Reference 15 Integrated soil fertility management

Summary
Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) aims at the optimal and sustainable use of soil nutrient reserves,
mineral fertilizers and organic amendments. We explain in this reference how to calculate mineral and organic
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phosphorus, P; potassium, K) and taking into account yield potential (determined by cultivar choice, sowing
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and the relation between such analyses and rice growth is often poor, especially for nitrogen. This reference
offers another method to determine the soil nutrient-supplying capacity. The rice yield from a mini-plot, with
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18 kg K22KD$ZHOOEDODQFHGIHUWLOL]DWLRQWKXVUHTXLUHVDQDSSOLFDWLRQRINJ1KDNJ32O5 /ha and 60
kg K22KDWRLQFUHDVH\LHOGE\WKDEDVHGRQDUHFRYHU\UDWHRIDSSOLHGIHUWLOL]HURIIRU1DQG.DQG
of 20% for P. The recovery rate is the percentage of fertilizer effectively absorbed by the plant as compared
to the quantity applied. These relations are approximate and only valid for yields not exceeding 70 to 80%
of the potential yield. For higher yield targets, more nutrients have to be applied to get the same return, and
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recovery rate of this nutrient. The recovery rate of nitrogen is strongly related to crop management. This
reference provides instructions to help increase this recovery rate. For P and K, losses are much less (P and
K are absorbed by the soil), and the residual effect of the fertilizer applied is often visible several years after
application. Organic fertilizer can, to a certain extent, replace mineral fertilizers, but large quantities need to be
applied as organic fertilizers have a low nutrient content. However, using both mineral fertilizers and organic
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and in some cases increasing the recovery rate of mineral fertilizer nutrients.

Soil fertility depends on the soil’s origin (alluvial soils, soils derived from different types of parent
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to store nutrients and to release them gradually to the plant roots, because they are composed of very
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52 PLAR–IRM Curriculum: Technical Manual (Wopereis et al., 2009).

 Reference 15
Integrated soil fertility management

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decomposed soil organic matter and of available clay particles together form the exchange complex
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An increase in the organic-matter content cannot be reached within one or two cropping seasons, it is
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Soil-fertility management is crucial for maintaining or increasing the yields and incomes of the majority
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instance, the incorporation of crop residues in the soil and fertilizer application increase nutrients in the
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is increasingly being abandoned in Sub-Saharan Africa, where farmers are obliged to intensify their
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soils are in general more robust and fertile than upland soils, but poor soil-fertility management of
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PLAR–IRM Curriculum: Technical Manual (Wopereis et al., 2009). 53

 Reference 15
Integrated soil fertility management

Nutrient stocks in the soil

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Box 15.1. How to estimate soil nitrogen reserves

For light-textured soils, 1 liter of soil weighs about 1.5 kg. Clayey soils tend to be heavier: about 1.7 kg/L of dry soil.

The volume of 1 ha of soil with a depth of 0.2 m is:

10,000 m2 × 0.2 m of depth = 2000 m3 of soil, i.e.

2000 × 1000 L = 2,000,000 L

This equals 2,000,000 × 1.5 kg of soil = 3,000,000 kg. A soil with a good supply of nitrogen contains about 0.1% nitrogen,
i.e. 1 ha will contain about 3,000,000 kg × 0.1/100 = 3000 kg of nitrogen. Out of this, 1500 kg (50%) represents the

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Estimation of nitrogen reserve (N) in the root zone (depth: 0.2 m)

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(kg/ha) (kg/ha) (kg/ha)

Good level > 0.1 > 30 > 1500 1500

Low level 0.05 – 0.1 15 – 30 750 – 1500 750 – 1500

Very low level < 0.05 < 15 < 750 < 750

54 PLAR–IRM Curriculum: Technical Manual (Wopereis et al., 2009).

 Reference 15
Integrated soil fertility management

Box 15.2. How to estimate soil phosphorus reserves in the soil

Assuming we use the same soil as in Box 15.1. If soil analytical data indicate a P-Bray content (a proxy for plant-
available P) of about 6 mg/kg, a total of 3,000,000 × 6 = 18,000,000 mg of P is available for the crop per hectare, or
18 kg of P per hectare. Total reserves in the soil are much more important. If soil analytical data indicate a P-total of
800 mg/kg, total reserves are about 2400 kg/ha.

Estimation of phosphorus reserves (P) in the rooting zone (depth: 0.2 m)

P level in soil P-Bray P-total

Laboratory data Available for crop Laboratory data Total reserves
(mg/kg) (kg/ha) (mg/kg) (kg/ha)

Good > 25 > 75 > 800 > 2400

Average 6 – 25 18 – 75 200 – 800 600 – 2400

Low 3–6 9 – 18 100 – 200 300 – 600

Very low <3 <9 < 100 < 300

Box 15.3. How to estimate the availability of potassium in the soil

Assuming we use the same soil as in Box 15.1. If laboratory data indicate a 0.10 cmol/kg of exchangeable K (a proxy
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of K is equivalent to 39 grams, i.e. 1 cmol is equivalent to 0.39 grams of K. A ratio of 0.10 cmol/kg of exchangeable
K represents for this soil a quantity of (3,000,000 × 0.1 × 0.39)/1000 = 117 kg of K/ha. The reserves in K are usually
much higher, but can be very variable.

