Exercise 4–1

Ex: 4.1 Refer to Fig. 4.3(a). For v I ≥ 0, the (c)

diode conducts and presents a zero voltage drop. 
Thus v O = v I . For v I < 0, the diode is cut off,
zero current flows through R, and v O = 0. The V5V
result is the transfer characteristic in Fig. E4.1.

I0A

Ex: 4.2 See Fig. 4.3a and 4.3b. During the 2.5 k
positive half of the sinusoid, the diode is forward
biased, so it conducts resulting in v D = 0. During
the negative half cycle of the input signal v I , the
diode is reverse biased. The diode does not 5 V
conduct, resulting in no current flowing in the
(d)
circuit. So v O = 0 and v D = v I − v O = v I . This

results in the waveform shown in Fig. E4.2.
V0V

vˆI 10 V 
Ex: 4.3 îD = = = 10 mA 05
R 1 k I
2.5
1  2 mA
dc component of v O = vˆO 2.5 k
π
1 10
= vˆI =
π π
5 V
= 3.18 V
(e)
I
3V
Ex: 4.4
0
(a) 2V V3V
0
5 V 1V

3
1 k I  3 mA
50 1
2.5 k I  2 mA
2.5

 (f)
5 V
V0V

 51
1 k I
1
0  4 mA
(b) 3 V
0 
5 V 2 V V1V

1 V

2.5 k I0A I

 10
Ex: 4.5 Vavg =
π
V5V 10
10
 50 + R = π = k
1 mA π
∴ R = 3.133 k

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 Exercise 4–2

Ex: 4.6 Equation (4.5) R  10 k ID

 
I2 
V2 − V1 = 2.3 V T log
I1 VCC  5 V VD
At room temperature VT = 25 mV 
 
10  
V2 − V1 = 2.3 × 25 × 10−3 × log I2
0.1 V2 − V1 = 2.3 × VT log
I1
= 115 mV  
I2
V2 = V1 + 2.3 × VT log
I1
Ex: 4.7 i = IS ev /VT (1) First iteration
 
1 (mA) = IS e 0.7/VT
(2) V2 = 0.7 + 2.3 × 25 × 10−3 log
0.43
1
Dividing (1) by (2), we obtain = 0.679 V
(v −0.7)/VT
i (mA) = e Second iteration
⇒ v = 0.7 + 0.025 ln(i) 5 − 0.679
I2 = = 0.432 mA
10 k
where i is in mA. Thus,  
0.432
V2 = 0.7 + 2.3 × 25.3 × 10−3 log
for i = 0.1 mA, 1

v = 0.7 + 0.025 ln(0.1) = 0.64 V = 0.679 V  0.68 V

we get almost the same voltage.
and for i = 10 mA,
∴ The iteration yields
v = 0.7 + 0.025 ln(10) = 0.76 V
ID = 0.43 mA, VD = 0.68 V

Ex: 4.8 T = 125 − 25 = 100◦ C b. Use constant voltage drop model:

VD = 0.7 V constant voltage drop
IS = 10−14 × 1.15T
5 − 0.7
= 1.17 × 10−8 A ID = = 0.43 mA
10 k

1V Ex: 4.11 10 V
Ex: 4.9 At 20◦ C I = = 1 μA
1 M
Since the reverse leakage current doubles for
every 10◦ C increase, at 40◦ C I R

I = 4 × 1 μA = 4 μA

⇒ V = 4 μA × 1 M = 4.0 V
1
@ 0◦ C I= μA
4 2.4 V
1
⇒ V = × 1 = 0.25 V
4 

Ex: 4.10 a. Use iteration:

Diodes have 0.7 V drop at 1 mA
Diode has 0.7 V drop at 1 mA current.
∴ 1 mA = IS e0.7/VT (1)
Assume VD = 0.7 V
At a current I (mA),
5 − 0.7
ID = = 0.43 mA
10 k I = IS eVD /VT (2)
Use Eq. (4.5) and note that Using (1) and (2), we obtain
V1 = 0.7 V, I1 = 1 mA I = e(VD −0.7)/VT

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 Exercise 4–3

For an output voltage of 2.4 V, the voltage drop (d)

2.4 
across each diode = = 0.8 V
3
V  0.7 V
Now I, the current through each diode, is
I = e(0.8−0.7)/0.025 

= 54.6 mA
0.7  5
10 − 2.4 2.5 k I
R= 2.5
54.6 × 10−3
 1.72 mA
= 139 
5 V

Ex: 4.12 (e)

I
(a) 3V
0
5 V 2V V  3  0.7
0  2.3 V
1V
5  0.7
2.5 k I  1.72 mA 2.3
2.5 I 1 k
1
 2.3 mA


V  0.7 V (f)
5V

5  1.7
I
1 1 k
(b)  3.3 mA

5 V 3 V V  1  0.7
0
 1.7 V
2 V
0
I0A 2.5 k 1 V
I


VT
V5V Ex: 4.13 rd =
ID
 25 × 10−3
ID = 0.1 mA rd = = 250 
0.1 × 10−3

(c) 25 × 10−3
ID = 1 mA rd = = 25 
1 × 10−3
 25 × 10−3
ID = 10 mA rd = = 2.5 
10 × 10−3
V5V

 Ex: 4.14 For small signal model,

iD = v D /rd (1)

2.5 k I0A VT
where rd =
ID
For exponential model,
5 V iD = IS eV /V T

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 Exercise 4–4

iD2
= e(V2 −V1 ) /V T = ev D /V T c. If iD = 5 − i L = 5 − 1 = 4 mA.
iD1
Across each diode the voltage drop is
iD = iD2 − iD1 = iD1 ev D /V T − iD1  
  ID
= iD1 ev D /V T − 1 (2) VD = VT ln
IS
In this problem, iD1 = ID = 1 mA.  
4 × 10−3
Using Eqs. (1) and (2) with VT = 25 mV, we = 25 × 10−3 × ln
4.7 × 10−16
obtain
= 0.7443 V

v D (mV) iD (mA) iD (mA) Voltage drop across 4 diodes

small exponential = 4 × 0.7443 = 2.977 V
signal model
so change in VO = 3 − 2.977 = 23 mV.
a − 10 − 0.4 − 0.33
b −5 − 0.2 − 0.18
c +5 + 0.2 + 0.22 Ex: 4.16 For a zener diode
d + 10 + 0.4 + 0.49
VZ = VZ0 + IZ rZ

10 = VZ0 + 0.01 × 50

Ex: 4.15 VZ0 = 9.5 V

15 V For IZ = 5 mA,

VZ = 9.5 + 0.005 × 50 = 9.75 V

R For IZ = 20 mA,
IL
VZ = 9.5 + 0.02 × 50 = 10.5 V
VO

Ex: 4.17
15 V

R I

5.6 V
VO 20 mV
a. In this problem, = = 20 .
iL 1 mA 0 to 15 mA
∴ Total small-signal resistance of the four diodes
= 20 
20
∴ For each diode, rd = = 5 .
4 The minimum zener current should be
VT 25 mV
But rd = ⇒5= . 5 × IZk = 5 × 1 = 5 mA
ID ID
∴ ID = 5 mA Since the load current can be as large as 15 mA,
we should select R so that with IL = 15 mA, a
15 − 3 zener current of 5 mA is available. Thus the
and R = = 2.4 k.
5 mA current should be 20 mA, leading to
b. For VO = 3 V, voltage drop across each diode 15 − 5.6
3 R= = 470 
= = 0.75 V 20 mA
4
Maximum power dissipated in the diode occurs
iD = IS eV /VT
when IL = 0 is
iD 5 × 10−3
IS = = = 4.7 × 10−16 A Pmax = 20 × 10−3 × 5.6 = 112 mV
eV /VT e0.75/0.025

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 Exercise 4–5

Ex: 4.18 a. The diode starts conduction at

15 V v S = VD = 0.7 V
√
v S = Vs sin ωt, here Vs = 12 2
15  5.1 At ωt = θ,
200  I  49.5 mA
0.2 k
50 mA v S = Vs sin θ = VD = 0.7 V
√
Thus, at no load VZ 5.1 V 12 2 sin θ = 0.7
  
0.7
VZ θ = sin−1 √  2.4◦
12 2
 Conduction starts at θ and stops at 180 − θ.
∴ Total conduction angle = 180 − 2θ = 175.2◦
For line regulation:
 )
(π−θ
1
vo b. v O,avg = (Vs sin φ − VD ) d φ
2π
200  θ

1
vi  7 = [−Vs cos φ − VD φ]φ=π−θ
φ−θ
 2π
1
= [Vs cos θ − Vs cos (π − θ) − VD (π − 2θ )]
2π
But cos θ  1, cos (π − θ)  − 1, and
vo 7 mV
Line regulation = = = 33.8 π − 2θ  π
vi 200 + 7 V
2Vs VD
For load regulation: v O,avg = −
2π 2
Vs VD
= −
π 2
√
200  For Vs = 12 2 and VD = 0.7 V
√
12 2 0.7
v O,avg = − = 5.05 V
VO π 2
IL c. The peak diode current occurs at the peak
VZ0
diode voltage.
√
V − VD 12 2 − 0.7
rZ ∴ îD = s =
R 100
= 163 mA
√
PIV = +V S = 12 2
V O −IL (rZ  200 )
=  17 V
IL IL mA
mV
= −6.8 Ex: 4.20
mA
vS
Ex: 4.19 input
Vs
vS output

Vs  12 2 VD (  )
0

 
t
VD
 t
0 2 VS

u u
a. As shown in the diagram, the output is zero
between (π − θ) to (π + θ)
= 2θ

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 Exercise 4–6

Here θ is the angle at which the input signal Ex: 4.21

reaches VD .

∴ Vs sin θ = VD Vs
output
  input
VD
θ = sin−1 2VD
Vs t
0
 
2θ = 2 sin−1
VD
Vs
 sin–1 2VV 
D
S
Vs
b. Average value of the output signal is given by
⎡ ⎤ 
−θ)
(π 1
1 ⎣ (a) VO,avg = (Vs sin φ − 2VD ) d φ
VO = 2× (Vs sin φ − VD ) d φ ⎦ 2π
2π
θ 2
= [−Vs cos φ − 2VD φ]π−θ
φ=θ
1 2π
= [−Vs cos φ − VD φ]πφ=θ
−θ
π 1
= [Vs cos φ − Vs cos(π − θ) − 2VD (π − 2θ )]
Vs π
2 − VD , for θ small. But cos θ ≈ 1,
π
π cos (π − θ) ≈ − 1
c. Peak current occurs when φ = .
2
π − 2θ ≈ π. Thus
Peak current 2Vs
⇒ VO,avg  − 2VD
Vs sin (π /2) − VD Vs − VD π
= = √
R R 2 × 12 2
= − 1.4 = 9.4 V
If v S is 12 V(rms), π
√ √ Peak voltage
then Vs = 2 × 12 = 12 2 (b) Peak diode current =
√ R
12 2 − 0.7 √
Peak current =  163 mA Vs − 2VD 12 2 − 1.4
100 = =
R 100
Nonzero output occurs for angle = 2 (π − 2θ) = 156 mA
√
The fraction of the cycle for which v O > 0 is PIV = Vs − VD = 12 2 − 0.7 = 16.3 V
2 (π − 2θ)
= × 100
2π Ex: 4.22 Full-wave peak rectifier:
  
0.7 D1
2 π − 2 sin−1 √
12 2 vO
= × 100 
2π R C
vS
 97.4 % 

Average output voltage VO is vS
√ 
Vs 2 × 12 2
VO = 2 − VD = − 0.7 = 10.1 V D2
π π
Peak diode current îD is
Vp
√ t assume
Vs − VD 12 2 − 0.7 ideal diodes
îD = = Vr{
R 100
t
= 163 mA

PIV = Vs − VD + VS T
√ √ 2
= 12 2 − 0.7 + 12 2
The ripple voltage is the amount of voltage
= 33.2 V reduction during capacitor discharge that occurs

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 Exercise 4–7

when the diodes are not conducting. The output If t = 0 is at the peak, the maximum diode current
voltage is given by occurs at the onset of conduction or at t = −ωt.

v O = Vp e−t/RC During conduction, the diode current is given by

T /2 iD = iC + iL
Vp − Vr = Vp e− RC ←
discharge is only half 
T d v S 
the period. We also assumed t
. iD,max = C + iL
2 dt t=−ωt
T /2

Vp
Vr = Vp 1 − e− RC assuming iL is const. iL  = IL
R
T /2 T /2 d  
e− RC  1 − , for CR  T/2 =C Vp cos ωt + IL
RC dt
  = −C sin ω t × ωVp + IL
T /2
Thus Vr  Vp 1 − 1 +
RC = −C sin(−ωt) × ωVp + IL
Vp For a small conduction angle
Vr = (a) Q.E.D.
2fRC
sin(−ωt) ≈ − ωt. Thus
To find the average diode current, note that the
⇒ iD,max = Cωt × ωVp + IL
charge supplied to C during conduction is equal
to the charge lost during discharge. Sub (b) to get

QSUPPLIED = QLOST 2V r
iD,max = C ωVp + IL
Vp
iCav t = CV r SUB (a)
  Vp Vp Substituting ω = 2πf and using (a) together with
iD,av − IL t = C = Vp /R  IL results in
2fRC 2fR
  
Vp π iDmax = IL 1 + 2π
Vp
= Q.E.D.
ωR 2Vr
Vp π
iD,av = + IL
ωtR
Ex: 4.23
where ωt is the conduction angle.

