources were biologically

and technologically not independent but interdependent and their size depended on the

fishing effort.

Rajan (1991) made an assessment of productivity of fishing gears in Kerala. He

found that craft gear combination might be a factor influencing catch per unit effort.

With improved crafts, it would be easy to find productive fishing grounds quickly. Skill

and tactics of fishing operation was another factor influencing CPUE. The use of active

gears like hook and line required much more skill and tactics. He observed that the

45
productivity of gears to an extent depends on the skill of the fishermen using them. It

was observed that the change in fish resources of the sea would affect the CPUE. Hence

the change in CPUE could not be attributed to the change in technology alone. The

change in CPUE would be due to the effort, technology used and the combined effort of

resources and technology. He showed that season of operation of gears was another

factor affecting CPUE. CPUE gears, which were using mostly in peak season would be

more than that of gears which were used in lean season. The study showed that

motorization could not help to increase labour productivity of all gears. Only active

gears like ringseine, hook and line etc. which required special skill were able to increase

the labour productivity if gill nets depend on local fishery conditions.

Korakandy (1994) discussed the causative indicators measuring the

technological changes. Primary indicators that were identified include

i) increase in the number of mechanized boats and gears.

ii) increase in the number of skilled and educated manpower employed in the

industry.

iii) progressive improvements in the infrastructure of the fishing, processing and

marketing.

iv) progressive increases in the expenditure on fisheries by the central and state

governments.

v) export promotion and

vi) import substitution.

The secondary indicators recognized in the study were

46
 i) Changes in the organisation of the production

ii) Changes in employment

iii) Changes in output

iv) Changes in earnings

v) Changes in income distribution

vi) Changes in profitability

vii) Changes in health, sanitation and housing and

viii) Changes in the spatial distribution of output.

Above indicators exploited the progress, efforts and characteristics of technological

changes introduced in the fishing industry.

Kohli (1998) made an attempt to project manpower requirements for the fisheries

sector. He showed that the development of research, education, training, extension,

technological and financial support besides a motivated workforce at grass root level

increased the exploitation levels. He concluded that there was a need for opening

fisheries colleges in many states in India. Thus, it can be concluded that the methods of

craft and gear combination determine factor productivity. Increase in the number of

skilled and educated man power employed in the industry and the progressive

improvements in the infrastructure for fishing determine factor productivity.

Studies Relating To Socio-Economic Conditions

47
 The review presents a terse account of the socio-economic environment in which

most of the fishermen live. The review highlights the importance of the socio-economic

programmes on economic life of the fishermen community.

Achari and Menon (1963) conducted a study on the impact of Indo Norwegian

Project on the socio-economic conditions of the fishermen of the project area at

Neendakara Sakthikulangara. The study noticed a general improvement in the economy

of the fisherfolk with mechanization bringing higher earnings, greater employment and

better standards of living. The report recognized the better health and education facilities

provided by the project. Warrier (1967) made a socio-economic survey of the fishermen

in Madras city. He brought out the fact that the economic conditions of fishermen were

poor.

Further the fish variety is also heterogeneity and complicated in nature. Hence

the dependency of fishing for livelihood by fishermen is still an uncertain one and the

economic conditions of the fishermen remain to be very poor. Moreover the fishing

industry in India is mainly in the hands of illiterates, untrained, unorganized and poor

fishermen ( Bhale Rao and Kalicharan, 1968). Prakasam (1972) made a study on the

socio-economic transformation taking place in the Araya fishing community of Vypeen

in Erankulam district. He highlighted a positive change taking place in the fishermen

community.

48
 Selvaraj (1975) made an empirical study on socio-economic status on small

fishermen in Tamil Nadu. He considered that the variables determining the socio-

economic conditions were:

i) Age & Sex distribution,

ii) Death rates,

iii) Education,

iv) Labour productivity,

v) Income,

vi) Savings,

vii) Dependency ratio and

viii) Assets of small fishermen.

He found out that the socio-economic conditions of small fishermen had not

improved when compared to the large fishermen and the large fishermen had a

comparative advantage over small fishermen in terms of credit, marketing etc.

Sathiadhas and Venkataraman (1981) studied the impact of mechanized fishing on

the socio-economic conditions of the fishermen of Saktikulangara-Neendakara area of

Kerala. They found out the improvements in housing, literacy, employment,

infrastructure, production, exports and earning of the region. Panikkar and

Alagaraj (1981) analysed the socio-economic conditions of the fishermen at the

Puthappa-Puthiangadi region in Kozhikode district. This study revealed that there

were clear improvements in the socio-economic conditions of the fishermen. It also

recognized the prevalence of the indebtedness among the fishermen households.