Estimation of potassium (K) available (exchangeable K) in the rooting zone (depth: 0.2 m)

K level in soil Exchangeable K

Laboratory data Available for crop
(cmol/kg) (kg/ha)

Good > 0.25 > 300

Average 0.10 – 0.25 120 – 300

Low 0.05 – 0.10 60 – 120

Very low < 0.05 < 60

PLAR–IRM Curriculum: Technical Manual (Wopereis et al., 2009). 55

 Reference 15
Integrated soil fertility management

Mineral fertilizers
Nitrogen fertilizers
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Phosphorus fertilizers
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Potassium fertilizers
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Organic amendments
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manure is that it increases the N content, improves the soil structure and increases the organic-matter
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56 PLAR–IRM Curriculum: Technical Manual (Wopereis et al., 2009).

 Reference 15
Integrated soil fertility management

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organic amendments often results in synergistic effects, increasing soil nutrient-supplying capacity in
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Integrated soil-fertility management aims at the optimal and sustainable use of nutrient stocks from the
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Fixing a yield target

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a sowing date that will allow him or her to exploit the weather conditions more productively and to
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PLAR–IRM Curriculum: Technical Manual (Wopereis et al., 2009). 57

 Reference 15
Integrated soil fertility management

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Potential yield (Ymax) Determining factors

solar radiation,
temperature, varietal
Yield gap 3 characteristics, sowing
date
Attainable yield (Ya)
Limiting factors
Water, nutrients
Yield gap 2
Yield of best farmer (Ybf)
Reducing factors
Sub-optimal management;
Yield gap 1 poor emergence, very old
seedlings at transplanting,
Average farmer yield (Yf) weeds, diseases

Figure 15.1. Yield gaps between average yield (YfLQIDUPHUV¶¿HOGVWKH\LHOGRIWKHEHVWIDUPHU<bf),
attainable yield (Ya) and potential yield (Ymax)

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yields is often neither economical nor realistic, especially when water management is not optimal (in
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Estimate the capacity of the soil to supply N, P and K

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58 PLAR–IRM Curriculum: Technical Manual (Wopereis et al., 2009).

 Reference 15
Integrated soil fertility management

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Table 15.1. The principle of zero-N, zero-P and zero-K plots

Mini-plots N P K
3ORW13.   
3ORW31.   
3ORW.13   
3ORW13.   

 QXWULHQWLVQRWDSSOLHGLWLVWKHµPLVVLQJQXWULHQW¶ QXWULHQWLVDSSOLHGVXI¿FLHQWO\VRDVQRWWROLPLWFURS

growth (the exact amount will depend on the growth conditions, one may refer to recommendations currently
used by extension staff, or to what is done by the best farmer).

Y-max = potential yield

Y-target = target yield
<1 \LHOGREWDLQHGZLWKRXW1EXWZLWK
adequate doses of P and K
Y-0P = yield obtained without P but with
DGHTXDWHGRVHVRI1DQG.
Y-0K = yield obtained without K but with
DGHTXDWHGRVHVRI1DQG3

Figure 15.2. Example of yields obtained in zero-nutrient plots, potential yield and target yield

PLAR–IRM Curriculum: Technical Manual (Wopereis et al., 2009). 59

 Reference 15
Integrated soil fertility management

Calculating fertilizer requirements

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SORWDWKDUYHVWZLWKWKHULFHJUDLQV6WUDZLVRIWHQEXUQHGRULQFRUSRUDWHGLQWRWKHVRLO8VLQJVWUDZKDV
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WRWKH¿HOGVLJQL¿FDQWTXDQWLWLHVRI.DUHORVWWRWKHV\VWHP

Table 15.2. N, P and K concentrations in rice grains and straw (%)

N P2O5 K 2O

Grain 1.0 0.4 0.3

Straw 0.5 0.2 1.5

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x NJ1KD
x NJ32KD
x NJ.2KD

Nitrogen
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N-fertilizer is lost because of many constraints, such as late urea application, weed pressure and
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60 PLAR–IRM Curriculum: Technical Manual (Wopereis et al., 2009).

 Reference 15
Integrated soil fertility management

Box 15.4. Increasing the recovery rate of nitrogen

$QXPEHURIJRRGFURSPDQDJHPHQWSUDFWLFHVKHOSOLPLWORVVHVRI1DSSOLHGZLWKPLQHUDOIHUWLOL]HUV
‡ Using good-quality seed (Reference 9).
‡ Transplanting seedlings at the right age (References 13 and 16).
‡ Using a plant spacing that is adequate for the variety used, usually 0.2 × 0.2 m.
‡ Removing weeds before fertilizer application.
‡ Using pest and disease control.
‡ Harvesting on time, at maturity.
‡ $SSO\LQJ1ZKHQWKHFURSPRVWQHHGVLWDWWLOOHULQJSDQLFOHLQLWLDWLRQDQGLIUHTXLUHGDWKHDGLQJIRUVPDOO1GRVHV
apply at tillering and panicle initiation.
‡ 8VLQJ1LQWZRVSOLWVRIHDFKDWWKHVWDUWRIWLOOHULQJDQGDWSDQLFOHLQLWLDWLRQRULQWKUHHVSOLWVRIDQG
20%, respectively, at the start of tillering, at panicle initiation and at heading.
‡ Using a good application method:
- Lower the water level to a strict minimum (about 3 cm);
- Broadcast in a homogeneous way (without incorporation);
 3UHYHQW¿HOGIURPGU\LQJRXWLPPHGLDWHO\DIWHUDSSOLFDWLRQ
- Irrigate again 4 to 5 days later.