Note that the conduction angle has the same

expression as for the half-wave rectifier and is
D4 D1
given by Eq. (4.30),
 ac 
2Vr  vO 
ωt =∼ (b) line
vS
Vp voltage R

Substituting for ωt, we get D2 C D3
πVp
⇒ iD,av =  + IL
2Vr
·R
Vp
The output voltage, v O , can be expressed as
Since the output is approximately held at Vp ,  
v O = Vp − 2VD e−t/RC
Vp
≈ IL · Thus
R At the end of the discharge interval

Vp v O = Vp − 2VD − Vr
⇒ iD,av ∼
= π IL + IL
2Vr The discharge occurs almost over half of the time
   period  T /2.
Vp T
= IL 1 + π Q.E.D. For time constant RC 
2Vr 2

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 Exercise 4–8

T 1
e−t/RC  1 − × Ex: 4.24
2 RC
 
  T 1 i
∴ VP − 2VD − Vr = Vp − 2VD 1 − ×
2 RC vI 
i vA
  T  
⇒ Vr = Vp − 2VD × vD iD
2RC
√  vO
Here Vp = 12 2 and Vr = 1 V
iR 1 k
VD = 0.8 V
1 1
T= = s
f 60
√ 1
1 = (12 2 − 2 × 0.8) ×
2 × 60 × 100 × C The diode has 0.7 V drop at 1 mA current.
√
(12 2 − 1.6) iD = IS ev D /VT
C= = 1281 μF
2 × 60 × 100 iD
= e(v D −0.7)/V T
Without considering the ripple voltage, the dc 1 mA
 
output voltage iD
√ ⇒ v D = VT ln + 0.7 V
1 mA
= 12 2 − 2 × 0.8 = 15.4 V
For v I = 10 mV, v O = v I = 10 mV
If ripple voltage is included, the output voltage is
√ It is an ideal op amp, so i+ = i− = 0.
Vr
= 12 2 − 2 × 0.8 − = 14.9 V 10 mV
2 ∴ iD = iR = = 10 μA
1 k
IL =
14.9
 0.15 A  
100  10 μA
v D = 25 × 10−3 ln + 0.7 = 0.58 V
1 mA
The conduction angle ωt can be obtained
√ using
Eq. (4.30) but substituting Vp = 12 2 − 2 × 0.8: v A = v D + 10 mV
  = 0.58 + 0.01
2Vr 2×1
ωt = = √
Vp 12 2 − 2 × 0.8 = 0.59 V

= 0.36 rad = 20.7◦ For v I = 1 V

The average and peak diode currents can be vO = vI = 1 V

calculated using Eqs. (4.34) and (4.35): vO 1
iD = = = 1 mA
   1 k 1 k
Vp 14.9 V v D = 0.7 V
iDav = IL 1 + π , where IL = ,
2Vr 100 
VA = 0.7 V + 1 k × 1 mA
√
Vp = 12 2 − 2 × 0.8, and Vr = 1 V; thus = 1.7 V
iDav = 1.45 A For v I = −1 V, the diode is cut off.
  
Vp ∴ vO = 0 V
iDmax = I 1 + 2π
2Vr v A = −12 V
= 2.76 A

PIV of the diodes Ex: 4.25

√
= VS − VDO = 12 2 − 0.8 = 16.2 V 
vO
To provide a safety margin, select a diode capable vI 
R IL
of a peak current of 3.5 to 4A and having a PIV
rating of 20 V.

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 Exercise 4–9

v I > 0 ∼ diode is cut off, loop is open, and the For v I ≤ −5 V, diode D1 conducts and
opamp is saturated: 1
v O = −5 + (+v I + 5)
vO = 0 V 2
vI 
v I < 0 ∼ diode conducts and closes the negative = −2.5 + V
2
feedback loop:
For v I ≥ 5 V, diode D2 conducts and
vO = vI
1
v O = +5 + (v I − 5)
2
Ex: 4.26 vI 
= 2.5 + V
2
10 k

Ex: 4.27 Reversing the diode results in the peak

 
output voltage being clamped at 0 V:
D1 D2

 vO
vI 5V 5V v

 O
t
10 k 10 k 10 V
 

Both diodes are cut off Here the dc component of v O = VO = −5 V

for −5V ≤ v I ≤ + 5V
and v O = v I

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 Chapter 4–1

4.1 4.3
1 (a)
 Cutoff
I D1
1.5 V VD
1 V

D2
(a)
2 V V2V

Conducting 2 (3)
1 2 k I
2 k

I  2.5 mA
1.5 V VD
3 V

(b) (b)
3 V

(a) The diode is reverse biased, thus 3 (1)

2 k I
I =0A 2
Conducting
D1  1 mA
VD = −1.5 V 1 V V1V
(b) The diode is forward biased, thus

VD = 0 V 2 V
1.5 V D2
I= = 1.5 A Cutoff
1

4.2 Refer to Fig. P4.2.

4.4
(a) Diode is conducting, thus (a)
vO
V = −3 V
+3 − (−3)
I= = 0.6 mA
10 k 5V
(b) Diode is reverse biased, thus 0 t
I =0
V = +3 V V p+ = 5 V Vp− = 0 V f = 1 kHz
(c) Diode is conducting, thus (b)
vO
V = +3 V
+3 − (−3)
I= = 0.6 mA
10 k
(d) Diode is reverse biased, thus 0 t
5 V
I =0

V = −3 V Vp+ = 0 V Vp− = −5 V f = 1 kHz

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 Chapter 4–2

(c) vO (h) vO  0 V
t

0 t
v O = 0 V ∼ The output is always shorted to
ground as D1 conducts when v I > 0 and D2
conducts when v I < 0.
vO = 0 V
(i)
Neither D1 nor D2 conducts, so there is no output. vO
5V
(d)
vO
t
2.5 V
5V
t

Vp+ = 5 V, Vp− = −2.5 V, f = 1 kHz

When v I > 0, D1 is cut off and v O follows v I .
Vp+ = 5 V, Vp− = 0 V, f = 1 kHz
When v I < 0, D1 is conducting and the circuit
Both D1 and D2 conduct when v I > 0
becomes a voltage divider where the negative
(e) peak is
vO 1 k
× −5 V = −2.5 V
1 k + 1 k
(j)
vO
5V
t 5V
5 V

t
Vp+ = 5 V, Vp− = −5 V, f = 1 kHz 2.5 V
D1 conducts when v I > 0 and D2 conducts when
v I < 0. Thus the output follows the input.
Vp+ = 5 V, Vp− = −2.5 V, f = 1 kHz
(f)
When v I > 0, the output follows the input as D1
vO is conducting.
5V When v I < 0, D1 is cut off and the circuit
t becomes a voltage divider.
(k)
vO

Vp+ = 5 V, Vp− = 0 V, f = 1 kHz 5V

D1 is cut off when v I < 0 1V
(g) t

vO
5 V 4 V
t
5 V
Vp+ = 1 V, Vp− = −4 V, f = 1 kH3
When v I > 0, D1 is cut off and D2 is conducting.
The output becomes 1 V.

Vp+ = 0 V, Vp− = −5 V, f = 1 kHz When v I < 0, D1 is conducting and D2 is cut off.

The output becomes:
D1 shorts to ground when v I > 0 and is cut off
when v I < 0 whereby the output follows v I . vO = vI + 1 V

SEDRA-ISM: “P-CH04-001-013” — 2014/11/12 — 15:18 — PAGE 2 — #2

 Chapter 4–3

4.5 X = AB, Y = A + B
X and Y are the same for
A=B
X and Y are opposite if A  = B

4.7 The case for the highest current in a single

diode is when only one input is high:
VY = 5 V
VY
≤ 0.2 mA ⇒ R ≥ 25 k
R
From Fig. P4.5 we see that when v I < VB ; that is,
v I < 3 V, D1 will be conducting the current I and 4.8 The maximum input current occurs when one
iB will be zero. When v I exceeds the battery input is low and the other two are high.
voltage (3 V), D1 cuts off and D2 conducts, thus
5−0
steering I into the battery. Thus, iB will have the ≤ 0.2 mA
waveform shown in the figure. Its peak value will R
be 60 mA. To obtain the average value, we first R ≥ 25 k
determine the conduction angle of D2 , (π − 2θ),
where
  4.9
3
θ = sin−1 = 30◦
6 3 V
Thus
π − 2θ = 180◦ − 60 = 120◦ 12 k 0.33 mA
The average value of iB will be
60 × 120◦ 1 V
iB |av = = 20 mA
360◦
I0 D1 D2
If the peak value of v I is reduced by 10%, i.e. OFF
from 6 V to 5.4 V, the peak value of iB does not ON
change. The conduction angle of D2 , however, 0.33 V  1 V
changes since θ now becomes mA
 
3 6 k
θ = sin−1 = 33.75◦
5.4
and thus
3 V
π − 2θ = 112.5◦ (a)
Thus the average value of iB becomes
60 × 112.5◦ (a) If we assume that both D1 and D2 are
iB |av = = 18.75 mA
360◦ conducting, then V = 0 V and the current in D2
will be [0 − (−3)]/6 = 0.5 mA. The current in
the 12 k will be (3 − 0)/12 = 0.25 mA. A node
4.6
equation at the common anodes node yields a
A B X Y negative current in D1 . It follows that our
assumption is wrong and D1 must be off. Now
0 0 0 0
making the assumption that D1 is off and D2 is on,
0 1 0 1 we obtain the results shown in Fig. (a):
1 0 0 1
I =0
1 1 1 1
V = −1 V

SEDRA-ISM: “P-CH04-001-013” — 2014/11/12 — 15:18 — PAGE 3 — #3

 Chapter 4–4

3 V 4.12
RS D

6 k
3 – 0  0.5 mA 
6 vI 
 vO  R vI  1 vI
R  RS 2
0V 

0.25 mA D1 D2 vI
ON iD 
ON R  RS
V0
0 – (–3) D starts to conduct when v I > 0
12
0.25 mA 12 k vO

3 V
(b) vI
0
(b) In (b), the two resistors are interchanged.
With some reasoning, we can see that the current
supplied through the 6-k resistor will exceed 4.13 For v I > 0 V: D is on, v O = v I , iD = v I /R
that drawn through the 12-k resistor, leaving For v I < 0 V: D is off , v O = 0, iD = 0
sufficient current to keep D1 conducting.
Assuming that D1 and D2 are both conducting
gives the results shown in Fig. (b):
I = 0.25 mA
V =0V

4.10 The analysis is shown on the circuit

diagrams below.

√
120 2
4.11 R ≥ ≥ 4.2 k
40
The largest reverse voltage appearing across the
diode is equal to the peak input voltage:
√
120 2 = 169.7 V

These figures belong to Problem 4.10.

reverse biased

10  10  5 k 5 k 5 k
V

10 I I0
5 2.5 V 1.5 V
10  10 20 k
 V 
 2.5 V

2.5 V  1.5  2.5  1 V

I  0.1 mA
5  20 (b)
V  0.1  20  2 V
(a)

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 Chapter 4–5

4.14 ∴ Peak-to-peak sine wave voltage

= 2A = 34 V
Given the average diode current to be
2π
1 A sin φ − 12
d φ = 100 mA
2π R
0
 φ = 0.75π
1 −17 cos φ − 12φ
= 0.1
2π R φ = 0.25π

R = 8.3 
A − 12
Peak diode current = = 0.6 A
R
Peak reverse voltage = A + 12 = 29 V
For resistors specified to only one significant digit
and peak-to-peak voltage to the nearest volt,
choose A = 17 so the peak-to-peak sine wave
voltage = 34 V and R = 8 .
Conduction starts at v I = A sin θ = 12
17 sin θ = 12
π 
θ= rad
4.15 4
Conduction stops at π − θ.

R D ∴ Fraction of cycle that current flows is

vI  12 V π − 2θ
 × 100 = 25%
2π
Average diode current =
 
1 −17 cos φ − 12φ φ = 3π/4
= 103 mA
vI 2π 8 φ = π/4

Peak diode current

A 17 − 12
12 V = = 0.625 A
8
 Peak reverse voltage =
0  
A + 12 = 29 V
 

4.16
2
V RED GREEN
conduction occurs 3V ON OFF - D1 conducts
0 OFF OFF - No current flows
v I = A sin θ = 12 ∼ conduction through D –3 V OFF ON - D2 conducts
occurs
For a conduction angle (π − 2θ ) that is 25% of a kT
cycle 4.17 VT =
q
π − 2θ 1
= where
2π 4 k = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K = 8.62 × 10−5 eV/K
π
θ= T = 273 + x◦ C
4
A = 12/sin θ = 17 V q = 1.60 × 10−19 C

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 Chapter 4–6

Thus I = 10−3 e(0.6 − 0.7)/0.025

VT = 8.62 × 10−5 × (273 × x◦ C), V = 18.3 μA

To increase the current by a factor of 10, VD must

x [◦ C] VT [mV] be increased by VD ,
−55 18.8 10 = eVD /0.025
0 23.5
+55 28.3 ⇒ VD = 0.025 ln10 = 57.6 mV
+125 34.3
4.21 IS can be found by using IS = ID · e−VD /VT .
for VT = 25 mV at 17◦ C Let a decrease by a factor of 10 in ID result in a
decrease of VD by V:

ID = IS eVD /VT
4.18 i = I S ev /0.025
ID
= IS e(VD −V)/VT = IS eVD /VT · e−V /V T
∴ 10,000IS = IS ev /0.025 10
v = 0.230 V Taking the ratio of the above two equations, we
have
At v = 0.7 V,
10 = eV /V T ⇒ V  60 mV
i = IS e0.7/0.025 = 1.45 × 1012 IS
Thus the result in each case is a decrease in the
diode voltage by 60 mV.