49
 Theodore Panayotou (1985) made the socio-economic study of the small scale

fisheries in Asia. The study investigated the social, technical and economic factors

affecting the viability and operation of fishing enterprises in the Asian region

Bennet and Arumugam (1987) in their paper revealed that the traditional

fishermen operating indigenous crafts and gears along the Tuticorin coast were greatly

benefited by mechanization of Tuticorin type of boats. The benefits of introduction of

motors to the traditional crafts were much. It saved time in reaching the fishing ground

and returning to the shore. The vagaries of wind and current were overcome to a large

extent and the fish could be reached to the market in time to fetch higher prices.

However, the socio-economic conditions placed the traditional sector on a lower

footing than the fully mechanized industrial sector. A significant improvement in the

socio-economic structure of the traditional sector was the creation of mechanization to

the existing crafts. Though it was partial mechanization in its true sense the fitting of

motors to the boats added new dimension in the exploitation of fishery resources.

James (1989) attempted to outline the growth profile of marine fisheries. The

various development methods improved the socio-economic status of fishermen. He

found out that it was the mechanized boat owning households that were benefited much

from the development. The indigenous traditional crafts owning households were

benefited to a small extent due to the use of synthetic materials for net making which

50
made their gears more efficient. But compared to the fishermen in the mechanized

sector, the traditional fishermen were definitely poorer.

Sathiadhas and Panikkar (1991) studied the economics of catamarans fishing

along the Madras coast. They observed that the catamaran owners could enhance their

earnings by increasing number of gears. The poor economic conditions coupled with

scant availability of finance from the institutional agencies forced the fishermen to

sustain with less equipped fishing equipments which in turn resulted in less returns

entangling them in a vicious circle of poverty.

Murugan et al (1994) in their paper compared the socio-economic status of the

fishermen operating mechanized and non-mechanised fishing boats. The comparative

study clearly revealed that the improved socio-economic status of the fishermen at

Kasimodu, Madras using modern techniques over the traditional fishermen at Marina

beach, Neelangarai and Enjambakkam. Though there was no marked difference in the

family size in the entire study area, the educational status of mechanized fishermen

households was found to be higher. The fisher population having modern gears and

crafts earned higher income than that of the traditional fishermen not having such gears.

The mechanized boats stayed for a longer time in the sea than the non-mechanised boats.

In the entire study area, auctioning was the common practice of selling fish catch. In

general, the status of the fishermen of mechanized fishermen households at Kasimodu

was found to be far better when compared to other traditional fishermen. However the

51
above studies could not reveal the extent of the socio-economic benefits obtained by the

traditional fishermen on account of the motorization of the traditional crafts.

From the studies discussed above, it can be concluded that the mechanized boat

owning households have been benefited mostly from the fisheries development schemes

and the traditional fishermen have got only marginal benefits.

Marketing Scenario Of Marine Fish

Resource development alone cannot be sufficient for the growth of fishing unless

it is coupled with infrastructure and marketing development. Saxena (1970) analyzing

the price behaviour of Indian frozen shrimps in U.S. markets narrated that the price we

realized for our shrimps was only one third to one half of the value on a pound basis

when compared to what other countries realized for their exports. He suggested a

detailed study by a team of marketing and processing experts to improve the image of

Indian shrimps and other marine product exports.

Discussing the marine food industry in Kanyakumari and Triunelveli District of

Tamil Nadu, Leela Nayar (1973) indicated the existence of tremendous employment

potential and it was estimated that nearly 100 man days will be required to process and

distribute one tonne of the finished product. Supply and demand projections of marine

fish upto 1980-81 has been made by Shambu Dayal (1973) and it was helpful for

formulating policies of production and marketing during the last one and a half decades.

52
 Studying on the scope for diversification of marine products for exports,

Ganapathy (1978) indicated that apart from prawns there were number of other rich

fishery resources available in our waters which were yet to be tapped for export purposes.

The excessive dependence on shrimp and few other items alone may result in closure of

factories, once the export market crashes. So there is urgent need for diversification of

marine products.

Abdul Hakim (1979) indicated that the Indian sea food export growth was

stimulated by heavy demand from abroad. As a result, Indian products were never

“marketed” but only passively “supplied”. Because heavy demand and vast markets

existed for Indian shrimps abroad, the importing country or agency offered higher prices

than those existed within the country. The Indian exporters attracted by this price

differences have been contributing their share to the various world markets. They fail to

exploit the demand structure to their advantage.

Analysing the exports of marine products in different forms, Rao (1983) also

suggested alternative forms of fish exports which should be explored to sustain the past

rate of growth in view of decline in shrimp landings. He also suggested various

promotional activities to develop markets for new products.

