SECURED END TO END COMMUNICATION

INDEX

1. INTRODUCTION
 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
 BLOCK DIAGRAM
2. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT
 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION
 SCHEMATIC
 SCHEMATIC EXPLANATION
3. HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
 MICROCONTROLLER
 LCD DISPLAY
 POWER SUPPLY
 RFID READER
 GPRS
4. SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
 ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAM
5. FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS
6. CONCLUSION
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbreviations
Symbol Name
MAM Memory accelerometer module
VIC Vectored interrupt controller
FIQ Fast interrupt request
PWM Pulse width modulation
GPIO General purpose input/output
UART Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter
DLAB Data latch access bit
LCR Line control register
LSR Line status register
RDR Receiver data ready
SPI Serial peripheral interface
ADC Analog to digital converter
DAC Digital to analog converter
SSP Synchronous serial port
MOSI Master out slave in
RTC Real time clock
EINT External interrupt
DTR Data terminal ready
AHB Advanced high performance
ATLE Auto transfer length extraction
CTS Clear to send
RTS Request to send
DSR Data set ready
RI Ring indicator
EMBEDDED SYSTEM:

An embedded system is a special-purpose system in which the computer is

completely encapsulated by or dedicated to the device or system it controls. Unlike
a general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer, an embedded system
performs one or a few predefined tasks, usually with very specific requirements.
Since the system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it,
reducing the size and cost of the product. Embedded systems are often mass-
produced, benefiting from economies of scale.

Personal digital assistants (PDAs) or handheld computers are generally

considered embedded devices because of the nature of their hardware design, even
though they are more expandable in software terms. This line of definition
continues to blur as devices expand. With the introduction of the OQO Model 2
with the Windows XP operating system and ports such as a USB port — both
features usually belong to "general purpose computers", — the line of
nomenclature blurs even more.

Physically, embedded systems ranges from portable devices such as digital

watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory
controllers, or the systems controlling nuclear power plants.

In terms of complexity embedded systems can range from very simple with
a single microcontroller chip, to very complex with multiple units, peripherals and
networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure.
Examples of Embedded Systems:

 Avionics, such as inertial guidance systems, flight control hardware/software and other
integrated systems in aircraft and missiles
 Cellular telephones and telephone switches
 Engine controllers and antilock brake controllers for automobiles
 Home automation products, such as thermostats, air conditioners, sprinklers, and security
monitoring systems
 Handheld calculators
 Handheld computers
 Household appliances, including microwave ovens, washing machines, television sets,
DVD players and recorders
 Medical equipment
 Personal digital assistant
 Videogame consoles
 Computer peripherals such as routers and printers.
 Industrial controllers for remote machine operation.
BLOCK DIAGRAM;

POWER SUPPLY
LCD DISPLAY

(16*2 LINES)
KEYS
MICRO
CONTROLLER RFID READER

GSM/GPRS ACCESS CARD

MODULE

BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

MICRO CONTROLLER:

In this project work the micro-controller is plays major role. Micro-controllers

were originally used as components in complicated process-control systems.
However, because of their small size and low price, Micro-controllers are now also
being used in regulators for individual control loops. In several areas Micro-
controllers are now outperforming their analog counterparts and are cheaper as
well.

POWER SUPPLY:
 In this project we required operating voltage for ARM controller board is 12V. Hence the
12V D.C. power supply is needed for the ARM board . This regulated 12V is generated by
stepping down the voltage from 230V to 18V now the step downed a.c voltage is being rectified
by the Bridge Rectifier using 1N4007 diodes. The rectified a.c voltage is now filtered using a ‘C’
filter. Now the rectified, filtered D.C. voltage is fed to the Voltage Regulator. This voltage
regulator provides/allows us to have a Regulated constant Voltage which is of +12V. The
rectified; filtered and regulated voltage is again filtered for ripples using an electrolytic capacitor
100μF. Now the output from this section is fed to microcontroller board to supply operating
voltage.

LCD:

LCD is used to display the information about the current process.

RFID Reader (Radio Frequency Identification):

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a generic term for non-contacting

technologies that use radio waves to automatically identify people or objects. The
combined antenna and microchip are called an "RFID transponder" or "RFID tag"
and work in combination with an "RFID reader".

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is the latest technology that is

being adopted to track and trace materials, including books.

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
 MICROCONTROLLER
 LCD DISPLAY
 POWER SUPPLY
  RFID READER
 KEYS
 GPRS

HARDWARE EXPLANATION:

ARM PROCESSOR OVERVIEW:

ARM stands for Advanced RISC Machines. It is a 32 bit processor core, used for high end application.

It is widely used in Advanced Robotic Applications.

History and Development:

 ARM was developed at Acron Computers ltd of Cambridge, England between 1983 and
1985.
 RISC concept was introduced in 1980 at Stanford and Berkley.
 ARM ltd was found in 1990.
 ARM cores are licensed to partners so as to develop and fabricate new microcontrollers
around same processor cores

Key features:
1. 16-bit/32-bit ARM7TDMI-S microcontroller in a tiny LQFP64 package.
2. 8 kB to 40 kB of on-chip static RAM and 32 kB to 512 kB of on-chip flash memory.
128-bit wide interface/accelerator enables high-speed 60 MHz operation.
3. In-System Programming/In-Application Programming (ISP/IAP) via on-chip boot loader
software. Single flash sector or full chip erase in 400 ms and programming of
256 bytes in 1 ms.
4. EmbeddedICE RT and Embedded Trace interfaces offer real-time debugging with the
on-chip RealMonitor software and high-speed tracing of instruction execution.
5. USB 2.0 Full-speed compliant device controller with 2 kB of endpoint RAM.
In addition, the LPC2146/48 provides 8 kB of on-chip RAM accessible to USB by DMA.
6. One or two (LPC2141/42 vs. LPC2144/46/48) 10-bit ADCs provide a total of 6/14
analog inputs, with conversion times as low as 2.44 μs per channel.
7. Single 10-bit DAC provides variable analog output (LPC2142/44/46/48 only).
8. Two 32-bit timers/external event counters (with four capture and four compare
channels each), PWM unit (six outputs) and watchdog.
9. Low power Real-Time Clock (RTC) with independent power and 32 kHz clock input.
10. Multiple serial interfaces including two UARTs (16C550), two Fast I 2C-bus (400 kbit/s),
SPI and SSP with buffering and variable data length capabilities.
11. Vectored Interrupt Controller (VIC) with configurable priorities and vector addresses.
12. Up to 45 of 5 V tolerant fast general purpose I/O pins in a tiny LQFP64 package.
13. Up to 21 external interrupt pins available.
14. 60 MHz maximum CPU clock available from programmable on-chip PLL with settling
time of 100 μs.
15. On-chip integrated oscillator operates with an external crystal from 1 MHz to 25 MHz.
16. Power saving modes include Idle and Power-down.
17. Individual enable/disable of peripheral functions as well as peripheral clock scaling for
additional power optimization.
18. Processor wake-up from Power-down mode via external interrupt or BOD.
19. Single power supply chip with POR and BOD circuits:
20. CPU operating voltage range of 3.0 V to 3.6 V (3.3 V ± 10 %) with 5 V tolerant I/O
pads.
Block diagram:
Pin description
Core Data path:

 Architecture is characterized by Data path and control path.