4.19 I1 = IS e0.7/VT = 10−3 (a) VD = 0.700 V, ID = 1 A

⇒ IS = 6.91 × 10−13 A;
i2 = IS e0.5/VT
10% of ID gives VD = 0.64 V
i2 i2 0.5 − 0.7
= −3 = e 0.025
i1 10 (b) VD = 0.650 V, ID = 1 mA
i2 = 0.335 μA ⇒ IS = 5.11 × 10−15 A;

10% of ID gives VD = 0.59 V

(c) VD = 0.650 V, ID = 10 μA
4.20 I = IS eVD /VT ⇒ IS = 5.11 × 10−17 A;
10−3 = IS e0.7/VT (1) 10% of ID gives VD = 0.59 V
For VD = 0.71 V, (d) VD = 0.700 V, ID = 100 mA
I = IS e 0.71/VT
(2) ⇒ IS = 6.91 × 10−14 A;

Combining (1) and (2) gives 10% of ID gives VD = 0.64 V

I = 10−3 e(0.71 − 0.7)/0.025

4.22 IS can be found by using IS = ID · e−VD /VT .
= 1.49 mA
Let an increase by a factor of 10 in ID result in an
For VD = 0.8 V,
increase of VD by V:
I = IS e0.8/VT (3)
ID = IS eVD /VT
Combining (1) and (3) gives
10I D = IS e(VD +V )/VT = IS eVD /VT · eV /V T
I = 10−3 × e(0.8 − 0.7)/0.025
Taking the ratio of the above two equations, we
= 54.6 mA have
Similarly, for VD = 0.69 V we obtain 10 = eV /V T ⇒ V  60 mV
−3 (0.69 − 0.7)/0.025
I = 10 ×e
Thus the result is an increase in the diode voltage
= 0.67 mA by 60 mV.

and for VD = 0.6 V we have Similarly, at ID /10, VD is reduced by 60 mV.

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 Chapter 4–7

(a) VD = 0.70 V, ID = 10 mA 4.25

⇒ IS = 6.91 × 10−15 A;
I
ID × 10 gives V D = 0.76 V

ID /10 gives VD = 0.64 V


(b) VD = 0.70 V, ID = 1 mA ID1 ID2
⇒ IS = 6.91 × 10−16 A; D1 D2
VD
ID × 10 gives V D = 0.76 V

ID /10 gives VD = 0.64 V

(c) VD = 0.80 V, ID = 10 A
ID1 = IS1 eVD /VT (1)
⇒ IS = 1.27 × 10−13 A;
VD /VT
ID2 = IS2 e (2)
ID × 10 gives V D = 0.86 V
Summing (1) and (2) gives
ID /10 gives VD = 0.74 V
ID1 + ID2 = (IS1 + IS2 )eVD /VT
(d) VD = 0.70 V, ID = 1 mA But
⇒ IS = 6.91 × 10−16 A;
ID1 + ID2 = I
ID × 10 gives V D = 0.76 V
Thus
ID /10 gives VD = 0.64 V I = (IS1 + IS2 ) eVD /VT (3)
(e) VD = 0.6 V, ID = 10 μA From Eq. (3) we obtain
⇒ IS = 3.78 × 10−16 A  
I
VD = VT ln
ID × 10 gives V D = 0.66 V IS1 + IS2
Also, Eq. (3) can be written as
ID /10 gives VD = 0.54 V  
IS2
I = IS1 eVD /VT 1 + (4)
IS1
4.23 The voltage across three diodes in series is Now using (1) and (4) gives
2.0 V; thus the voltage across each diode must be I IS1
0.667 V. Using ID = IS eVD /VT , the required ID1 = =I
1 + (IS2 /IS1 ) IS1 + IS2
current I is found to be 3.9 mA.
We similarly obtain
If 1 mA is drawn away from the circuit, ID will be
I IS2
2.9 mA, which would give VD = 0.794 V, giving ID2 = =I
an output voltage of 1.98 V. The change in output 1 + (IS1 /IS2 ) IS1 + IS2
voltage is −22 mV.
4.26

4.24 Connecting an identical diode in parallel

would reduce the current in each diode by a factor
of 2. Writing expressions for the currents, we have I

ID = IS eVD /VT
ID
= IS e(VD −V)/VT = IS eVD /VT · e−V /V T
2
D1 D2 D3 D4
Taking the ratio of the above two equations, we
have I1 2I1 4I1 8I1
V /V T
2=e ⇒ V = 17.3 mV
I1  0.1 mA
Thus the result is a decrease in the diode voltage
by 17.3 mV.

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 Chapter 4–8

The junction areas of the four diodes must be
related by the same ratios as their currents, thus
A4 = 2A3 = 4A2 = 8 A1
With I1 = 0.1 mA,
I = 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.4 + 0.8 = 1.5 mA
4.27 We can write a node equation at the anodes:
ID2 = I1 − I2 = 7 mA
Solving the above equation, we have
R = 42 
4.29 For a diode conducting a constant current,
the diode voltage decreases by approximately 2
mV per increase of 1◦ C.
T = −20◦ C corresponds to a temperature
decrease of 40◦ C, which results in an increase of
the diode voltage by 80 mV. Thus VD = 770 mV.

ID1 = I2 = 3 mA T = + 85◦ C corresponds to a temperature

increase of 65◦ C, which results in a decrease of
We can write the following equation for the diode the diode voltage by 130 mV. Thus VD = 560 mV.
voltages:
V = VD2 − VD1 4.30 10 V
If D2 has saturation current IS , then D1 , which is I
10 times larger, has saturation current 10IS . Thus
we can write R1

ID2 = IS eVD2 /VT

ID1 = 10I S eVD1 /VT 
D1 V1
Taking the ratio of the two equations above, we 
have

ID2 7 1 (VD2 −VD1 )/VT 1 V /V T D2 V2
= = e = e
ID1 3 10 10 
 
70
⇒ V = 0.025 ln = 78.7 mV
3
To instead achieve V = 60 mV, we need At 20◦ C:
ID2 I1 − I2 1 0.06/0.025 VR1 = V2 = 520 mV
= = e = 1.1
ID1 I2 10
R1 = 520 k
Solving the above equation with I1 still at 10 mA,
520 mV
we find I2 = 4.76 mA. I= = 1 μA
520 k
Since the reverse current doubles for every 10◦ C
4.28 We can write the following node equation at rise in temperature, at 40◦ C, I = 4 μA
the diode anodes:
ID2
ID2 = 10 mA − V /R 40°C 20°C
4 µA
ID1 = V /R
We can write the following equation for the diode
voltages: 40 mV
1 µA
V = VD2 − VD1 V2
480 520 mV
We can write the following diode equations:
ID2 = IS eVD2 /VT V2 = 480 + 2.3 × 1 × 25 log 4

ID1 = IS eVD1 /VT = 514.6 mV

Taking the ratio of the two equations above, we VR1 = 4 μA × 520 k = 2.08 V
have 1
At 0◦ C, I = μA
ID2 10 mA − V /R 4
= = e(VD2 −VD1 )/VT = eV /V T
ID1 V /R V2 = 560 − 2.3 × 1 × 25 log 4
To achieve V = 50 mV, we need = 525.4 mV
ID2 10 mA − 0.05/R 1
= = e0.05/0.025 = 7.39 VR1 = × 520 = 0.13 V
ID1 0.05/R 4

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 Chapter 4–9

 
4.31 For a diode conducting a constant current, 1.0
V = VT ln = 57.6 mV
the diode voltage decreases by approximately 0.1
2 mV per increase of 1◦ C. ⇒ VD = 757.6 mV
A decrease in VD by 100 mV corresponds to a ID = 3 mA:
junction temperature increase of 50◦ C.  
3
V = VT ln = 85 mV ⇒ VD = 785 mV
The power dissipation is given by 0.1
PD = (10 A) (0.6 V) = 6 W For the second diode, with
The thermal resistance is given by ID = 1 A and VD = 700 mV, we have
T 50◦ C
= = 8.33◦ C/W ID = 1.0 mA:
PD 6W
 
0.001
V = VT ln = −173 mV
1
4.32 Given two different voltage/current
⇒ VD = 527 mV
measurements for a diode, we can write
ID1 = IS eVD1 /VT ID = 3 mA:
 
0.003
ID2 = IS eVD2 /VT V = VT ln = −145 mV
1
Taking the ratio of the above two equations, we ⇒ VD = 555 mV
have
For both ID = 1.0 mA and ID = 3 mA, the
ID1
= IS e(VD1 −VD2 )/VT ⇒ VD1 − VD2 difference between the two diode voltages is
ID2   approximately 230 mV. Since, for a fixed diode
ID1
= VT ln current, the diode voltage changes with
ID2 temperature at a constant rate (–2 mV per ◦ C
For ID = 1 mA, we have temp. increase), this voltage difference will be
  independent of temperature!
1 × 10−3 A
V = VT ln = −230 mV
10 A
⇒ VD = 570 mV 4.34
For ID = 3 mA, we have R  1 kΩ
 
3 × 10−3 A
V = VT ln = −202 mV 
10 A
VDD i
⇒ VD = 598 mV v
1V
Assuming VD changes by –2 mV per 1◦ C increase 
in temperature, we have, for ±20◦ C changes:
For ID = 1 mA, 530 mV ≤ VD ≤ 610 mV
IS = 10−15 A = 10−12 mA
For ID = 3 mA, 558 mV ≤ VD ≤ 638 mV
Calculate some points
Thus the overall range of VD is between 530 mV
and 638 mV. v = 0.6 V , i = IS ev /V T

= 10−12 e0.6/0.025
4.33 Given two different voltage/current
 0.03 mA
measurements for a diode, we have
ID1 v = 0.65 V, i  0.2 mA
= IS e(VD1 −VD2 )/VT ⇒ VD1 − VD2
ID2  
ID1 v = 0.7 V, i  1.45 mA
= VT ln
ID2 Make a sketch showing these points and load line
For the first diode, with ID = 0.1 mA and and determine the operating point. The points for
the load line are obtained using
VD = 700 mV, we have
VDD − VD
ID = 1 mA: ID =
R

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 Chapter 4–10

i (mA) 4.35
R  1 k
2.0

Diode characteristic  
1V ID VD
1.0  
0.8
0.6 Load line
0.4
0.2 IS = 10−15 A = 10−12 mA
0 v (V) Use the iterative analysis procedure:
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
1 − 0.7
1. VD = 0.7 V, ID = = 0.3 mA
1K
From this sketch one can see that the operating    
point must lie between v = 0.65 V to v = 0.7 V 2. VD = VT ln
ID
= 0.025 ln
0.3
  IS 10 −12
i
For i = 0.3 mA, v = VT ln || = 0.6607 V
IS
  1 − 0.6607
3 ID = = 0.3393 mA
= 0.025 × ln 1K
10−12  
= 0.661 V 0.3393
3. VD = 0.025 ln = 0.6638 V
10−12
For i = 0.4 mA, v = 0.668 V
1 − 0.6638
Now we can refine the diagram to obtain a better ID = = 0.3362 mA
1K
estimate  
0.3362
4. VD = 0.025 ln = 0.6635 V
10−12
i (mA)
0.4 1 − 0.6635
ID = = 0.3365 mA
1 k
Stop here as we are getting almost same value of
ID and VD

0.35 Load line 4.36

500 

 
1V i v
0.30 v (V)
0.660 0.664 0.67  

From this graph we get the operating point 1 − 0.7

a) ID = = 0.6 mA
0.5 k
i = 0.338 mA, v = 0.6635 V
b) Diode has 0.7 V drop at 1 mA current. Use
Now we compare graphical results with the Eq. (4.5):
exponential model.  
i2
v 2 = v 1 + 2.3VT log
At i = 0.338 mA i1
   
i 0.338 1. v = 0.7 V
v = VT ln = 0.025 × ln
IS 10−12 1 − 0.7
1 i= = 0.6 mA
= 0.6637 V 0.5 k
 
The difference between the exponential model 0.6
2. v = 0.7 + 2.3 × 0.025 log
and graphical results is = 0.6637 − 0.6635 1