To maximize fertilizer uptake by crops, fertilizer should be applied in a homogeneous way, when needed, after weeding
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UDLQ,IWKHVHFURSPDQDJHPHQWSUDFWLFHVDUHIROORZHG1ORVVHVFDQEHPLQLPL]HGDQGWKH1UHFRYHU\UDWHE\WKHFURS
will increase.

Phosphorus
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GRQHEDVDOO\,IQRWLWVKRXOGEHDSSOLHGYHU\HDUO\WRVWLPXODWHWLOOHULQJ

Potassium
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WKDWWKH\LHOGRIWKH.SORWLVWKD7RUHDFKWKHWDUJHW\LHOGRIWKDDQDSSOLFDWLRQRINJ.2
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WUDQVSODQWLQJRUDVEDVDOIHUWLOL]HU,WLVDGYLVDEOHWRDSSO\ODUJHUTXDQWLWLHV!NJ.2KDDVEDVDO
IHUWLOL]HUDQGDWSDQLFOHLQLWLDWLRQ

PLAR–IRM Curriculum: Technical Manual (Wopereis et al., 2009). 61

 Reference 15
Integrated soil fertility management

Avoid soil nutrient mining!

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HDFK\HDUEXWQRWLQWKHVDPHVSRW*RRGPDQDJHPHQWRIWKHVHPLQLSORWVLVHVVHQWLDOWRHQVXUHWKDW
WKH\LHOGVREWDLQHGDFWXDOO\H[SUHVVWKHFDSDFLW\RIWKHVRLOWRVXSSO\WKHµPLVVLQJQXWULHQW¶7KHVH
well-managed mini-plots can become a means of evaluating the evolution of soil fertility in farmers’
¿HOGVRYHUWLPH
Careful! Even if the yields of the small zero-nutrient plots do not indicate the need to apply fertilizer,
it is possible that a maintenance application is necessary to prevent soil fertility from being mined over
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Combining organic amendments and mineral fertilizers is often the best strategy for maintaining or
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Bibliography
%HFNHU0'(-RKQVRQ0&6:RSHUHLVDQG$6RZ5LFH\LHOGJDSVLQLUULJDWHGV\VWHPVDORQJDQ
DJURHFRORJLFDOJUDGLHQWLQ:HVW$IULFDJournal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science±
'HIRHU7$%XGHOPDQ&7RXOPLQDQG6(&DUWHU%XLOGLQJFRPPRQNQRZOHGJH$5HVRXUFH*XLGHIRU
SDUWLFLSDWRU\OHDUQLQJDQGDFWLRQUHVHDUFKIn7'HIRHUDQG$%XGHOPDQHGVManaging Soil Fertility in the
Tropics: A Resource Guide for Participatory Learning and Action Research$PVWHUGDP7KH1HWKHUODQGV
5R\DO7URSLFDO,QVWLWXWH.,7
'REHUPDQQ$DQG7)DLUKXUVWRice. Nutrient Disorders and Nutrient Management3RWDVK 3KRVSKDWH
,QVWLWXWH33,3RWDVK 3KRVSKDWH,QVWLWXWHRI&DQDGD33,&DQG,QWHUQDWLRQDO5LFH5HVHDUFK,QVWLWXWH
,55,0DQLOD7KH3KLOLSSLQHVSS
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V\VWHPVLQWKH6DKHODQG6DYDQQDUHJLRQVRI:HVW$IULFD3DUW,,3UR¿WDELOLW\DQGULVNDQDO\VLVField Crops
Research±
)DLUKXUVW7DQG&:LWW(GRice. A Practical Guide to Nutrient Management3RWDVK 3KRVSKDWH
,QVWLWXWH33,3RWDVK 3KRVSKDWH,QVWLWXWHRI&DQDGD33,&DQG,QWHUQDWLRQDO5LFH5HVHDUFK,QVWLWXWH
,55,0DQLOD7KH3KLOLSSLQHVSSDSSHQGLFHV
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HI¿FLHQFLHVIHUWLOL]HUUHFRYHU\UDWHVDQGLQGLJHQRXVVRLOQXWULHQWVXSSO\RILUULJDWHGORZODQGULFHLQWKH6DKHO
DQGWKH6XGDQ6DYDQQDField Crops Research±
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UHFRPPHQGDWLRQVIRULUULJDWHGULFHLQ:HVW$IULFDAgricultural Systems±
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Crops Research±

62 PLAR–IRM Curriculum: Technical Manual (Wopereis et al., 2009).