 Data path is organized in such a way that, operands are not fetched directly from memory
locations. Data items are placed in register files. No data processing takes place in memory
locations.
 Instructions typically use 3 registers. 2 source registers and 1 destination register.
 Barrel Shifter preprocesses data, before it enters ALU.

- Barrel Shifter is basically a combinational logic circuit, which can shift data to left or right by arbitrary number of
position in same cycle.

 Increment or Decrement logic can update register content for sequential access.

Pipeline:

 In ARM 7, a 3 stage pipeline is used. A 3 stage pipeline is the simplest form of pipeline that
does not suffer from the problems such as read before write.
 In a pipeline, when one instruction is executed, second instruction is decoded and third
instruction will be fetched.
 This is executed in a single cycle.

Register Bank:

 ARM 7 uses load and store Architecture.

 Data has to be moved from memory location to a central set of registers.
 Data processing is done and is stored back into memory.
 Register bank contains, general purpose registers to hold either data or address.
 It is a bank of 16 user registers R0-R15 and 2 status registers.
 Each of these registers is 32 bit wide.

Data Registers- R0-R15:

 R0-R12 - General Purpose Registers

 R13-R15 - Special function registers of which,

R13 - Stack Pointer, refers to entry pointer of Stack.

R14 - Link Register, Return address is put to this when ever a subroutine is called.

R15 - Program Counter

Depending upon application R13 and R14 can also be used as GPR. But not commonly used.

In addition there are 2 status registers

 CPSR - Current program status register, status of current execution is stored.
 SPSR - Saved program Status register, includes status of program as well as processor.

CPSR

CPSR contains a number of flags which report and control the operation of ARM7 CPU.

Conditional Code Flags

N - Negative Result from ALU

Z - Zero result from ALU

C - ALU operation carried out

V - ALU operation overflowed

Interrupt Enable Bits

I - IRQ, Interrupt Disable

F - FIQ, Disable Fast Interrupt

T- Bit
If

T=0, Processor in ARM Mode.

T=1, Processor in THUMB Mode

The Vectored Interrupt Controller (VIC) takes 32 interrupt request inputs and programmably
assigns them into 3 categories, FIQ, vectored IRQ, and non-vectored IRQ.

various peripherals can be dynamically assigned and adjusted. Fast Interrupt reQuest (FIQ)

Mode Bits

Specifies the processor Modes. Processor Modes will be discussed in the next part of this tutorial.

ARM features:

 Barrel Shifter in data path that maximize the usage of hardware available on the chip.
 Auto increment and Auto decrement addressing modes to optimize program loop. This
feature is not common in RISC architecture.
 Load and Store instruction to maximize data throughput.
 Conditional execution of instructions, to maximize execution throughput.

Vectored Interrupt Controller (VIC)

Features:
 ARM PrimeCell™ Vectored Interrupt Controller
 32 interrupt request inputs
 16 vectored IRQ interrupts
 16 priority levels dynamically assigned to interrupt requests
  Software interrupt generation

Description:

The Vectored Interrupt Controller (VIC) takes 32 interrupt request inputs and

Programmable assigns them into 3 categories, FIQ, vectored IRQ, and non-
vectored IRQ.

The
The programmable assignment scheme means that priorities of interrupts from the
programmab
le
assignment scheme means that priorities of interrupts from the

Various peripherals can be dynamically assigned and adjusted.

Fast Interrupt request (FIQ) requests have the highest priority. If more than one

IRQ signal to the ARM processor. The IRQ service routine can start by reading a register from
the VIC and jumping there. If any of the vectored IRQs are requesting, the VIC provides the
address of the highest-priority requesting IRQs service routine, otherwise it provides the
address of a default routine that is shared by all the non-vectored IRQs. The default routine

All registers in the VIC are word registers. Byte and halfword reads and write are not supported.

request is

Assigned to FIQ, the VIC ORs the requests to produce the FIQ signal to the ARM

Processor. The fastest possible FIQ latency is achieved when only one request is
Classified as FIQ, because then the FIQ service routine can simply start dealing
with that

Device. But if more than one request is assigned to the FIQ class, the FIQ service
routine

Can read a word from the VIC that identifies which FIQ source(s) is (are)
requesting an

Interrupt.

Vectored IRQs have the middle priority, but only 16 of the 32 requests can be
assigned to

this category. Any of the 32 requests can be assigned to any of the 16 vectored IRQ
slots,

Among which slot 0 has the highest priority and slot 15 has the lowest.

Non-vectored IRQs have the lowest priority.

The VIC ORs the requests from all the vectored and non-vectored IRQs to produce
the

IRQ signal to the ARM processor. The IRQ service routine can start by reading a
register

From the VIC and jumping there. If any of the vectored IRQs are requesting, the
VIC
Provides the address of the highest-priority requesting IRQs service routine,
otherwise it

Provides the address of a default routine that is shared by all the non-vectored
IRQs. The

Default routine can read another VIC register to see what IRQs are active.

All registers in the VIC are word registers. Byte and half word reads and write are
not

Supported.

Register description:
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter 0:

Features:

 16 byte Receive and Transmit FIFOs

 Register locations conform to ‘550 industry standard
 Receiver FIFO trigger points at 1, 4, 8, and 14 bytes
 Built-in fractional baud rate generator with autobauding capabilities.
 Mechanism that enables software and hardware flow control implementation
Pin description:

Register description:
Architecture:

The VPB interface provides a communications link between the CPU or host and the UART0.

The UART0 receiver block, U0RX, monitors the serial input line, RXD0, for valid input. The

UART0 RX Shift Register (U0RSR) accepts valid characters via RXD0. After a valid character

is assembled in the U0RSR, it is passed to the UART0 RX Buffer Register FIFO to await access by the
CPU or host via the generic host interface.