= 0.0002 V = 0.6872 V
1 − 0.6872
= 0.2 mV 2 i= = 0.6255 mA
0.5

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 Chapter 4–11

 
0.6255 N
3. v = 0.7 + 2.3 × 0.025 log
1
= 0.6882 V ⫹
1 − 0.6882 1 mA V
3 i= = 0.6235 mA
0.5 k
  ⫺
0.6235
4. v = 0.7 + 2.3 × 0.025 log
1
The voltage drop across each pair of diodes is
= 0.6882 V 1.3 V. ∴ Voltage drop across each diode
1 − 0.6882 1.3
4 i= = 0.6235 mA = = 0.65 V. Using
0.5 k 2

Stop as we are getting the same result. I2 = I1 e(V2 −V1 )/VT

= 2e(0.65−0.7)/0.025

4.37 We first find the value of IS for the diode, = 0.2707 mA

given by IS = ID e−VD /VT with ID = 1 mA and Thus current through each branch is 0.2707 mA.
VD = 0.75 V. This gives IS = 9.36 × 10−17 A.
1
The 1 mA will split in = = 3.69 branches.
In order to have 3.3 V across the 4 0.2707
series-connected diodes, each diode drop must be Choose N = 4.
0.825 V. Applying this voltage to the diode gives
current ID = 20.1 mA. We can then find the There are 4 pairs of diodes in parallel.
resistor value using ∴ We need 8 diodes.
15 V − 3.3 V Current through each pair of diodes
R= = 582 
20.1 mA 1 mA
= = 0.25 mA
4
4.38 Constant voltage drop model: ∴ Voltage across each pair
  
0.25
V − 0.7 = 2 0.7 + 0.025 ln
Using v D = 0.7 V, ⇒ iD1 = 2
R
= 1.296 V
V − 0.6
Using v D = 0.6 V, ⇒ iD2 =
R SPECIAL NOTE: There is another possible
design utilizing only 6 diodes and realizing a
For the difference in currents to be only 1%,
voltage of 1.313 V. It consists of the series
⇒ iD2 = 1.01iD1 connection of 4 parallel diodes and 2 parallel
diodes.
V − 0.6 = 1.01 (V − 0.7)

V = 10.7 V
4.40 Refer to Example 4.2.
For V = 3 V and R = 1 k:
(a)
3 − 0.7
At VD = 0.7 V, iD1 = = 2.3 mA 10 V
1
3 − 0.6
At VD = 0.6 V, iD2 = = 2.4 mA 10  0
1 5 I  1.861  10 k 4  1 mA
10
iD2 2.4 0.86 mA
= = 1.04
iD1 2.3 V0V 3

Thus the percentage difference is 4%.  

1 0.7 V

4.39 Available diodes have 0.7 V drop at 2 mA 2 0.7  10

5 k 5
current since 2VD = 1.4 V is close to 1.3 V, use N
 1.86 mA
parallel pairs of diodes to split the 1 mA current
evenly, as shown in the figure next. 10 V

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 Chapter 4–12

(b) (c)
10 V
3 V

5 k ID2
I
V
 V
I0 0.7 V
Cutoff   10 k

10 k ID2
3 V
10 V
V = 3 − 0.7 = 2.3 V
10 − (−10) − 0.7 2.3 + 3
ID2 = = 1.29 mA I= = 0.53 mA
15 10
VD = −10 + 1.29 (10) + 0.7 = 3.6 V (d)
3 V
4.41
(a) I
Cutoff
3 V
V

10 k

V
3 V
I
I =0A
V = −3 V
3 V

V = −3 + 0.7 = −2.3 V 4.42

3 + 2.3 (a)
I=
10 Cutoff
= 0.53 mA
1 V
(b) D1
3 V
2 V V
D2
10 k I
2 k

Cutoff 3 V
I

V = 2 − 0.7
3 V = 1.3 V
1.3 − (−3)
I =0A I=
2
V = 3 − I (10) = 3 V = 2.15 mA

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 Chapter 4–13

(b) (b) See analysis on Fig. (b).

3 V I = 0.133 mA
V =0V
2 k I
4.44
10  10  5 k  0.7 V 
1 V V V
D1
I
10 20 k
2 V 5
D2 10  10
Cutoff  2.5 V

V = 1 + 0.7 = 1.7 V (a)

3 − 1.7
I= = 0.65 mA  V 
2 5 k 5 k

4.43 0 mA
+3V 2.5 V 1.5 V

ID2 12 k (b)
2.5 − 0.7
 (a) I = = 0.072 mA
5 + 20
I0 ON 0.7 V
D1 V = 0.072 × 20 = 1.44 V
D2 
Cutoff ID2 V (b) The diode will be cut off, thus

6 k I =0
V = 1.5 − 2.5 = −1 V
3 V
(a) 4.45

3V
vI  iD R

30.7
 0.383 mA 6 k
6
 0.7 V v I ,peak − 0.7
iD,peak = ≤ 40 mA
I  0.383  0.25 D1 D2 R
 0.133 mA √
ON ON 120 2 − 0.7
V0V
R≥ = 4.23 k
40
√
0(3) Reverse voltage = 120 2 = 169.7 V.
 12 k
12
0.25 mA The design is essentially the same since the
3 V
supply voltage  0.7 V
(b)

3 − 0.7 − (−3) 4.46 Use the exponential diode model to find the
(a) ID2 = = 0.294 mA percentage change in the current.
12 + 6
V = −3 + 0.294 × 6 = −1.23 V iD = IS ev /VT
iD2
Check that D1 is off: Voltage at the anode of = e(V2 −V1 )/VT = ev /VT
D1 = V + VD2 = −1.23 + 0.7 = −0.53 V which iD1
keeps D1 off. For +5 mV change we obtain

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 Chapter 4–14

iD2 For a parallel combination of 10 diodes,

= e5/25 = 1.221
iD1 equivalent resistance, Req , is
% change 2.7
Req = = 0.27 
iD2 − iD1 1.221 − 1 10
= × 100 = × 100
iD1 1 If there is a single diode conducting all the 0.1 A
= 22.1% current, the connection resistance needed for the
single diode will be = 0.27 − 0.25 = 0.02 .
For –5 mV change we obtain
iD2
= e−5/25 = 0.818
iD1 4.48 The dc current I flows through the diode
VT
iD2 − iD1 0.818 − 1 giving rise to the diode resistance rd = and
% change = × 100 = × 100 I
iD1 1 the small-signal equivalent circuit is represented
= −18.1% by

Maximum allowable voltage signal change when Rs

the current change is limited to ±10% is found as

follows:
vs rd vo
The current varies from 0.9 to 1.1
iD2 
= eV /VT
iD1
For 0.9, V = 25 ln (0.9) = −2.63 mV rd VT /I VT
vo = vs × = vs = vs
rd + RS VT VT + IRS
For 1.1, V = 25 ln (1.1) = +2.38 mV + RS
I
For ±10% current change the voltage signal 25 mV
Now, v o = 10 mV ×
change is from –2.63 mV to +2.38 mV 25 mV + 103 I

4.47 0.1 A I vo
1 mA 0.24 mV
0.1 mA 2.0 mV
1 μA 9.6 mV

1 0.025
For v o = vs = vs ×
Ten diode connected in parallel and fed with a 2 0.025 + 103 I
total current of 0.1 A. So the current through each ⇒ I = 25 μA
0.1
diode = = 0.01 A
10
Small signal resistance of each diode 4.49 As shown in Problem 4.48,
VT 25 mV vo VT 0.025
= = = 2.5  = = (1)
iD 0.01 A vi VT + RS I 0.025 + 104 I
Equivalent resistance, Req , of 10 diodes connected Here RS = 10 k
in parallel is given by
The current changes are limited ±10%. Using
2.5 exponential model, we get
Req = = 0.25 
10 iD2
If there is one diode conducting 0.1 A current, = ev /VT = 0.9 to 1.1
iD1
then the small signal resistance of this diode  
iD2
25 mV v = 25 × 10−3 ln and here
= = 0.25  iD1
0.1 A
For 0.9, v = −2.63 mV
This value is the same as of 10 diodes connected
in parallel. For 1.1, v = 2.38 mV
If 0.2  is the resistance for making connection, The variation is –2.63 mV to 2.38 mV for ±10%
the resistance in each branch current variation. Thus the largest symmetrical
= rd + 0.2 = 2.5 + 0.2 = 2.7  output signal allowed is 2.38 mV in amplitude. To

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 Chapter 4–15

vo
obtain the corresponding input signal, we divide I = 100 μA, = 100 × 10−3 = 0.1 V/V
this by (v o /v i ): vi
vo
2.38 mV I = 500 μA, = 500 × 10−3 = 0.5 V/V
vˆs = (2) vi
v o /v i
  vo
I = 600 μA, = 600 × 10−3 = 0.6 V/V
Now for the given values of v o /v i calculate I vi
and v̂ S using Equations (1) and (2) vo
I = 900 μA, = 900 × 10−3 = 0.9 V/V
vi
vo vo
I in mA v̂ s in mV I = 990 μA, = 990 × 10−3 = 0.99 V/V
vi vi
0.5 0.0025 4.76 I = 1 mA
0.1 0.0225 23.8 vo
= 1000 μA, = 1000 × 10−3 = 1 V/V
0.01 0.2475 238 vi
0.001 2.4975 2380

4.51

4.50
I
1 mA C
2
vo
C1 D1 D2 D1 D3
vi
I vo

vi R 10 k
D2 D4
When both D1 and D2 are conducting, the
small-signal model is

rd1 I
vi vo

rd2
I
a. The current through each diode is :
2
VT 2VT 0.05
rd = = =
where we have replaced the large capacitors C1 I I I
and C2 by short circuits: 2
VT From the equivalent circuit
vo rd 2 1 m −I I vo R R
= = = = =
vi rd 1 + rd 2 VT VT 1m vi R + (2rd 2rd ) R + rd
+
I 1m−I
Thus vo
vo I rd
= I, where I is in mA vi
vi
0 μA ∞ 0
vo
Now I = 0 μA, =0 1 μA 50 k 0.167
vi
10 μA 5 k 0.667
vo
I = 1 μA, = 1 × 10−3 = 0.001 V/V 100 μA 500  0.952
vi
vo 1 mA 50  0.995
I = 10 μA, = 10 × 10−3 = 0.01 V/V 10 mA 5 0.9995
vi

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 Chapter 4–16

rd rd From the results of (a) above, for I = 1 mA,

v o /v i = 0.995; thus the maximum input signal
will be
vo
rd rd v̂ i = v̂ o /0.995 = 1/0.995
vI 
 R 10 k = 1.005 V
The same result can be obtained from the figure
above where the signal across the two series
Equivalent Circuit
diodes is 5 mV, thus
v̂ i = v̂ o + 5 mV = 1 V + 5 mV = 1.005 V. See
also the figure below.
b. For signal current to be limited to ±10% of I (I
is the biasing current), the change in diode
voltage can be obtained from the equation
iD
= eVD /V T = 0.9 to 1.1
I
v D = −2.63 mV to +2.32 mV
 ±2.5 mV
so the signal voltage across each diode is limited
to 2.5 mV when the diode current remains within
10% of the dc bias current.
∴ v o = 10 − 2.5 − 2.5 = 5 mV
5 mV
and i = = 0.5 μA
10 k

2.5 2.5
mV mV
4.52

i
vo I

10 mV 
 R 10 k i1 i3
D1 D3
2.5 2.5  
mV mV  v1 v3  iO vO

v v4 
The current through each diode vI i2 2 i4 R 10 k
 
0.5 D2 D4
= μA = 0.25 μA
2
The signal current i is 0.5 μA, and this is 10% of
the dc biasing current. I
∴ DC biasing current I = 0.5 × 10 = 5 μA
c. Now I = 1 mA.
I = 1 mA
∴ ID = 0.5 mA
Each diode exhibits 0.7 V drop at 1 mA current.
Maximum current derivation 10%. Using diode exponential model we have
0.5  
∴ id = = 0.05 mA i2
10 v 2 − v 1 = VT ln
i1
and i = 2id = 0.1 mA.
and v 1 = 0.7 V, i1 = 1 mA
∴ Maximum v o = i × 10 k  
i
⇒ v = 0.7 + VT ln
= 0.1 × 10 1
=1V = 700 + 25 ln(i)

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 Chapter 4–17

Calculation for different values of v O : For I = 0.5 mA, the output will saturate at
0.5 mA ×10 k = 5 V.
v O = 0, iO = 0, and the current I = 1 mA divide
equally between the D3 , D4 side and the D1 , D2
vo (V )
side.
I  1 mA
I 10
i1 = i2 = i3 = i4 = = 0.5 mA
2
I  0.5 mA
v = 700 + 25 ln(0.5)  683 mV 5

v 1 = v 2 = v 3 = v 4 = 683 mV v1 (V)
10.7 5.68 5.68 10.7
From the circuit, we have
5
v I = −v 1 + v 3 + v O = −683 + 683 + 0 = 0 V
1
For v O = 1 V, iO = = 0.1 mA
10 k
Because of symmetry of the circuit, we obtain
4.53 Representing the diode by the small-signal
I iO
i3 = i2 = + = 0.5 + 0.05 = 0.55 mA and resistances, the circuit is
2 2
i4 = i1 = 0.45 mA rd
 
i2 
v 3 = v 2 = 700 + 25 ln = 685 mV
1 vi  C
 vo
 
i4 
v 4 = v 1 = 700 + 25 ln = 680 mV
1
VT
rd 
ID
vO iO i3 = i2 i4 = i1 v 3 = v 2 v 4 = v 1 v I = −v 1 +
(V) (mA) (mA) (mA) (mV) (mV) v 3 + v O (V) 1
Vo sC 1
0 0 0.5 0.5 683 683 0 = =
Vi 1 1 + sCrd
+1 0.1 0.55 0.45 685 680 1.005 rd +
sC
+2 0.2 0.6 0.4 ∼ 687 677 2.010
Vo 1
+5 0.5 0.75 0.25 ∼ 693 665 5.028 =
Vi 1 + jωCrd
+9 0.9 0.95 0.05 ∼ 699 ∼ 625 9.074
 