Studies conducted on marine fish marketing pointed out that the transportation of

fish is very inefficient in India (Singh and Gupta, 1983: Srivastava and Kulkarni,

53
1985; Sathiadhas and Panikkar, 1988). Due to inadequate transportation, no fresh fish

is available in potential markets located away from the landing centres, whereas surplus

fish at harbours is being sent to fish meal plants. Further it has been observed that the

catches of certain varieties such as sardines and mackerel are landed in large quantity in

fishing season which results in the glut at producing centres.

Singh and Gupta (1983) also examined the prevailing marketing system for

different forms of fish in domestic markets. The paper in addition analysed costs, returns

and risks of various market intermediaries. Mammen (1983) analysed the existing fish

marketing systems with a view to suggest some alternative channels to provide better

quality fish to consumer and higher returns to producers.

The marine fishery industry in India consists of traditional crafts, motorized

traditional crafts and mechanized boats. The fishing industry when developed on

commercial line gives rise to a large number of ancillary industries. Important among

them are the ship building, marine engines, nylon manufacturing, net making, freezing,

canning, fish meal, fish oil, cold storage, ice making and various others. The development

of fisheries and allied industries has special significance because

a) this sector deals with a large mass of backward and economically weaker

section of the rural community.

b) it provides a huge quantity of protein subsidiary food at reasonable prices, and

c) it has a large export potential (Sib Rajan Misra, 1987)

54
 Panikkar and Sathiadhas (1985) studied the marketing system and price spread

of some of the commercially important marine fish in Kerala State. The analysis

indicated that fishermen’s share of consumers’ rupee varied from 31 to 68 percent. The

fishemen get a better share for quality fishes having high consumer preference than for

cheaper varieties. They suggested a fast and efficient transportation system for the

improvement of marketing of fish. The same authors (1989) made another detailed study

on marine fish marketing trend in Kerala and observed marked improvements in the

system. The average annual prices for almost all varieties of fish showed a continuous

increase during the decade starting from 1980. Fish marketing in Kerala has been

transformed into a modern stage despite the infrastructure constraints and inherent

complications in the marketing system. The fishermen’s share in consumers rupee

showed an increase over the years inspite of increasing marketing costs.

There seems to be more emphasis on the domestic and export requirement of fish

production in India. The fish production, however seems to exhibit wide fluctuation. The

marine fish production has stagnated during the last decade and the overall growth rate

has shown a decline. The time is ripe now to have an introspection of our past

programmes and their achievements and evaluate the present opportunities to increase the

production (James, 1989).

Sathiadhas and Panikkar (1988) made a study on marketing structure and price

behaviour of marine fish in Tamilnadu. They conclude that fish marketing in Tamilnadu

is still under the clutches of middlemen. Of the 25 varieties of fish covered under the

55
study the percentage of marketing margin in consumers price for 20 varieties which

constitute 90 percent of landings worked out at more than 40 percent.

Mangal Rai and Bawa (2007) made a study on export trade of fisheries. In India

the main thrust of Fisheries and Aquaculture development and production has by and

large been export oriented. India’s share in the international Agricultural Trade is less

than 1 per cent.

General Studies Including Regulatory And Other Aspects Of Fisheries

This section makes an attempt to review the past works of some scholars with

regard to the study of the general aspects of fisheries development including the

regulatory aspects of fisheries.

Walford (1963) made an effort to portray the process of development in the

fishing industry in the advanced countries and to apply the same logic to the

underdeveloped countries. He noted that now fisheries had the advantages of long

development work where the modern technologies of catching, processing, preserving,

storing and transporting fish were fully available. Fishery could grow very rapidly upto

the limits imposed by human need and by the capacity of the resources. Charles Butler

et al (1963) gave a brief outline of the factors to be considered in the initial development

of a planned food fish delivery system in underdeveloped countries.

56
 Borgetorm (1963) presented a scintillating account of the resurgence of the

Japanese fisheries after the Second World War. Borgstorm identified the chief factors

that contributed to the rapid expansion in the output of the Japanese fisheries and pointed

out that these developments were not based on the simple profit analysis.

Srinivasan (1968) made a review of development plans in fisheries sector. He

took into account the financial outlays and physical achievement in various plans. He

explained various schemes drawn by the Tamil Nadu Government for the development of

fisheries. Golgotia (1968) attempted an objective appraisal of the development of marine

fish industry in Maharastra during the period of five-year plans. The study highlighted

the role of co-operatives in various aspects of fisheries development. The study came to

the conclusion that the organizational deficiency was the main obstacle hindering the

development of fisheries in Maharastra. Samual (1968) presented a general description

of the marine fisheries of India with details on production, utilization and export.