The UART0 transmitter block, U0TX, accepts data written by the CPU or host and buffers the data in the
UART0 TX Holding Register FIFO (U0THR). The UART0 TX Shift Register (U0TSR) reads the data
stored in the U0THR and assembles the data to transmit via the serial output pin, TXD0

The UART0 Baud Rate Generator block, U0BRG, generates the timing enables used by the UART0 TX
block. The U0BRG clock input source is the VPB clock (PCLK). The main clock is divided down per the
divisor specified in the U0DLL and U0DLM registers. This divided down clock is a 16x oversample
clock, NBAUDOUT

The interrupt interface contains registers U0IER and U0IIR. The interrupt interface receives several one
clock wide enables from the U0TX and U0RX blocks

Status information from the U0TX and U0RX is stored in the U0LSR. Control information for the U0TX
and U0RX is stored in the U0LCR
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter 1:
Features:

 UART1 is identical to UART0, with the addition of a modem interface.

 16 byte Receive and Transmit FIFOs
 Register locations conform to ‘550 industry standard
 Receiver FIFO trigger points at 1, 4, 8, and 14 bytes
 Built-in fractional baud rate generator with autobauding capabilities.
 Mechanism that enables software and hardware flow control implementation
 Standard modem interface signals included with flow control (auto-CTS/RTS) fully supported in
hardware (LPC2144/6/8 only).

Pin description:

Register description:
Architecture:

The VPB interface provides a communications link between the CPU or host and the UART1.

The UART1 receiver block, U1RX, monitors the serial input line, RXD1, for valid input. The

UART1 RX Shift Register (U1RSR) accepts valid characters via RXD1. After a valid

character is assembled in the U1RSR, it is passed to the UART1 RX Buffer Register FIFO

to await access by the CPU or host via the generic host interface

The UART1 transmitter block, U1TX, accepts data written by the CPU or host and buffers
the data in the UART1 TX Holding Register FIFO (U1THR). The UART1 TX Shift Register

U1TSR) reads the data stored in the U1THR and assembles the data to transmit via the serial output pin,
TXD1.

The UART1 Baud Rate Generator block, U1BRG, generates the timing enables used by

the UART1 TX block. The U1BRG clock input source is the VPB clock (PCLK). The main

clock is divided down per the divisor specified in the U1DLL and U1DLM registers. This

divided down clock is a 16x oversample clock, NBAUDOUT The modem interface contains registers
U1MCR and U1MSR. This interface is responsible for handshaking between a modem peripheral and the
UART1

The interrupt interface contains registers U1IER and U1IIR. The interrupt interface

receives several one clock wide enables from the U1TX and U1RX blocks.

Status information from the U1TX and U1RX is stored in the U1LSR. Control information

for the U1TX and U1RX is stored in the U1LCR.

Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC):

Features:
  10 bit successive approximation analog to digital converter (one in LPC2141/2 and two in
LPC2144/6/8).
 Input multiplexing among 6 or 8 pins (ADC0 and ADC1).
 Power-down mode.
 Burst conversion mode for single or multiple inputs.
 Optional conversion on transition on input pin or Timer Match signal.
 Global Start command for both converters (LPC2144/6/8 only).

Description:

Basic clocking for the A/D converters is provided by the VPB clock. A programmable

divider is included in each converter, to scale this clock to the 4.5 MHz (max) clock

needed by the successive approximation process. A fully accurate conversion requires 11

of these clocks.

Pin description:
Register description:

Operation:

Hardware-triggered conversion:
If the BURST bit in the ADCR is 0 and the START field contains 010-111, the ADC will

start a conversion when a transition occurs on a selected pin or Timer Match signal. Th choices include
conversion on a specified edge of any of 4 Match signals, or conversion on a specified edge of either of 2
Capture/Match pins. The pin state from the selected pad

or the selected Match signal, XORed with ADCR bit 27, is used in the edge detection

logic

Interrupts:

An interrupt request is asserted to the Vectored Interrupt Controller (VIC) when the DONE

bit is 1. Software can use the Interrupt Enable bit for the A/D Converter in the VIC to

The Real Time Clock (RTC)control

is a setwhether this for
of counters assertion results
measuring time in an interrupt.
when DONE
system power is is negated
own power supply pin, V when the ADDR is
BAT

read.

Accuracy vs. digital receiver:

The AIN function must be selected in corresponding Pin Select register (see "Pin Connect

Block" on page 75) in order to get accurate voltage readings on the monitored pin. For pin

hosting an ADC input, it is not possible to have a have a digital function selected and yet

get valid ADC readings. An inside circuit disconnects ADC hardware from the associated

pin whenever a digital function is selected on that pin.

 Real Time Clock

Features:

 Measures the passage of time to maintain a calendar and clock.

 Ultra Low Power design to support battery powered systems
 Provides Seconds, Minutes, Hours, Day of Month, Month, Year, Day of Week, and Day of Year
 Dedicated 32 kHz oscillator or programmable prescaler from VPB clock.
 Dedicated power supply pin can be connected to a battery or to the main 3.3 V

Description:

on, and optionally when it is off. It uses little power in Power-down mode. On the
LPC2141/2/4/6/8, the RTC can be clocked by a separate 32.768 KHz oscillator, or
by a programmable prescale divider based on the VPB clock. Also, the RTC is
powered by its , which can be connected to a battery or to the same 3.3 V supply
used by the rest of the device.

Architecture:
Register description:

The RTC includes a number of registers. The address space is split into four sections by functionality.The
first eight addresses are the Miscellaneous Register Group(Section 19.4.2).

The second set of eight locations are the Time Counter Group(Section 19.4.12). The third set of eight
locations contain the Alarm Register Group(Section 19.4.14). The remaining registers control the
Reference Clock Divider. The Real Time Clock includes the register shown in Table 263. Detailed
descriptions of the registers follow.
RTC interrupts:

Interrupt generation is controlled through the Interrupt Location Register (ILR), Counter

Increment Interrupt Register (CIIR), the alarm registers, and the Alarm Mask Register

(AMR). Interrupts are generated only by the transition into the interrupt state. The ILR

separately enables CIIR and AMR interrupts. Each bit in CIIR corresponds to one of the
time counters. If CIIR is enabled for a particular counter, then every time the counter is

Incremented an interrupt is generated. The alarm registers allow the user to specify a date

and time for an interrupt to be generated. The AMR provides a mechanism to mask alarm

Compares. If all nonmasked alarm registers match the value in their corresponding time

counter, then an interrupt is generated.