+ 9.9 0.99 0.995 0.005 ∼ 700 568 10.09 ωCrd
Phase shift = −tan−1
9.99 0.999 0.9995 0.0005 ∼ 700 510 10.18 1
10 1 1 0 700 0 10.7  
VT
= −tan−1 ωC
I
v I = −v 1 + v 2 + v O = −0.680 For phase shift of −45◦ , we obtain
+0.685 + 1 = 1.005 V 
−45 = −tan−1 2π × 100 × 103 × 10
Similarly, other values are calculated as shown in 
the table. The largest values of v O on positive and 0.025
× 10−9 ×
negative side are +10 V and −10 V, respectively. I
This restriction is imposed by the current
I = 1 mA ⇒ I = 157 μA

A similar table can be generated for the negative 157

Now I varies from μA to 157 × 10 μA
values. It is symmetrical. 10

For v I > +10.7, v O will be saturated at +10 V Range is 15.7 μA to 1570 μA

and it is because I = 1 mA. Similarly, for
v I < −10.7 V, v O will be saturated at −10 V. Range of phase shift is −84.3◦ to −5.71◦

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 Chapter 4–18

4.54 4.55
V V

R
R IL


VO VO




VO

IL
R rd
VO rd VT /I
(a) = =
V + R + rd VT
R+
I
Small-signal model
VT
=
IR + VT
(a) From the small-signal model
V + − VO V + − 0.7
For no load, I = = . VO = −I L (rd  R)
R R
VO
VO VT = − (rd  R)
∴ = IL
V + VT + (V + − 0.7)
V + − 0.7
(b) At no load, ID =
R
R VT
rd =
ID

VO 1
= − (rd  R) = −
IL 1 1
V

 rd VO +
 rd R
1
=−
 ID ID
+
V + − 0.7 VT
VT 1
=− ×
ID VT
Small-signal model +1
V + − 0.7
VT V + − 0.7
=− ×
(b) If m diodes are in series, we obtain ID VT + V + − 0.7

VO VO mV
=
mr d
=
mVT For ≤5
V + mr d + R mVT + IR IL mA
VT V + − 0.7 5 mV
mVT i.e., × ≤
= ID VT + V + − 0.7 mA
mVT + (V + − 0.7m)  
25 15 − 0.7 mV
× ≤5
(c) For m = 1 ID 0.025 + 15 − 0.7 mA
VO VT ID ≥ 4.99 mA
= = 1.75 mV/V
V + VT + V + − 0.7 ID  5 mA
For m = 4 V + − 0.7 15 − 0.7
R= =
ID 5 mA
VO mVT
= = 8.13 mV/V R = 2.86 k
V + mVT + 15 − m × 0.7

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 Chapter 4–19

Diode should be a 5-mA unit; that is, it conducts IL = 1.5/1.5 = 1 mA

5 mA at VD = 0.7 V, thus 5 × 10−3 = IS e0.7/0.025 .
I = ID + IL = 7.39 mA + 1 mA
⇒ IS = 3.46 × 10−15 A
= 8.39 mA
(c) For m diodes connected in series we have
5 − 1.5
V + − 0.7m ∴R= = 417 
ID = 8.39 mA
R
Use a small-signal model to find voltage VO
VT
and rd = when the value of the load resistor, RL , changes:
ID
VO VT 0.025
So now = −(R  mrd ) = −
1 rd = = = 3.4 
IL 1 1 ID 7.39
+
R mrd When load is disconnected, all the current I flows
1 through the diode. Thus
=−
ID ID
+ ID = 1 mA
V + − 0.7m mVT
mV T VO = ID × 2rd
=−
ID mV T
+1 = 1 × 2 × 3.4
V + − 0.7m
mVT V + − 0.7m = 6.8 mV
=−
ID V + − 0.7m + mVT
With RL = 1 k,

1.5 V
4.56 IL  = 1.5 mA
1
5 V IL = 0.5 mA

ID = −0.5 mA

I R VO = −0.5 × 2 × 3.4

IL = −3.4 mV
Vo
With RL = 750 ,

1.5
IL  = 2 mA
ID RL 0.75
IL = 1 mA

ID = −1 mA

VO = −1 × 2 × 3.4
Diode has 0.7 V drop at 1 mA current
= −6.8 mV
VO = 1.5 V when RL = 1.5 k
With RL = 500 ,
ID = IS eV /V T
1.5
1 × 10−3 = IS e0.7/0.025 IL  = 3 mA
0.5
⇒ IS = 6.91 × 10−16 A IL = 2.0 mA
1.5
Voltage drop across each diode = = 0.75 V. ID = −2.0 mA
2
∴ ID = IS eV /V T = 6.91 × 10−16 × e0.75/0.025 VO = −2 × 2 × 3.4

= 7.38 mA = −13.6 mV

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 Chapter 4–20

4.57 4.58
5 V

I
I R  200 
vO  1.5 V  VO
IL

ID D1 IL

ID
RL  150  VO
D2

IL varies from 2 to 7 mA 

To supply a load current of 2 to 7 mA, the current (a) Iteration #1:

I must be greater than 7 mA. So I can be only
10 mA or 15 mA. VD = 0.7 V
VO = 2VD = 1.4 V
Now let us evaluate VO for both 10-mA and
15-mA sources. For the 10-mA source: VO 1.4
IL = = = 9.33 mA
RL 0.15
Since IL varies from 2 to 7 mA, the current ID will 5 − VO 5 − 1.4
varry from 8 to 3 mA. I= = = 18 mA
R 0.2
Correspondingly, the voltage across each diode ID = I − IL = 18 − 9.33 = 8.67 mA
changes by VD where Iteration #2:
 
3 8.67
= eVD /VT VD = 0.7 + 0.025 ln = 0.696 V
8 10
  VO = 1.393 V
3
⇒ VD = 25 ln = −24.5 mV
8 IL = 9.287 mA
5 − 1.393
and the output voltage changes by I= = 18.04 mA
0.2
VO = 2 × VD = −49 mV ID = 18.04 − 9.287 = 8.753 mA
Iteration #3:
With I = 15 mA, the diodes current changes from  
13 to 8 mA. Correspondingly, the voltage across 8.753
VD = 0.7 + 0.025 ln = 0.697
each diode changes by VD where 10

8 VO = 1.393 V
= eVD /VT
13 IL = 9.287
 
8 I = 18.04 mA
⇒ VD = 25 ln = −12.1 mV
13 ID = 8.753
and the output voltage changes by No further iterations are necessary and

VO = 2 × VD = −24.2 mV VO = 1.39 V

(b) With no load:
which is less than half that obtained with the
10-mA supply. Thus, from the point of view of Iteration #1:
reducing the change in VO as IL changes, we
VD = 0.7 V
choose the 15-mA supply. Note, however, that the
price paid is increased power dissipation. VO = 1.4 V

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 Chapter 4–21

5 − 1.4 ID = 17.18 mA
I= = 18 mA
0.2
ID = I = 18 mA Iteration #3:
 
Iteration #2: 17.18
  VD = 0.7 + 0.025 ln = 0.714 V
18 10
VD = 0.7 + 0.025 ln = 0.715 V
10 VO = 1.428 V
VO = 1.429 V
No further iterations are needed and
I = 17.85 mA
ID = 17.85 mA VO = 1.43 V

Iteration #3: (e) From the above we see that as VSupply changes
  from 5 V to 3.232 V (a change of −35.4%) the
17.85
VD = 0.7 + 0.025 ln = 0.714 V output voltage changes from 1.39 V to 1.29 V (a
10
change of −7.19%).
VO = 1.43 V
As VSupply changes from 5 V to 6.786 V (a change
I = 17.86 mA of +35.4%) the output voltage changes from 1.39
ID = 17.86 mA V to 1.43 V (a change of +2.88%).

No further iterations are warranted and Thus the worst-case situation occurs when VSupply
is reduced, and
VO = 1.43 V
Percentage change in VO per 1% change in
(c) VO = 1.39 − 0.1 = 1.29 V 7.19
1.29 VSupply = = 0.2%
IL = = 8.6 mA 35.4
0.15
1.29
VD = = 0.645 V 4.59 VZ = VZ0 + IZT rz
2
ID = 10 × e(0.645−0.7)/0.025 (a) 10 = 9.6 + 0.05 × rz

= 1.11 mA ⇒ rz = 8 
I = IL + ID = 8.6 + 1.11 = 9.71 mA For IZ = 2IZT = 100 mA,
VSupply = VO + IR = 1.29 + 9.71 × 0.2 VZ = 9.6 + 0.1 × 8 = 10.4 V
= 3.232 V
P = 10.4 × 0.1 = 1.04 W
which is a reduction of 1.768 V or −35.4%.
(b) 9.1 = VZ0 + 0.01 × 30
(d) For VSupply = 5 + 1.786 = 6.786 V,
⇒ VZ0 = 8.8 V
Iteration #1:
VD = 0.7 V At IZ = 2IZT = 20 mA,

VO = 1.4 V VZ = 8.8 + 0.02 × 30 = 9.4 V

IL = 9.33 mA P = 9.4 × 20 = 188 mW
6.768 − 1.4
I= = 26.84 (c) 6.8 = 6.6 + IZT × 2
0.2
ID = I − IL = 26.84 − 9.33 = 17.51 mA ⇒ IZT = 0.1 A
Iteration #2: At IZ = 2IZT = 0.2 A,
 
17.51
VD = 0.7 + 0.025 ln = 0.714 V VZ = 6.6 + 0.2 × 2 = 7 V
10
VO = 1.428 V P = 7 × 0.2 = 1.4 W
IL = 9.52 mA (d) 18 = 17.6 + 0.005 × rz
I = 26.70 mA
⇒ rz = 80 

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 Chapter 4–22

At IZ = 2IZT = 0.01 A, 4.63

VZ = 17.6 + 0.01 × 80 = 18.4 V
10 V
P = 18.4 × 0.01 = 0.184 W = 184 mW
(e) 7.5 = VZ0 + 0.2 × 1.5
⇒ VZ0 = 7.2 V I R

At IZ = 2IZT = 0.4 A,
VZ = 7.2 + 0.4 × 1.5 = 7.8 V VO  VZ

P = 7.8 × 0.4 = 3.12 W

IZ IL RL
4.60 (a) Three 6.8-V zeners provide 3 × 6.8 =
20.4 V with 3 ×10 = 30- resistance. Neglecting
R, we have
Load regulation = −30 mV/mA.
(b) For 5.1-V zeners we use 4 diodes to provide (a)
20.4 V with 4 ×30 = 120- resistance.
Load regulation = −120 mV/mA
11 V

4.61
82  I R


VO  VZ
vS 
 8 vO

rZ

Small-signal model VZ0

From the small-signal model we obtain (b)

v O 8 8
= =
v S 8 + 82 90
Now v S = 1.0 V. 9 V
8 8
∴ v O = v S = × 1.0
90 90
= 88.9 mV I R

4.62 VZ = VZ0 + IZT rZ

VO  VZ
9.1 = VZ0 + 0.02 × 10
⇒ VZ0 = 8.9 V
0.5 mA IL RL
At IZ = 10 mA,
VZ = 8.9 + 0.01 × 10 = 9.0 V
At IZ = 50 mA,
VZ = 8.9 + 0.05 × 10 = 9.4 V (c)

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 Chapter 4–23

To obtain VO = 7.5 V, we must arrange for 4.64

IZ = 10 mA (the current at which the zener is 9V±1V
specified).

Now,
R
VO 7.5
IL = = = 5 mA
RL 1.5
Thus VO
I = IZ + IL = 10 + 5 = 15 mA
and IZ
10 − VO 10 − 7.5
R= = = 167 
I 15
When the supply undergoes a change VS , the
change in the output voltage, VO , can be
determined from
VO (RL  rz ) GIVEN PARAMETERS
=
VS (RL  rz ) + R
VZ = 6.8V, rz = 5 
1.5  0.03
= = 0.15 IZ = 20 mA
(1.5  0.03) + 0.167
For VS = +1 V (10% high), VO = +0.15 V At knee,
and VO = 7.65 V. IZK = 0.25 mA
For VS = −1 V (10% low), VO = −0.15 V rz = 750 
and VO = 7.35 V.
FIRST DESIGN: 9-V supply can easily supply
When the load is removed and VS = 11 V, we can current
use the zener model to determine VO . Refer to
Fig. (b). To determine VZ0 , we use Let IZ = 20 mA, well above knee.