Roemer (1970) studies the contribution of fisheries to the economic development

of Peru from1950 to 1967. He outlined the staple theory of exported growth, which he

used to explain the various linkages of growth and then the overall development of the

Peruvian economy since 1950. S. Gnanadoss (1970) presented an overview of the

changes in fishing craft and gears and their impact on Indian economy.

Sysoew (1974) gave an excellent treatment of the development of the Soviet

fishing industry since 1861. He discussed the role of the fishing industry in the economy

57
in the main stages of development and planning. Silas (1976) presented the diverse

aspects of fisheries development in India 1969 to 1974. This included development in

fisheries research, technology, education, training and extension.

Ganapathy (1978) indicated that apart from Prawns there were number of other

rich fishery resources available in water which were yet to be tapped for export purposes.

The excessive dependence on shrimp and few other items alone might result in closure of

factories once export market crashed. He concluded that there was an urgent need for

diversification of marine production. Gokhale (1982) presented a critical note pointing

to the disadvantages of developing a deep sea fishing fleet for India. He argued that

while deep sea fishing would help only a handful of persons and some foreign companies

and inshore fishing could benefit a large population. Rao (1982) presented a general

outline of the Indian fishing Industry with details of vessels, catches, processing of the

fish and fisheries of India.

Clark (1982) studies the behaviour of the fishery under a variety of regulatory

policies namely,

i) No regulation,

ii) Total catch quotas,

iii) Restricted access (vessel licenses),

iv) Allocated vessel quotas and

v) Taxes.

58
 Srivastava et al (1987) presented an overview of fisheries sector of India. They

presented the potentials processing and marketing of fish, fishery research, training

promotion and other regulatory institution. They concluded that the vast fisheries

potentials were not exploited fully because of policy investment and infrastructure

constraints.

Sathiadhas and Panikkar (1988) made a study on market structure and price

behaviour of marine fish in Tamil Nadu. They concluded that fish marketing in Tamil

Nadu was under the clutches of middlemen. Agarwal (1990) analysed the importance of

fisheries in Haryana economy. He brought out that the number of channels decided the

fishermen’s share in the consumer rupee.

Venugopal (1996) discussed the statistical model for describing the trend in all

India marine product exports by employing three different techniques of statistical

modeling namely,

i) Polynomial function fitting approach,

ii) Non linear mechanistic growth modeling approach and

iii) ARIMA time series methodology. Furthermore, forecast of marine

product export for next three years is also made using the selected

model.

Devaraj et al (1998) discussed in their paper about the present status of marine

fisheries in India in the context of New Economic Policy. He observed that the marine

59
fisheries scenario in the country warrants adequate supports for the effective

implementation of the regulatory measures in order to exploit resources in the inshore

waters. He suggested in increasing the exploitation of the deep sea and oceanic resources

in the EEZ, effective prevention of the third country fishing in the Indian EEZ and

mechanization of the artisan craft to reduce their idling and to improve their capabilities.

He suggested for establishment of artificial reefs for increasing productivity and

production in the inshore waters, improvements in the system of data generation

pertaining to the exploited stocks, protection and conservation of bio diversity. It is also

suggested for the improvement of domestic and export marketing through value-addition,

manpower development in R & D, fishing and processing, and development of obligatory

linkages between different organizations. He suggested for the development of marine

information system and infrastructure with particular emphasis on fishing harbours and

berthing facilities. He was in favour of establishment of Sea Farmers’ Development

Agencies and the improvement of wild stocks through the Govt. sponsored programmes.

From the foregoing review, it is concluded that there are fluctuations in fish

landings The catch per unit effort has increased during the post mechanization period.

The fishing industry has undergone the structural and organizational changes after

mechanization. From the study, it is revealed that the size of the vessel is a significant

determinant of both labour and capital productivity. The returns measured on investment

and operational costs showed that the non-mechanised crafts have a better performance.

60
The mechanization of fishing has resulted in the catching of more demersal species. To

assess the fish productivity, the following indicators are included:

i) Number of mechanized boats

ii) Number of skilled manpower,

iii) Changes in infrastructure facilities and

iv) Changes in the socio-economic parameters.

The above review also highlights the fact that the technological changes have

improved the economic conditions of the rich fish farmers while there is no perceptible

improvement in the economic conditions of the traditional fishermen.

The review of literature also reveals that studies relating to economic aspects of

the marine fisheries of our country were not many and most of them were conducted at

selected centres and at micro level. They could not help much in deriving policy

perspectives either at State and national level.

The present study is undertaken after taking into account of various previous

studies hoping thereby, to add a new dimension in the understanding of economic of

fisheries. Hence the present study on production and marketing management of marine

fisheries in Nagapattinam district will be considered as a pioneering attempt in this newly

developing industry.

61
62