The RTC interrupt can bring the microcontroller out of power-down mode if the RTC is

operating from its own oscillator on the RTCX1-2 pins. When the RTC interrupt is enabled

for wakeup and its selected event occurs, XTAL1/2 pins associated oscillator wakeup

cycle is started

Miscellaneous register group:

Interrupt Location Register (ILR - 0xE002 4000):

The Interrupt Location Register is a 2-bit register that specifies which blocks are generating an interrupt (see Table
265). Writing a one to the appropriate bit clears the

Clock Tick Counter Register (CTCR - 0xE002 4004):

The Clock Tick Counter is read only. It can be reset to zero through the Clock
Control

Register (CCR). The CTC consists of the bits of the clock divider counter

Liquid crystal display

An LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal material sand
witched in between them. The inner surface of the glass plates are coated with
transparent electrodes which define the character, symbols or patterns to be
displayed polymeric layers are present in between the electrodes and the liquid
crystal, which makes the liquid crystal molecules to maintain a defined orientation
angle.

One each polarisers are pasted outside the two glass panels. These polarisers
would rotate the light rays passing through them to a definite angle, in a particular
direction.
 When the LCD is in the off state, light rays are rotated by the two polarisers
and the liquid crystal, such that the light rays come out of the LCD without any
orientation, and hence the LCD appears transparent.

When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystal

molecules would be aligned in a specific direction. The light rays passing through
the LCD would be rotated by the polarisers, which would result in activating/
highlighting the desired characters.

The LCD’s are lightweight with only a few millimeters thickness. Since the
LCD’s consume less power, they are compatible with low power electronic
circuits, and can be powered for long durations.

The LCD’s don’t generate light and so light is needed to read the display. By
using backlighting, reading is possible in the dark. The LCD’s have long life and a
wide operating temperature range.

Changing the display size or the layout size is relatively simple which makes
the LCD’s more customers friendly.

The LCDs used exclusively in watches, calculators and measuring

instruments are the simple seven-segment displays, having a limited amount of
numeric data. The recent advances in technology have resulted in better legibility,
more information displaying capability and a wider temperature range. These have
resulted in the LCDs being extensively used in telecommunications and
entertainment electronics. The LCDs have even started replacing the cathode ray
tubes (CRTs) used for the display of text and graphics, and also in small TV
applications.
 This section describes the operation modes of LCD’s then describe how to
program and interface an LCD to 8051 using Assembly and C.

LCD operation

In recent years the LCD is finding widespread use replacing LEDs(seven-

segment LEDs or other multisegment LEDs).This is due to the following reasons:

1. The declining prices of LCDs.

2. The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in

contract to LEDs, which are limited to numbers and a few characters.

3. Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, there by

relieving the CPU of the task of refreshing the LCD. In the contrast,

the LED must be refreshed by the CPU to keep displaying the data.

4. Ease of programming for characters and graphics.

LCD pin description

The LCD discussed in this section has 14 pins. The function of each pins is
given in table.

TABLE 1:Pin description for LCD:

Pin symbol I/O Description
1 Vss -- Ground
2 Vcc -- +5V power
supply
3 VEE -- Power supply to
control contrast
4 RS I RS=0 to select
command
register

RS=1 to select

data register
5 R/W I R/W=0 for write

R/W=1 for read

6 E I/O Enable
7 DB0 I/O The 8-bit data
bus
8 DB1 I/O The 8-bit data
bus
9 DB2 I/O The 8-bit data
bus
10 DB3 I/O The 8-bit data
bus
11 DB4 I/O The 8-bit data
 bus
12 DB5 I/O The 8-bit data
bus
13 DB6 I/O The 8-bit data
bus
14 DB7 I/O The 8-bit data
bus

TABLE 2: LCD Command Codes

Code Command to LCD Instruction

(hex) Register
1 Clear display screen
2 Return home
4 Decrement cursor
6 Increment cursor
5 Shift display right
7 Shift display left
8 Display off, cursor off
A Display off, cursor on
C Display on, cursor off
E Display on, cursor on
F Display on, cursor blinking
10 Shift cursor position to left
14 Shift cursor position to right
18 Shift the entire display to the left
1C Shift the entire display to the right
80 Force cursor to beginning of 1st line
C0 Force cursor to beginning of 2nd line
38 2 lines and 5x7 matrix

Uses:

The LCDs used exclusively in watches, calculators and measuring

instruments are the simple seven-segment displays, having a limited amount of
numeric data. The recent advances in technology have resulted in better legibility,
more information displaying capability and a wider temperature range. These have
resulted in the LCDs being extensively used in telecommunications and
entertainment electronics. The LCDs have even started replacing the cathode ray
tubes (CRTs) used for the display of text and graphics, and also in small TV
applications.

LCD INTERFACING

Sending commands and data to LCDs with a time delay:

Fig 21: Interfacing of LCD to a micro controller

To send any command from table 2 to the LCD, make pin RS=0.

for data, make RS=1.Then send a high –to-low pulse to the E pin to enable the
internal latch of the LCD.

Power supply

The power supplies are designed to convert high voltage AC

mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A
power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular
function. A d.c power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of a.c
mains fluctuations or load variations is known as “Regulated D.C Power Supply”
For example a 5V regulated power supply system as shown below:
Transformer:

A transformer is an electrical device which is used to convert electrical power from

one

Electrical circuit to another without change in frequency.

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power.
Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC.
Step-up transformers increase in output voltage, step-down transformers decrease in output
voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains
voltage to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called
the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by
an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the
middle of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the
power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is
stepped up. The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the
ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input)
coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its
secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.

An Electrical Transformer

Turns ratio = Vp/ VS = Np/NS

Power Out= Power In

VS X IS=VP X IP

Vp = primary (input) voltage

Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ip = primary (input) current

RECTIFIER:
 A circuit which is used to convert a.c to dc is known as RECTIFIER. The
process of conversion a.c to d.c is called “rectification”

TYPES OF RECTIFIERS:

 Half wave Rectifier

 Full wave rectifier

1. Centre tap full wave rectifier.

2. Bridge type full bridge rectifier.

Comparison of rectifier circuits:

Type of Rectifier
Half wave Full wave Bridge
Parameter
Number of diodes

1 2 4
PIV of diodes

Vm 2Vm Vm
D.C output voltage Vm/ 2Vm/ 2Vm/

Vdc,at 0.318Vm 0.636Vm 0.636Vm

no-load

Ripple factor 1.21 0.482 0.482

Ripple

frequency f 2f 2f
Rectification

efficiency 0.406 0.812 0.812

Transformer

Utilization 0.287 0.693 0.812

Factor(TUF)
RMS voltage Vrms Vm/2 Vm/√2 Vm/√2

Full-wave Rectifier:

From the above comparison we came to know that full wave bridge rectifier as
more advantages than the other two rectifiers. So, in our project we are using full
wave bridge rectifier circuit.
Bridge Rectifier: A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve
full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as
shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.