VZ = VZ0 + IZT rz 9 − 6.8

∴ R= = 110 
20
7.5 = VZ0 + 0.01 × 30
VO rZ
Line regulation = =
⇒ VZ0 = 7.2 V VS rZ + R
From Fig. (b) we have 5
=
5 + 110
11 − 7.2
I= = 19.3 mA mV
0.167 + 0.03 = 43.5
V
Thus
SECOND DESIGN: limited current from 9-V
VO = VZ0 + Irz supply
= 7.2 + 0.0193 × 30 = 7.78 V IZ = 0.25 mA
To determine the smallest allowable value of RL VZ = VZK  VZO − calculate VZ0 from
while VS = 9 V, refer to Fig. (c). Note that
IZ = 0.5 mA, thus VZ = VZ0 + rZ IZT

VZ = VZK  VZ0 = 7.2 V 6.8 = VZ0 + 5 × 0.02

9 − 7.2 VZ0 = 6.7 V

I= = 10.69 mA
0.167 8 − 6.7
∴R= = 5.2 k
IL = I − IZ = 10.69 − 0.5 = 10.19 mA 0.25
VO 7.2 VO 750
RL = = = 707  LINE REGULATION = =
IL 10.19 VS 750 + 5200
VO = 7.2 V mV
= 126
V

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 Chapter 4–24

4.65 If IL is reduced by 50%, then

VS  15 V  10% 1 9.15

IL = × = 4.6 mA
2 1
15 − VO
I R I=
0.3
VO − 8.74
IZ =
VO  VZ 0.04
15 − VO VO − 8.74
= + 4.6
IZ 0.3 0.04
IL RL
⇒ VO = 9.31 V

which is an increase of 0.16 V. When the supply

voltage is low,

VS = 13.5 V
VZ = VZ0 + IZT rz
and RL is at its lowest value, to maintain
9.1 = VZ0 + 0.009 × 40
regulation, the zener current must be at least equal
⇒ VZ0 = 8.74 V to IZK , thus

For IZ = 10 mA, IZ = 0.5 mA

VZ = 8.74 + 0.01 × 40 = 9.14 V VZ = VZK  VZ0  8.74

9.14 13.5 − 8.74
IL = = 9.14 mA I= = 15.87 mA
1 k 0.3
I = IZ + IL = 10 + 9.14 = 19.14 mA
IL = I − IZ = 15.87 − 0.5 = 15.37 mA
15 − 9.14
R= = 306  VZ 8.74
19.4 RL = = = 589 
IL 15.37
Select R = 300 
The lowest value of output voltage = 8.74 V
Denoting the resulting output voltage VO , we
obtain 170 mV
Line regulation =
15 − VO 1.5 V
I= (1)
0.3 = 113 mV/V
VO
IL = (2) Load regulation = −(rz  R)
1
VO − VZ0 VO − 8.74 = −(40  300) = −35 mV/mA
IZ = = (3)
rz 0.04
Or using the results obtained in this problem:
Since I = IZ + IL , we can use (1)–(3) to obtain
VO : For a reduction in IL of 4.6 mA, VO = +0.16 V,
15 − VO VO − 8.74 thus
= + VO
0.3 0.04 160
Load regulation = − = −35 mV/mA
⇒ VO = 9.15 V 4.6
rz  RL
VO = VS 4.66 (a) VZT = VZ0 + rz IZT
(rz  RL ) + R
(0.04  1) 10 = VZ0 + 7 (0.025)
= ±1.5 ×
(0.04  1) + 0.3
⇒ VZ0 = 9.825 V
= ±0.17 V

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 Chapter 4–25

(b) The minimum zener current of 5 mA occurs 25 V

when IL = 20 mA and VS is at its minimum of
20(1 − 0.25) = 15 V. See the circuit below:

VS  15 V 207 

VZ
R
IL  0
20 mA
VO
IZmin  5 mA IZ

RL

25 − VZ
= 9.825 + 7 ×
207
207VZ = 207 (9.825) + 7 (25) − 7VZ
15 − VZ0
R≤
20 + 5 ⇒ VZ = 10.32 V
where we have used the minimum value of VS , the 25 − 10.32
IZmax = = 70.9 mA
maximum value of load current, and the minimum 0.207
required value of zener diode current, and we PZ = 10.32 × 70.9
assumed that at this current VZ  VZ0 . Thus,
= 732 mW
15 − 9.825 + 7
R≤
25
4.67
≤ 207 .

∴ use R = 207 

7 mV
(c) Line regulation = = 33
207 + 7 V
vS  R vO
±25% change in v S ≡ ± 5 V 

VO changes by ±5 × 33 = ±0.165 mV

±0.165
corresponding to × 100 = ±1.65%
10
Using the constant voltage drop model:
(d) Load regulation = − (rZ  R)

= −(7  207) = −6.77  VD

ideal  0.7 V
or –6.77 V/A

VO = −6.77 × 20 mA = −135.4 mV
0.1354 vS  R
corresponding to − × 100 = −1.35%  1 k
vO
10
(e) The maximum zener current occurs at no load
IL = 0 and the supply at its largest value of 

1
20 + (20) = 25 V. (a) v O = v S + 0.7 V, For v S ≤ − 0.7 V
4
VZ = VZ0 + rZ IZ v O = 0, for v S ≥ −0.7 V

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 Chapter 4–26

vO iD = IS ev D /V T
iD
= e[v D −v D (at 1 mA)]/V T
0.7 V iD (1 mA)
vS  
0 iD
v D − v D (at 1 mA) = VT ln
1 mA
 
v O /R
v D = v D (at 1 mA) + VT ln
slope  1 1
vO = vS − vD
(b) v 
O
= v S − v D (at 1 mA) − VT ln
R
vS where R is in k.
 10 V vO
4.69
t
0.7 V 
 0.7 V 
10 V 0.7 V
vS 
 R  1 k vO

u 

(c) The diode conducts at an angle

  vS (V)
0.7
θ = sin−1 = 4◦ and stops
10
2.5
at π − θ = 176◦
1.8
Thus the conduction angle is π − 2θ
0.7
= 172◦ or 3 rad.
0 t
π −θ t1 T t2 T T
−1 4 2
v O,avg = (10 sin φ − 0.7) d φ
2π
θ

−1 2.5
= [−10 cos φ − 0.7φ]πθ −θ
2π
= −2.85 V
First find t1 and t2
(d) Peak current in diode is 2.5 0.7
=
10 − 0.7 T t1
= 9.3 mA
1 4
(e) PIV occurs when v S is at its the peak and ⇒ t1 = 0.07 T
v O = 0. T
t2 = − t1
PIV= 10 V 2
T
= − 0.07 T
2
4.68
t2 = 0.43 T
D
1
v O (ave.) = × area of shaded triangle
 vD   T
 
1 T
= × (2.5 − 0.7) × − t1
vS 
 R vO T 4
 
1 1
= × 1.8 × T − 0.07
T 4

= 0.324 V

SEDRA-ISM: “P-CH04-054-069” — 2014/11/12 — 15:21 — PAGE 26 — #9

 Chapter 4–27

√
4.70 vˆO = 10 2 − VD = 13.44 V
0.7
12 : 1
ideal 0.7 V Conduction starts at θ = sin−1 √ =
10 2
   2.84◦ = 0.05 rad

vS 10 Vrms 1 k vO and ends at π − θ. Conduction angle =

π − 2θ = 3.04 rad in each half cycle. Thus the
   fraction of a cycle for which one of the two
2(3.04)
diodes conduct = × 100 = 96.8%
2π
120 Vrms Note that during 96.8% of the cycle there will be
60 Hz conduction. However, each of the two diodes
conducts for only half the time, i.e., for 48.4% of
√ the cycle.
vˆO = 10 2 − 0.7 = 13.44 V
π−θ √
1
Conduction begins at v O,avg = (10 2sinφ − 0.7)d φ
√ π
θ
10 2 sin θ = 0.7
  = 8.3 V
0.7
θ = sin−1 √ = 2.84◦ 8.3
10 2 iL,avg = = 8.3 mA
1 k
= 0.0495 rad
Conduction ends at π − θ . 4.72
∴ Conduction angle = π − 2θ = 3.04 rad 12 : 1
D4 D1
The diode conducts for 
 R
3.04 120 Vrms 10 Vrms
× 100 = 48.4% of the cycle
2π vs 1 k
π −θ   D2 D3
1 √
v O,avg = (10 2sinφ − 0.7) d φ
2π VD  0.7 V
θ

= 4.15 V √
v O,avg Peak voltage across R = 10 2 − 2VD
iD,avg = = 4.15 mA √
R = 10 2 − 1.4
= 12.74 V
4.71
vS
D1
6:1 10 2 V
  1.4 V
10 Vrms 1 k
vo t
120 Vrms 

60 Hz
 10 Vrms D2

1.4
θ = sin−1 √ = 5.68◦ = 0.1 rad
10 2
Fraction of cycle that D1 & D2 conduct is
vS , vO (V) π − 2θ
vs × 100 = 46.8%
2π
vo
10 V Note that D3 & D4 conduct in the other half cycle
so that there is 2 (46.8) = 93.6% conduction
0.7 V
interval.
0   t
π−θ √
2
v O,avg = (10 2sinφ − 2V D ) d φ
2π
θ

SEDRA-ISM: “P-CH04-070-085” — 2014/11/12 — 11:17 — PAGE 27 — #1

 Chapter 4–28

1 √ π −θ √ √
= −12 2 cos φ − 1.4φ 4.75 120 2 ± 10%: 20 2 ± 10%
π θ
√ ⇒ Turns ratio = 6:1
2(12 2 cos θ ) 1.4 (π − 2θ) √
= − 20 2
π π vS = ± 10%
2
= 7.65 V
PIV= 2Vs − VD
v O,avg 7.65 √
iR,avg = = = 7.65 mA
R 1 20 2
=2× × 1.1 − 0.7
2
4.73 = 30.4 V
Using a factor of 1.5 for safety, we select a diode
  
vS R having a PIV rating of approximately 45 V.
vO
120 Vrms 
 
vS
 4.76 The circuit is a full-wave rectifier with
center tapped secondary winding. The circuit can
be analyzed by looking at v + −
O and v O separately.

Refer to Fig. 4.24.

For VD  Vs , conduction angle  π, and 
vS D1
2 2
v O,avg = Vs − VD = Vs − 0.7 
π π 
(a) For v O,avg = 10 V vS D3

π
Vs = × 10.7 = 16.8 V
2
√
120 2 vO
Turns ratio = = 10.1 to 1 
16.8 vS D4 R
(b) For v O,avg = 100 V 
π 
Vs = × 100.7 = 158.2 V vS D2
2
√ 
120 2
Turns ratio = = 1.072 to 1
158.2

4.74 Refer to Fig. 4.25

For 2VD  Vs
2 2
VO,avg = Vs − 2VD = Vs − 1.4
π π
(a) For VO,avg = 10 V
2
10 V = · Vs − 1.4
π
π 
∴ V̂s = 11.4 = 17.9 V
2
√
120 2
Turns ratio = = 9.5 to 1 
17.9 1
v O, avg = (VS sinφ − 0.7) d φ = 12
(b) For VO,avg = 100 V 2π
2 2Vs
100 V = · Vs − 1.4 = − 0.7 = 12
π π
π 
⇒ Vs = 101.4 = 159 V where we have assumed Vs  0.7 V and thus the
2 conduction angle (in each half cycle) is almost π .
√
120 2 12 + 0.7
Turns ratio = = 1.07 to 1 Vs = π = 19.95 V
159 2

SEDRA-ISM: “P-CH04-070-085” — 2014/11/12 — 11:17 — PAGE 28 — #2

 Chapter 4–29

Thus voltage across secondary winding (b) (i) Using Eq (4.30), we have the conduction
angle =
= 2VS  40 V 

Looking at D4 , ωt ∼= 2Vr / Vp − VD



PIV= VS − VO− 2 × 0.1 Vp − 0.7

=

= VS + (VS − 0.7) Vp − 0.7

√
= 2VS − 0.7 = 0.2
= 39.2 V = 0.447 rad
If choosing a diode, allow a safety margin by ∴ Fraction of cycle for
moving a factor of 1.5, thus
0.447
conduction = × 100
PIV  60 V 2π
= 7.1%


4.77 Vp − 0.7
(ii) ωt  2 × 0.01 = 0.141 rad
Vp − 0.7
12 : 1 R
0.141
   Fraction of cycle = × 100 = 2.24%
R 2π
120 Vrms 10 Vrms  VS 1 k C vO (c) (i) Use Eq (4.31):
⎛ 
⎞
   2 Vp − VD
iD,avg = IL ⎝1 + π ⎠
Vr
 

v O,avg 2 Vp − VD
Vp = 1+π

R 0.1 Vp − VD
Vr
VpVD   
12.77 2
= 1 + π
103 0.1
= 192 mA
13.37  √ 

T (ii) iD,avg = 1 + π 200
(i) Vr ∼
= Vp − VD [Eq. (4.28)] 10 3
CR


T = 607 mA
0.1 Vp − VD = Vp − VD
CR (d) Adapting ⎛ Eq. (4.32),
we obtain
⎞
1 2 Vp − VD
C= = 166.7 μF (i) iD,peak = IL ⎝1 + 2π ⎠
0.1 × 60 × 103 Vr
(ii) For   

12.77 2

Vp − VD T = 1 + 2π
Vr = 0.01 Vp − VD = 103 0.1
CR
C = 1667 μF = 371 mA
  
1 13.37 2
(a) (i) v O, avg = Vp − VD − VΓ (ii) iD,peak = 1 + 2π
2 103 0.01
√ 1  √ 
= 10 2 − 0.7 − 10 2 − 0.7 0.1 = 1201 mA  1.2 A
2
 √  0.1

= 10 2 − 0.7 1 −

2
Vp − VD
4.78 (i) Vr = 0.1 Vp − VD =
= 12.77 V 2fCR
 √  0.01

The factor of 2 accounts for discharge occurring
(ii) v O, avg = 10 2 − 0.7 1 − 1
2 only during half of the period, T /2 = .
2f
= 13.37 V

SEDRA-ISM: “P-CH04-070-085” — 2014/11/12 — 11:17 — PAGE 29 — #3

 Chapter 4–30

1 1 1

C= = = 83.3 μF (i) VO = Vp − 2VD − Vp − 2VD × 0.1

(2fR) 0.1 2 (60) 103 × 0.1 2

1 = Vp − 2VD × 0.95
(ii) C = = 833 μF
2 (60) × 103 × 0.01 √
= (10 2 − 2 × 0.7) × 0.95 = 12.1 V
1
(a) (i) VO = Vp − VD − Vr √
2 (ii) VO = (10 2 − 2 × 0.7) × 0.995 = 12.68 V
 

0.1
= Vp − VD 1 − 2ωt
2 (b) (i) Fraction of cycle = × 100
2π
  √
0.1
= (13.44) 1 − 2 (0.1)
2 = × 100 = 14.2%
π
= 12.77 V √
  2 (0.01)
0.01 (ii) Fraction of cycle = × 100 = 4.5%
(ii) VO = (13.44) 1 − = 13.37 V π
2   
12.1 1
(b) (i) Fraction of cycle =
2ωt
× 100 (c) (i) iD, avg = 1+π = 97 mA
2π 1 0.2


2Vr / Vp − VD 12.68  √ 
(ii) iD, avg = 1 + π/ 0.02 = 249 mA
= × 100 1
π  

1 12.1 1
= 2 (0.1) × 100 = 14.2% (d) (i) îD = 1 + 2π = 182 mA
π 1 0.2
√
2 2 (0.01)   
(ii) Fraction of cycle = × 100 12.68 1
2π (ii) îD = 1 + 2π = 576 mA
1 0.02
= 4.5%
(c) Use Eq. (4.34):
  
Vp − VD 4.80
(i) iD, avg = IL 1 + π
2Vr 0.7 V
  
12.77 1   
= 1+π = 102.5 mA
1 2 (0.1) 120 Vrms R
vS 200  C vO
  60 Hz
13.37 1
(ii) iD, avg = 1+π√   
1 2 (0.01)
= 310 mA
(d) Use Eq. (4.35):
  VO = 12 V ± 1 V (ripple)
1
(i) îD = IL 1 + 2π √ = 192 mA
2 (0.1) RL = 200 
 
1 (a) VO = Vp − VD − 1
(ii) îD = IL 1 + 2π √ = 607 mA
0.02
⇒ Vp = 13 + 0.7 = 13.7 V

Vp − 2VD 13.7
4.79 (i) Vr = 0.1 Vp − VD × 2 = Vrms = √ = 9.7 V
2fCR 2

Vp − 2VD 1 Vp − VD
C=
= 83.3 μF (b) Vr =
Vp − 2VD 2 (0.1) fR fCR

1 13.7 − 0.7
(ii) C = = 833 μF 2=
2 (0.01) fR 60 × C × 200
1 13
(a) VO = Vp − 2VD − Vr ⇒C= = 542 μF
2 2 × 60 × 200

SEDRA-ISM: “P-CH04-070-085” — 2014/11/12 — 11:17 — PAGE 30 — #4

 Chapter 4–31

This voltage appears across each half of the

Vp transformer secondary. Across the entire
secondary we have 2 × 9.7 = 19.4 V (rms).
VpVD
t

Vp
PIV

(c) When the diode is cut off, the maximum

reverse voltage across it will occur when
v S = −Vp . At this time, v O = VO and the
maximum reverse voltage will be PIV

Maximum reverse voltage = VO + Vp Vp − VD

(b) Vr =
= 12 + 13.7 = 25.7 V 2fCR
13.7 − 0.7
Using a factor of safety of 1.5 we obtain 2=
2 × 60 × 200 × C
PIV = 1.5 × 25.7
12
⇒C= = 271 μF
= 38.5 V 2 × 2 × 60 × 200
  
2(Vp − VD ) (c) Maximum reverse voltage across D1 occurs
(d) iDav = IL 1 + π when v S = −Vp . At this point v O = VO . Thus
Vr
maximum reverse voltage = VO + Vp =
   12 + 13.7 = 25.7. The same applies to D2 .
VO 2(Vp − VD )
= 1+π
RL Vr In specifying the PIV for the diodes, one usually
   uses a factor of safety of about 1.5,
12 2(13.7 − 0.7)
= 1+π PIV = 1.5 × 25.7 = 38.5 V
0.2 2   
Vp − VD
= 739 mA (d) iDav = IL 1 + π
   2 Vr
2(Vp − VD )   
(e) iDmax = IL 1 + 2π 12 13.7 − 0.7
Vr = 1+π
   0.2 2×2
12 2(13.7 − 0.7)
= 1 + 2π = 399 mA
0.2 2   
Vp − VD
= 1.42 A (e) iDmax = IL 1 + 2π
2 Vr
  
12 13.7 − 0.7
4.81 = 1 + 2π
0.2 2×2
D1 = 739 mA

 
Vs 0.7 V C R vO 4.82
120 Vrms 
60 Hz  
Vs 0.7 V  D4 C D1
 
120 Vrms R
D2 vS
60 Hz  vO 

(a) VO = Vp − VD − 1  D2 D3

⇒ Vp = VO + VD + 1 = 13 + 0.7 = 13.7 V
(a) VO = Vp − 2VD − 1
13.7
Vrms = √ = 9.7 V ⇒ Vp = VO +2VD +1 = 12+2×0.7+1 = 14.4 V
2

SEDRA-ISM: “P-CH04-070-085” — 2014/11/12 — 11:17 — PAGE 31 — #5

 Chapter 4–32

14.4 12 V
Vrms = √ = 10.2 V
2 11.3
Vp − 2 VD 11.3  Vr } Vr  1.13 V
(b) Vr =  10.2 V
2fCR
14.4 − 1.4 0 T
⇒C= = 271 μF 4
2 × 2 × 60 × 200
(c) The maximum reverse voltage across D1
occurs when Vs = −Vp = −14.4 V. At this time t
D3 is conducting, thus (c)
Maximum reverse voltage = −Vp + VD3
During the diode’s off interval (which is almost
= −14.4 + 0.7 = −13.7 V
equal to T ) the capacitor discharges and its
The same applies to the other three diodes. In voltage is given by
specifying the PIV rating for the diode we use a
v O (t) = 11.3 e−t/CR
factor of safety of 1.5 to obtain
where C = 100 μF and R = 100 , thus
PIV = 1.5 × 13.7 = 20.5 V
   CR = 100 × 10−6 × 100 = 0.01 s
Vp − 2 VD
(d) iDav = IL 1 + π At the end of the discharge interval, t  T and
2 Vr
   v O = 11.3 e−T /CR
12 14.4 − 1.4
= 1+π Since T = 0.001 s is much smaller than CR,
0.2 2×2
 
T
= 400 mA v O  11.3 1 −
   CR
Vp − 2 VD
(e) iDmax = IL 1 + 2π The ripple voltage Vr can be found as
2 Vr  
  T
 Vr = 11.3 − 11.3 1 −
12 14.4 − 0.7 CR
= 1 + 2π
0.2 2×2 11.3T 11.3 × 0.001
= = = 1.13 V
= 740 mA CR 0.01
The average dc output voltage is
Vr 1.13
4.83 v O = 11.3 − = 11.3 − = 10.74 V
2 2
To obtain the interval during which the diode
  conducts, t, refer to Fig. (c).
vI C R vO 12 Vr
100  =
 100 F  T /4 t

(a) Vr × (T /4) 1.13 × 1

⇒ t = =
12 12 × 4
vI = 23.5 μs
Now, using the fact that the charge gained by the
12 V Vr vO capacitor when the diode is conducting is equal to
vI
11.3 V the charge lost by the capacitor during its
discharge interval, we can write

t iCav × t = C Vr
C Vr 100 × 10−6 × 1.13
⇒ iCav = = = 4.8 A
t 23.5 × 10−6
12 V iDav = iCav + iLav


T 1 ms where iLav is the average current through R during

(b) the short interval t. This is approximately
11.3 11.3
= = 0.113 A. Thus
R 100

SEDRA-ISM: “P-CH04-070-085” — 2014/11/12 — 11:17 — PAGE 32 — #6

 Chapter 4–33


iDav = 4.8 + 0.113 = 4.913 A iDmax = IL (1 + 2π (Vp − 0.7)/2 Vr )

Finally, to obtain the peak diode current, we use = 0.1(1 + 2π 12.5/2 )
iDmax = iCmax + iLmax = 1.671 A
dv I 11.3 To determine the required PIV rating of each
=C +
dt R diode, we determine the maximum reverse
12 11.3 voltage that appears across one of the diodes, say
=C× +
T /4 R D1 . This occurs when v S is at its maximum
negative value −Vp . Since the cathode of D1 will
12 × 4 11.3
= 100 × 10−6 × + be at +12.5 V, the maximum reverse voltage
1 × 10−3 100 across D1 will be 12.5 + 13.2 = 25.7 V. Using a
= 4.8 + 0.113 = 4.913 A factor of safety of 1.5, then each of the four
diodes must have
which is equal to the average value. This is a
result of the linear v I which gives rise to a PIV = 1.5 × 25.7 = 38.6 V
constant capacitor current during the diode
conduction interval. Thus iCmax = iCav = 4.8 A. 4.85 Refer to Fig. P4.85. When v I is positive, v A
Also, the maximum value of iL is approximately goes positive, turning on the diode and closing the
equal to its average value during the short negative feedback loop around the op amp. The
interval t. result is that v − = v I , v O = 2v − = 2v I , and
v A = v O + 0.7. Thus
4.84 Refer to Fig. P4.76 and let a capacitor C be
(a) v I = +1 V, v − = +1 V, v O = +2 V, and
connected across each of the load resistors R. The
v A = +2.7 V.
two supplies v + −
O and v O are identical. Each is a
full-wave rectifier similar to that of the (b) v I = +3 V, v − = +3 V, v O = +6 V, and
tapped-transformer circuit. For each supply, v A = +6.7 V.

VO = 12 V When v I goes negative, v A follows, the diode

turns off, and the feedback loop is opened. The op
Vr = 1 V (peak to peak) amp saturates with v A = −13 V, v − = 0 V and
Thus v O = 0 V. Thus

v O = 12 ± 0.5 V (c) v I = −1 V, v − = 0 V, v O = 0 V, and

v A = −13 V.
It follows that the peak value of v S must be
(d) v I = −3 V, v − = 0 V, v O = 0 V, and
12.5 + 0.7 = 13.2 V and the total rms voltage
v A = −13 V.
across the secondary will be
2 × 13.2 Finally, if v I is a symmetrical square wave of
= √ = 18.7 V (rms) 1-kHz frequency, 5-V amplitude, and zero
2
average, the output will be zero during the
120 negative half cycles of the input and will equal
Transformer turns ratio = = 6.43:1
18.7 twice the input during the positive half cycles.
To deliver 100-mA dc current to each load, See figure.
12 vO
R= = 120 
0.1
Now, the value of C can be found from 10 V
Vp − 0.7
Vr = 5 V
2fCR
12.5 0
1= vI t
2 × 60 × C × 120
⇒ C = 868 μF 5 V
1 ms
To specify the diodes, we determine iDav and iDmax ,

iDav = IL (1 + π (Vp − 0.7)/2 Vr )
 Thus, v O is a square wave with 0-V and +10-V
= 0.1(1 + π 12.5/2 )
levels, i.e. 5-V average and, of course, the same
= 785 mA frequency (1 kHz) as the input.