A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement as shown

in fig(a) to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration,
both with individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges
where the diode bridge is wired internally.

Fig(A)

Operation:

During positive half cycle of secondary, the diodes D2 and D3 are in forward
biased while D1 and D4 are in reverse biased as shown in the fig(b). The current
flow direction is shown in the fig (b) with dotted arrows.
 Fig(B)

During negative half cycle of secondary voltage, the diodes D1 and D4 are in
forward biased while D2 and D3 are in reverse biased as shown in the fig(c). The
current flow direction is shown in the fig (c) with dotted arrows.

Fig(C)

Filter:

A Filter is a device which removes the a.c component of rectifier

output
but allows the d.c component to reach the load

Capacitor Filter:

We have seen that the ripple content in the rectified output of half wave
rectifier is 121% or that of full-wave or bridge rectifier or bridge rectifier is 48%
such high percentages of ripples is not acceptable for most of the applications.
Ripples can be removed by one of the following methods of filtering.

(a) A capacitor, in parallel to the load, provides an easier by –pass for the ripples
voltage though it due to low impedance. At ripple frequency and leave the d.c.to
appears the load.

(b) An inductor, in series with the load, prevents the passage of the ripple current
(due to high impedance at ripple frequency) while allowing the d.c (due to low
resistance to d.c)

(c) Various combinations of capacitor and inductor, such as L-section filter

section filter, multiple section filter etc. which make use of both the properties
mentioned in (a) and (b) above. Two cases of capacitor filter, one applied on half
wave rectifier and another with full wave rectifier.
 Filtering is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC
supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage from
the rectifier is falling. The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then
discharges as it supplies current to the output. Filtering significantly increases the average DC
voltage to almost the peak value (1.4 × RMS value).
To calculate the value of capacitor(C),
C = ¼*√3*f*r*Rl
Where,
f = supply frequency,
r = ripple factor,
Rl = load resistance
Note: In our circuit we are using 1000µF. Hence large value of capacitor is placed to
reduce ripples and to improve the DC component.

Regulator:

Voltage regulator ICs is available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable
output voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them. Negative
voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators
include some automatic protection from excessive current ('overload protection')
and overheating ('thermal protection'). Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs
have 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator
shown on the right. The LM7805 is simple to use. You simply connect the positive
lead of your unregulated DC power supply (anything from 9VDC to 24VDC) to
the Input pin, connect the negative lead to the Common pin and then when you
turn on the power, you get a 5 volt supply from the output pin.
 Fig 6.1.6 A Three Terminal Voltage Regulator

78XX:

The Bay Linear LM78XX is integrated linear positive regulator with three
terminals. The LM78XX offer several fixed output voltages making them useful in
wide range of applications. When used as a zener diode/resistor combination
replacement, the LM78XX usually results in an effective output impedance
improvement of two orders of magnitude, lower quiescent current. The LM78XX
is available in the TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263packages,

Features:

• Output Current of 1.5A

• Output Voltage Tolerance of 5%

• Internal thermal overload protection

• Internal Short-Circuit Limited

• No External Component
• Output Voltage 5.0V, 6V, 8V, 9V, 10V,12V, 15V, 18V, 24V

• Offer in plastic TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263

• Direct Replacement for LM78XX

GPRS

GPRS is expected to profoundly change the mobile data services that GSM, CDMA and
TDMA (ANSI-I36) network operators can offer. GPRS will increase opportunities for higher
revenues and enable new, differentiated services and tariff dimensions to be offered (such as a
charge for the number of kilobytes of data transferred). GPRS combines mobile access with
Internet protocol (IP)-based services, using packet data transmission that makes highly
efficient use of radio spectrum and enables high data speeds. It gives users increased
bandwidth, making it possible and cost-effective to remain constantly connected, as well as to
send and receive data as text, graphics and video.

GPRS (general packet radio service) is a packet-based data bearer service for wireless
communication services that is delivered as a network overlay for GSM, CDMA and TDMA
(ANSI-I36) networks. GPRS applies a packet radio principle to transfer user data packets in an
efficient way between GSM mobile stations and external packet data networks. Packet switching
is where data is split into packets that are transmitted separately and then reassembled at the
receiving end. GPRS supports the world's leading packet-based Internet communication
protocols, Internet protocol (IP) and X.25, a protocol that is used mainly in Europe. GPRS
enables any existing IP or X.25 application to operate over a GSM cellular connection. Cellular
networks with GPRS capabilities are wireless extensions of the Internet and X.25 networks.

GPRS gives almost instantaneous connection set-up and continuous connection to the Internet.
GPRS users will be able to log on to an APN (Access Point Name) and have access to many
services or an office network (without the need to dial-up) and remain continuously connected
until they log off, only paying when data is actually transmitted. A physical end-to-end
connection is not required because network resources and bandwidth are only used when data is
actually transferred. This makes extremely efficient use of available radio bandwidth. Therefore,
GPRS packet-based services should cost users less than circuit-switched services since
communication channels are being shared and are on a ‘as-packets-are-needed’ basis rather than
dedicated to only one user at a time. It should also be easier to make applications available to
mobile users because the faster data rate means that middleware currently needed to adapt
applications from fixed line rates to the slower speed of wireless systems will no longer be
needed.

GPRS data speeds will range from 14.4 kbit/s (using one radio timeslot) to 115kbit/s (by
amalgamating timeslots) and offer continuous connection to the Internet for mobile phone and
computer users. GPRS data speeds are likely to average at about 56 kbit/s, with between 28 and
40 kbit/s initially. The higher data rates will allow users to take part in video conferences and
interact with multimedia web sites and similar applications using mobile handheld devices as
well as notebook computers.

The key drivers for operators to evolve to GPRS networks are to:

· increase revenues by moving into the mobile data market, especially since the voice
market has had profit margins squeezed with the commoditization of voice services
· gain new subscribers who require mobile data services or do not want to invest in aPC to
gain Internet access
· retain current subscribers by offering new services
· reduce costs due to the efficient use of network resources
· ease of adapting applications for mobile users because high data speeds mean that
middleware is no longer required to convert fixed applications for mobile use.

The overall benefits of GPRS networks for mobile operators are discussed belo
Figure 1 – GPRS Network

GPRS is based on GSM communication and will complement existing services such as circuit-
switched cellular phone connections and the Short Message Service (SMS). It will also
complement Bluetooth, a standard for replacing wired connections between devices with
wireless radio connections.

GPRS is different to GSM because it offers the following key features:

Higher bandwidth and, therefore, data speeds seamless, immediate and continuous
connection to the Internet – ‘always on-line’ new text and visual data and content services (due
to data speeds and the Internet), such as email, chat, still and moving images, information
services (stock prices, weather reports, train times), video conferencing, e-commerce transactions
(buying flight and cinema tickets) and Internet-based remote access to corporate intranets and
public networks (rather than dial-up remote access which incurs long distance phone calls)
packet-switching rather than circuit-switching, which means that there is higher radio spectrum
efficiency because network resources and bandwidth are only used when data is actually
transmitted even though it is always connected different mediation, rating and billing
requirements such as collecting records from GPRS and IP networks, charging for volumes of
data transferred rather than connection time and new and multiple members of the billing value
chain support for leading Internet communications protocols - Internet protocol (IP) and X. 25
additional components and protocols to the GSM network – the key elements are SGSN (serving
GPRS support node), GGSN (gateway GPRS support node) and a charging gateway different
devices (not GSM phones) - GPRS will be available from laptops or handheld computers that are
either connected to GPRS-capable cellular phones, external modems or that have PC card
modems, smart phones that have full screen capability and cellular phones that have WAP
microbrowsers. All of these devices have user interfaces that will allow users to utilise GPRS
services the first important step on the path to 3G.

GSM (Global System for Mobile) – is known as a 2G (second generation) digital. GSM
has maximum data speeds of 9.6 kbit/s and is based on circuit switching technology.

HSCSD (High Speed Circuit Switched Data) – the first step towards faster data speeds on GSM
circuit switched networks. HSCSD concentrates up to four GSM timeslots and allows data
speeds of up to 64 kbit/s (mostly aimed at the corporate market). However, mobile terminals
supporting HSCSD are not currently available. It is primarily used for notebooks with a data
card. Operators will need to decide if they will offer this service or GPRS or both. HSCSD is
being installed in markets that are highly competitive where differentiation is key, such as
Finland, as well as where data services have been particularly successful such as Norway and
Hong Kong.

GPRS – the introduction of packet switching technology to GSM, CDMA and TDMA (ANSI-
I36) mobile networks, making it easier to integrate with other packet-based protocols such as IP
or X.25. GPRS is the first important step on the path to 3G, hence GPRS also being known as
2.5G. The announcements of GPRS data speeds vary from up to 115 kbit/s to up to 117 kbit/s,
but is likely to average at 56 kbit/s, with between 28 and 40 kbit/s initially. If GPRS usage is
mainly text based, it will meet many wireless Internet service requirements from the outset.
Trials of GPRS services will occur in 2000, but it is unlikely that commercial usage will be
significant before 2001. GPRS is being deployed in mobile networks today to provide the core
network packet data handling capabilities that 3G will need, whether delivered using WCDMA
or EDGE (see below).

EDGE (Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution) – the second step towards 3G for GSM/GPRS
networks. EDGE will increase data rates on GSM to 384 kbit/s by bundling up to eight channels
or 48 kbit/s per channel. Analysts suggest that indoor EDGE speeds will drop outside of the
urban areas to 115 kbit/s, but that EDGE will be able to offer outdoor rates of 450-550 kbit/s.
EDGE is unlikely to emerge until 2002 and is an attractive option for operators that do not have
a UMTS licence. GPRS is based on a modulation technique known as Gaussian minimum-shift
keying (GMSK). EDGE is based on a new modulation scheme that allows a much higher bit rate
across the air interface - this is called eight-phase-shift keying (8 PSK) modulation. Since 8 PSK
will also be used for UMTS, network operators will need to incorporate it at some stage to make
the transition to third generation mobile phone systems.

3G (third generation mobile) – 3G is also often referred to as IMT-2000, WCDMA and UMTS.
IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications 2000) is the ITU (International
Telecommunications Union) initiative for a service that will provide radio access to the global
telecommunications infrastructure, through both satellite and terrestrial systems, servicing
fixed and mobile users in public and private networks. 3G standards have regional names such
as UMTS (universal mobile telecommunications system) in Europe and Core-A in Japan. In
the USA (any some parts of Japan and South Korea) 3G is referred to the evolution form
cdmaOne to cdma2000. The global standard for the 3G radio link between the user’s terminal
and the operators network is very likely to be WCDMA (wideband code division multiple
access). The WCDMA method applies a user-specific code to separate the signals transmitted
via a given channel. A channel does not occupy a specific frequency, instead, several hundred
channels can share a frequency corridor of five MHz, which results in high data speeds.
UMTS is the direct evolution for GSM/GPRS networks. The UMTS Forum defines UMTS as
‘’a mobile communications system that can offer significant user benefits including high-quality
wireless multimedia services to a convergent network of fixed, cellular and satellite
components. It will deliver information directly to users and provide them with access to new
and innovative services and applications. It will offer mobile personalised communications to
the mass market regardless of location, network or terminal used.’’ UMTS will become the most
flexible broadband access technology, because it allows for mobile, office and residential use in
a wide range of public and non-public networks. UMTS can support both IP and non-IP traffic
in a variety of modes including packet, circuit switched and virtual circuit.

UMTS seeks to build on and extend the capability of today’s mobile, cordless and satellite
technologies by providing increased capacity, data capability and a far greater range of services
using an innovative radio access scheme and an enhanced, evolving core network. In 1998 ETSI
selected a new radio interface for UMTS called UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access or UTRA, as
the basis for a global terrestrial radio access network. UTRA is a combination of two
technologies – W-CDMA for paired spectrum bands and TD-CDMA for unpaired. A UMTS
network will incorporate new UTRA base stations as well as standards, infrastructure and
services from GPRS. UMTS will offer data rates up to 2 Mbit/s (megabits per second) for
stationary wireless terminals. These speeds will probably drop to a maximum of 384 kbit/s for
pedestrians and 144 kbit/s for moving vehicles. UMTS will arrive commercially in 2002/3.