SEDRA-ISM: “P-CH04-070-085” — 2014/11/12 — 11:17 — PAGE 33 — #7

 Chapter 4–34

4.86 v I > 0: D1 conducts and D2 cutoff (b) See figure (b) on next page. Here v O = v I for
v I ≥ 2.5 V. At v I = 2.5 V, v O = 2.5 V and the
v I < 0: D1 cutoff,
diode begins to conduct. The diode will be
vO conducting 1 mA and exhibiting a drop of 0.7 at
D2 conducts ∼ = −1
vI v O = 2.3 V. The corresponding value of v I
v I = v O − iR = 2.3 − 1 × 1 = +1.3 V
vO
As v I decreases below 1.3 V, the diode current
increases, but the diode voltage remains constant
at 0.7 V. Thus v O flattens at about 2.3 V.
slope  1
vI (c) See figure (c) on next page. For v I ≤ −2.5 V,
the diode is off, and v O = v I . At v I = −2.5 V the
diode begins to conduct and its current reaches 1
(a) v I = +1 V mA at v I = −1.3 V (corresponding to v O = −2.3
vO = 0 V V). As v I further increases, the diode current
increases but its voltage remains constant at 0.7 V.
v A = −0.7 V Thus v O flattens, as shown.
Keeps D2 off so no current flows through R (d) See figure (d) on next page.
⇒ v− = 0 V
4.88
Virtual ground as feedback loop is closed 3 V
through D1
(b) v I = +3 V
vO = 0 V D1
v A = −0.7 V R = 0.5 k
v− = 0 V vI vo
(c) v I = −1 V i
v O = +1 V
D2
v A = 1.7 V
v− = 0 V
∼ Virtual ground as negative feedback loop is
3 V
closed through D2 and R.
(a)
(d) v I = −3 V ⇒ v O = +3 V
v A = +3.7 V From Fig. (a) we see that for
−3.5 V ≤ v I ≤ +3.5 V, diodes D1 and D2 will be
v− = 0 V cut off and i = 0. Thus, v O = v I . For v I ≥ +3.5
V, diode D1 begins to conduct and its voltage
reaches 0.7 V (and thus v O = +3.7 V) at
i = 1 mA. The corresponding value of v I is
4.87 (a) See figure (a) on next page. For
v I ≤ 3.5 V, i = 0 and v O = v I . At v I = 3.5 V, the v I = v O − iR
diode begins to conduct. At v O = 3.7 V, the diode
v I = 3.7 + 1 × 0.5 = +4.2 V
is conducting i = 1 mA and thus
For v I ≥ 4.2 V, the voltage of diode D1 remains
v I = v O + i × 1 k = 4.7 V
0.7 V and v O saturates at +3.7 V.
For v I > 4.7 V the diode current increases but the
A similar description applies for v I ≤ −3.5 V.
diode voltage remains constant at 0.7 V, thus v O
Here D2 conducts at v I = −3.5 V and its voltage
flattens and v O vs. v I becomes a horizontal line.
becomes 0.7 V, and hence v O = −3.7 V,
In practice, the diode voltage increases slowly at i = 1 mA (in the direction into v I )
and the line will have a small nonzero slope. at v I = −4.2 V. For v I ≤ −4.2 V, v O = −3.7 V.

SEDRA-ISM: “P-CH04-086-097” — 2014/11/12 — 16:26 — PAGE 34 — #1

 Chapter 4–35

These figures belong to Problem 4.87.

vO (V)

3.7
3 V 3.5

D
i
vI vO vI (V)
R  1 k 3.5 4.7
slope  1
(a)

vO (V)

3 V
2.5 slope  1
2.3
D
i
vI vO
R  1 k
vI (V)
1.3 2.5
(b)

vO (V)

2.5 1.3
vI (V)
R  1 k
vI vO
i
D 2.3
2.5

3 V

slope  1

(c)

vO (V)

R  1 k
vI vO 4.7 3.5
vI (V)
i
D

slope  1
3 V 3.5
3.7

(d)

SEDRA-ISM: “P-CH04-086-097” — 2014/11/12 — 16:26 — PAGE 35 — #2

 Chapter 4–36

This figure belongs to Problem 4.88, part b.

vO (V)

3.7
3.5

4.2 3.5
0 3.5 4.2 vI (V)
slope  1

3.5 (Not to scale)

3.7

D1 OFF D1 and D2 OFF D1 ON

D2 ON D2 OFF

(b)

Figure (b) shows a sketch of the transfer 4.90

characteristic of this double limiter. 1 k
vI vO

4.89 See figure.

3 V D4 D1

D1 D2

vI vO D2 D3
R  0.5 k
(a)

(a)
vO (V)
3.7 The limiter thresholds and the output saturation
3.5 slope  1 levels are found as 2 × 0.7 + 6.8 = 8.2 V. The
transfer characteristic is given in Fig. (b). See
2.5 (Not to scale) figure on next page.
2.3
4.91 1 k
vI vO
vI (V)
1.8 2.5 3.5 4.2
D1 D2
D1 ON D1 & D1 OFF
D2 OFF D2 OFF D2 ON
(b)

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 Chapter 4–37

This figure belong to Problem 4.90, part b.

Z
Z All diodes and zener are OFF

Diodes have 0.7 V drop at 1 mA current vO (V)

∴ For diode D1 0.8 to 55.4

iD
= e(v O −0.7)/VT
1 mA
iD = 1 × 10−3 e(v O −0.7)/VT
 
iD vI (V)
v O = 0.7 + VT ln 2 1 1 2
1 mA
v I = v O + iD × 1 k
Using these equations, calculate v I for the
different values of v O . For D2 , 0.8
v I = v O − iD × 1 k

It is a soft limiter with a gain K  1 and

L+  0.7 V, L−  −0.7 V

4.92
(a)

10 k


vI vO
 

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 Chapter 4–38

(b) VB = 2VD + VC (3)

10 k
and the voltage VA is given by
 
VA = VB + I × 5k
vI vO
VA = VB + 5I2 (4)
  Equations (1), (2), (3), and (4) can be used to find
VB and VC versus VA . We start with a value for
VD , use (1) to determine I2 , use (2) to determine
VC , use (3) to determine VB , and finally use (4) to
(c) determine VA . The results are given in Table 1.
10 k
  Table 1
vI vO
VD3 , VD4 I2 (mA) VC (V) VB = VC VA (V)
  (V) +VD3 +
VD4
0.4 0 0 0.8 0.8
4.93
0.5 0.00003 0 1.0 1.0
R
0.6 0.002 0.002 1.202 1.212
 
0.7 0.1 0.1 1.5 2.0
1.5 V 1.5 V vO
vI
0.73 0.332 0.332 1.792 3.452
 1 k 
0.735 0.406 0.406 1.876 3.91
0.74 0.495 0.495 1.975 4.45
0.745 0.605 0.605 2.095 5.12
In the nonlimiting region
vO 1000
= ≥ 0.94 For VA < 0, D3 and D4 are cutoff, I2 = 0, VC = 0,
vI 1000 + R
and D1 and D2 are conducting a current I1 ,
R ≤ 63.8 
I1 = 0.1 e(VD −0.7)/0.025 , mA (5)

4.94 The voltage VB is given by

5 k VB = −2VD (6)
VA VB
and the voltage VA is
I
D1 D3 VA = VB − 5I1 (7)
I1 I2
D2 D4 Equations (5)–(7) can be used to obtain VB versus
VA for negative values of VA . The results are
VC given in Table 2.
1 k
Table 2

Figure 1 VD1 , VD2 I1 VB (V) VA

(V) (mA) (V)

When VA > 0, D1 and D2 are cut off and D3 and 0.4 0 – 0.8 – 0.8
D4 conduct a current I2 . Since the diodes are 0.5 0 –1.0 –1.0
0.1-mA devices, the current I2 is related to the
diode voltage VD as follows: 0.6 0.002 –1.2 –1.21

I2 = 0.1 × e(VD − 0.7)/0.025 , mA (1) 0.7 0.1 –1.4 –1.9

The voltage VC is given by 0.73 0.332 –1.46 –3.12

VC = I2 × 1 k = I2 , V (2) 0.74 0.495 –1.48 –3.955

where I2 is in mA, and the voltage VB is given by 0.75 0.739 –1.5 –5.20

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 Chapter 4–39

Figure 2 shows plots for VB and VC versus VA v O = 1 + v D1 + i1 × 1 = 1 + v D1 + i1 (2)

using the data in Tables 1 and 2. Finally, Figure 3
v I = v O + 3i1 (3)
shows the waveforms obtained at B and C when a
5-V peak, 100-Hz sinusoid is applied at A. where i1 is in mA and v D1 , v O and v I are in volts.
Using these relationships we obtain:
VB, VC (V)
VB
2
i1 (mA) v D1 (V) v O (V) v I (V)
1 VC
VC 0.01 0.584 1.594 1.625
0.1 0.642 1.742 2.042
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
VA (V) 0.2 0.660 1.860 2.460
1
0.5 0.682 2.182 3.682
2
1.0 0.700 2.700 5.700
Figure 2 1.5 0.710 3.210 7.710
1.8 0.715 3.515 8.915
VA, VB, VC
(V) 2.0 0.717 3.717 9.717
5 VA
4
VB
3 For v I < 0, D1 will be cut off and the circuit
2 reduces to that in Fig. 2.
VC
1

t
3 k
VB
1 vI vO
2 i2
3 i2 D2
4
5
1 k
i3 D3
i4

Figure 3 2 V

Figure 2
4.95 Refer to the circuit in Fig. P4.95. For
v I > 0, D2 and D3 are cut off, and the circuit Here, for v I < −2.5, D2 will be cut off, i2  0
reduces to that in Fig. 1. and D3 also will be cut off, and

3 k vO = vI
vI vO As v I reduces below about −2.5 V, D2 begins to
i1 i D1 conduct and eventually D3 also conducts. The
1
details of this segment of the v O − v I
1 k characteristic can be obtained using the following
1 V relationships:
 
i3
v D3 = 0.7 + 0.025 ln
Figure 1 1
v D3
i4 = = v D3
Now, for v I < 1.5 V, diode D1 will be off, i1  0, 1 k
and i2 = i3 + i4
 
vO = vI i2
v D2 = 0.7 + 0.025 ln
1
As v I exceeds 1.5 V, diode D1 will turn on and
  v O = −2 − v D3 − v D2
i1
v D1 = 0.7 + 0.025 ln (1) v I = v O − 3i2
1

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 Chapter 4–40

This figure belongs to Problem 4.95, part c.

vO (V) D1 has an almost constant
voltage and the 1 k and
4 the 3 k form a voltage
divider
3

slope 1
4
2

1 slope  1
All diodes are
cutoff
vt (V)
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1

D2 and D3 are conducting, 2

limiting vO 21.4  3.4 V

slope 0.013 3

3.6

Figure 3

In all these equations, currents are in mA and The complete transfer characteristic v O versus v I
voltages are in volts. The numerical results can be plotted using the data in the tables above.
obtained are as follows: The result is displayed in Fig. 3.
Slopes: For v I near +10 V the slope is
i3 v D3 , i 4 i2 v D2 vO vI approximately determined by the voltage divider
0 0.01 0.01 0.585 −2.60 −2.63 composed of the 1 k and the 3 k,
1
0 0.05 0.05 0.625 −2.68 −2.85 Slope = = 0.25 V/V
3+1
0 0.1 0.1 0.642 −2.74 −3.04 For v I near −10 V, the slope is approximately
0 0.2 0.2 0.660 −2.86 −3.46 given by
rd 2 + rd 3
0 0.3 0.3 0.670 −2.97 −3.87 Slope  −
rd 2 + rd 3 + 3 k
0 0.4 0.4 0.677 −3.08 −4.28
From the table above,
0 0.5 0.5 0.683 −3.18 −4.68 25
i3  1.5 mA ⇒ rd 3 = = 16.7 
0.01 0.585 0.595 0.687 −3.28 −5.07 1.5
25
0.1 0.642 0.742 0.693 −3.35 −5.56 i2  2.21 mA ⇒ rd 2 = = 11.3 
2.21
0.2 0.660 0.860 0.696 −3.36 −5.94 Thus
0.5 0.682 1.182 0.704 −3.38 −6.93 11.3 + 16.7
Slope = = 0.009 V/V
11.3 + 16.7 + 3000
1.0 0.700 1.700 0.713 −3.41 −8.51
which is reasonably close to the value found from
1.5 0.710 2.210 0.720 −3.43 −10.06 the graph.

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 Chapter 4–41


4.96 At = T1 = T , v O = V1

C = V1 e−T /RC

 
vI D v
O V1 V1́
  0 t
V2 V2́

vI 5 2 vO

0 t T1 T2
0 t
5 2
where for T CR

V1  V1 (1 − T /CR) = V1 (1 − α)
where α 1
From the figure we see that
√ During the interval T2 , we have
v Oav = −5 2 = −7.07 V
|v O | = |V2 | e−t/(CR/2)

At the end of T2 , t = T , and v O = |V2 |
4.97
where
(a) 
10 V |V2 | = |V2 | e−T /(CR/2)
 
T
 |V2 | 1 − = |V2 | (1 − 2α)
RC/2
10 V
Now

V1 + |V2 | = 20 ⇒ V1 + |V2 | − αV 1 = 20 (1)
(b)
20 V and
 
 
V2  + V1 = 20 ⇒ V1 + |V2 | − 2α |V2 | = 20 (2)
0V From (1) and (2) we find that
V1 = 2|V2 |
(c) Then using (1) and neglecting αV1 yields
0V
3 |V2 | = 20 ⇒ |V2 | = 6.67 V
V1 = 13.33 V
20 V
The result is

(d) 13.33 V
0V
6.67 V
20 V
(g)

(e) 18 V
10 V

2 V
10 V
(h) Using a method similar to that employed for
case (f) above, we obtain
(f) Here there are two different time constants
involved. To calculate the output levels, we shall 13.33 V
consider the discharge and charge wave forms.
During T1 , v O = V1 e−t/RC 6.67 V

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