Japan was the first to select and announce specific plans to introduce wideband radio networks
based on WCDMA (wideband code division multiple access) technology. In Japan NTT
DoCoMo is very successful with its i-mode technology (not GPRS). It is expected that 3G
services using WCDMA will be in service in Japan in 2001. This technology is optimised to
allow very high-speed multi-media services such as full-motion video, Internet access and
videoconferencing.

GPRS Today

It is expected that half of all network operators will have introduced packet-switched services
by the end of 2000. Network operators are in the process of awarding trial and full contracts
with GPRS vendors such as Nokia, Ericsson, Siemens, Alcatel, Nortel and Motorola.

Ericsson is promoting the development and testing of GPRS applications, in conjunction with
software companies, through the GPRS Application Alliance (GAA), which it formed last
June. The GAA provides centres in Sweden, the United States and Singapore where operators
can try out new applications across pilot GPRS networks.

The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), operators and billing

companies are working to develop billing systems that will enable operators to bill in real-time
according to volumes of data and other new tariff plans, rather than by the duration of the call.

Omnipoint in the USA, SmarTone in Hong Kong and BT Cellnet in the UK have announced
plans to launch commercial GPRS services during 2000. BT Cellnet is conducting a trial for a
500-user corporate service and believes GPRS is the best 2.5G mobile data platform. It claims
that it is superior to alternative technologies, specifically HSCSD, which has been favoured by
its UK rival, Orange. BT Cellnet has not revealed its tariffing plans, although the operator
confirmed that it would not be on a per-minute basis, but would be based on the type and
amount of data accessed.

Benefits of GPRS

Operators/ICPs (Integrated Communication Providers):

· Offer new and improved data services to residential and business markets to aid retention
and loyalty
· Increase revenues from data services
· Opportunity to increase subscriber numbers - there are more mobile phones in general
use than there are PCs in people’s homes. This means that the potential market for GPRS is high
and that new Internet users are more likely to upgrade to a GPRS handset rather than making a
larger investment in a PC Offer innovative tariffs based on new dimensions such as the number
of kilobytes or megabytes
· Return on investment - investment in GPRS will be twofold since the new network
infrastructure pieces will be used as part of the UMTS network requirements as well as
 GPRS. GPRS provides an upgrade path and test bed for UMTS
· Control of large content portals Access to the key member of the value chain – the customer
Cost effectiveness through spectrum efficiency – with packet-switching radio resources are
used only when users are actually sending or receiving data. This efficient use of scarce radio
resources means that large numbers of GPRS users can potentially share the same bandwidth
and be served from a single cell. GPRS spectrum efficiency means that there is less need to
build in idle capacity that is only used in peak hours. GPRS therefore lets network operators
maximise the use of their network resources in a dynamic and flexible way.

End-users:

· New data services Speed – higher levels of bandwidth means higher speeds for data
transactions

Cost-effectiveness – only charged when data is transmitted and not for the duration of the
connection

Constant connectivity – GPRS enables instant connections and the ability to remain logged-
on at all times (Internet or corporate virtual private networks (VPN)). For example, a user
with a laptop computer could be working on a document and automatically receive new e-
mail which could be responded to then or later. The user has had a network connection
throughout, but has not had to dial-in, as is necessary with circuit–switched connections. The
immediacy of access to services is highly desirable and critical for some applications, such as
remote credit card authorization where it would be unacceptable to delay customer service
for several minutes Simultaneous voice and data communication - the user can receive
incoming calls or make outgoing calls while in the midst of a data session.

Applications for GPRS

There are many residential applications that can applied to GPRS, but there is call for a greater
number of valuable corporate applications. Analysts predict that between 30%-50% of business-
to-business use of the Internet will be carried out on mobile devices by 2004 and that the real
demand for wireless data is likely to come from applications that can be transformed by mobile.
If, for instance, a company has a centralised ordering system but is able to speed up and make
the

process more flexible by submitting order information through mobile devices, it is likely to
build a specific mobile extension.

IBM's Wireless Group is working on an application that will enable companies to track the time
employees spend with their customers. The application is designed for workers such as
engineers and repair people, who can enter details about the task performed, customers and the
time spent with them, directly into a mobile device. This would enable companies both to cut
down on paper work, because the information would be sent directly to a database, as well as
more closely compare the performance of different employees.

A wide range of corporate and consumer applications are enabled by non-voice mobile services
such as GPRS. Mobile Lifestreams, a UK-based consultancy firm, has identified the following
applications:

· chat - GPRS is an extension of the Internet, it will allow mobile users to use existing Internet
chat groups rather than needing to set up their own groups dedicated to mobile users. GPRS
will not support point to multipoint services in its first phase, hindering the distribution of a
single message to a group of people

· information services as text or graphics - information content includes services such as

share prices, sports scores, weather reports, news headlines, flight information, news
headlines, traffic reports, maps, graphs and lottery results. GPRS is likely be used for
qualitative information services when end users have GPRS capable devices, but SMS
(which is limited to 160 characters) is likely to continue to be used for delivering most
quantitative information services
· still images - such as photographs (either scanned or from a digital camera), pictures,
 postcards, greeting cards and presentations
· moving images - such as video messages, movie previews, security camera images, patient
images (eg from a crash site to a hospital) and video conferencing
· web browsing
· document sharing and remote collaborative working - which lets different people in
different places work on the same document in a problem solving exercise, such as medical
treatment, journalism, advertising copy and fire-fighting audio reports - for broadcasting or
analysing. For example, high quality voice clips for television and radio or sounds for police
to use as evidence, occupy large file sizes that need high speed mobile data rates such as
GPRS
· job dispatch – such as advising a mobile engineer where their next job is, providing full
briefing details and images, as well as enabling the engineer to report back to head office
· corporate email – allowing mobile employees to access their internal email system from
their local area network (LAN) in the office
· LAN applications – mobile employees can access any applications normally available on
their PC at the office
· Internet email – most Internet email users do not get notified of new email on their mobile
phone. When they are out of the office, they have to dial in speculatively and periodically
to check their mailbox contents. However, by linking Internet email with an alert
mechanism such as SMS or GPRS, users can be notified when a new email is received

· vehicle positioning – an application that integrates a satellite positioning systems that tells
people where they are with non-voice mobile services that lets people tell others where they
are
· file transfer – downloading sizeable data across the mobile network such as a presentation
for a sales person or a manual for a service engineer or a software application such as Adobe
Acrobat Reader to read documents.

The general information services such as train timetables will be provided via a WAP server
to the mobile phone. Broadcasting services such as live news reports will only be able to be
transmitted by GPRS.

To use GPRS applications, users require:

· a mobile phone or terminal that supports GPRS (existing GSM phones do not support GPRS)
· a subscription to a mobile telephone network that supports GPRS and for access to be
activated. Automatic access to GPRS may be allowed by some mobile network operators,
others will require a specific opt-in
· knowledge of how to send and/or receive GPRS information using their specific model
of mobile phone, including software and hardware configuration
· a destination to send or receive information through GPRS. Whereas with SMS this was
often another mobile phone, in the case of GPRS, it is likely to be an Internet address, since
GPRS is designed to make the Internet fully available to mobile users for the first time.

GPRS Challenges

Operators have many issues to consider:

· Few defined or proven tariffing schemes exist for GPRS data services and there is a user
expectation that prices will be lower than voice. However, there could be a shortage of
mobile bandwidth that limits the extent to which that bandwidth is viewed as a
commodity, so prices will not be heavily reduced (especially with the short to medium
term customer care and billing complexities)
· No proven business model or system architecture for GPRS mediation, rating and
billing systems

· Gaining customer interest, understanding and increased usage in GPRS services

· Developing valued GPRS applications for the corporate market
· Overcoming issues that may arise from subscriber services varying according to the
capabilities of the terminal used
· Developing partnerships with content providers to provide unique service combinations
 to users, such as banks, news services and entertainment providers
· Availability of GPRS-enabled mobile devices by handset and terminal manufacturers who
have found it difficult to produce high volume, high quality handset to the standards
needed
· How to encourage users (both residential and corporate) to subscribe to WAP and then

GPRS services if they will need to purchase a new handset for each. Will operators subsidise
the cost of new phones or upgrades?

· Security and roaming. The solutions for these issues are not yet clear. Security issues are
particularly significant to corporate intranet access
· Difficulties associated with ensuring quality of service on GPRS. Guaranteed quality of
service will be a major challenge in the evolution from GPRS to UMTS. VOIP over GPRS
is not likely to become a reality, but will become possible with EDGE and UMTS because
quality of service will be stabilised. However, QoS guarantees are likely to apply to only
the GPRS network and not the IP network since delays in downloading web pages may be
caused by an overloaded web server which is beyond the operators control
· Limited cell capacity - GPRS does impact a network's existing cell capacity (ie the
geographic area covered by a cellular transmitter – the cell site). There are only limited radio
resources. Voice and GPRS calls use the same network resources, which can not be used for
both services simultaneously. The extent of the impact depends upon the number of
timeslots, if any, that are reserved exclusively for GPRS. However, SMS uses a different
type of radio resource and more cell sites so will continue to be used as a complementary
bearer to reduce the potential scarcity of radio resources for GPRS services

· IP mediation - identifying the content and value of packets (ie images, email etc.), so that
the appropriate rating plans can be applied and bills can detail the applications used. IP
networks typically record network-level information and not application-level detail
· Creating compatible and comparable data records for events that occur across both circuit
and packet-switched networks to enable accurate billing
· Limited speeds - The likelihood of a user achieving 115kbit/s is low because the user would
need to take over 8 timeslots without errors. It is unlikely that a network operator will allow
all timeslots to be used by a single GPRS user. Additionally, the initial GPRS terminals are
expected be severely limited - supporting only one, two or three timeslots. The maximum
GPRS speeds should be checked against the reality of constraints in the networks and
terminals
· Transit Delays - GPRS packets are sent in all different directions to reach the same
destination. This opens up the potential for one or some of those packets to be lost or
corrupted during the data transmission over the radio link. However, the result is that
potential transit delays can occur. Applications requiring broadcast quality video may
well be implemented HSCSD. HSCSD is simply a circuit-switched data call in which
a single user can take over up to four separate channels at the same time. Because of
its characteristic of end to end connection between sender and recipient, transmission
delays are less likely
· Interconnect tariffs between operators for GPRS services are yet to have regulatory
standards set.

Introduction to GPRS Billing

Technologies such as WAP, GPRS and 3G are revolutionising the mobile industry. The size of
the market and the potential revenue from new data services means that the stakes are high.
However, there is a fundamental issue that needs to be addressed. How do you bill for these
services, who do you bill and can your current billing and operational support systems handle
it?

Chorleywood Consulting Ltd, an international telecommunications management consultancy,

states that billing for transport will give way to billing for content, which will in turn entail
passing fees to content providers. Usage based bills will need to draw upon new types of
detailed information about applications, quality of service, time of day and other parameters.
Maintaining control over revenue collection will become both more difficult and more
important at the same time.
GPRS Mediation

With mobile Internet a ‘call’ only travels across the telephony network (GSM and GPRS) until
it reaches the Internet gateway, at which point it converts into IP network traffic. Operators will
need to handle mediation and billing for multiple record formats such as voice calls as CDRs,
data transfer as GPRS data records, IP event records and content event records of various kinds
(including WAP).

This means that it must handle files from circuit-switched networks and transactions from
packet-switched networks. Whereas a telephone call travels over a single route, each IP event
must be reconstructed by piecing together information about multiple packets travelling via
multiple routers. IP networks are composed of multiple components that interact with each other
in a complex way and record large quantities of network information (at least 10 times more
than voice). IP records are not attached to a switch or generated in a single, identifiable and
centralised place, like a voice record. Therefore, IP mediation requires the correlation of data -
including accounting and performance data – to be collected from some or all of these devices
in real-time and to be stored until it is processed. This could be managed in a number of ways,
but whatever strategy an operator uses it is the IP mediation function that makes it possible.

A network typically records network-level data regarding packets and not user-level data such
as which services and applications have been used. However, this information is needed to have
a bill that is intelligible to the customer. Therefore IP mediation is a more complex task.

A single mediation system or two mediation modules could be used, but ultimately mediation
must be able to collect and consolidate all records from both GPRS and IP networks in order
tosend one service-related record to the billing system. See Table 1 for a comparison of
mediation for voice and IP.

Analysts have stated that GPRS services will produce 15-20 times the number of CDRs
that a GSM network produces, however, many of these may not be of any real value and
need to be filtered out. Therefore, mediation systems will need to handle a huge volume.

· To enable the full range of current billing scenarios and cross-service packages and
 discounts to be offered. Many of the records will be required to understand and charge
for bundled and individual services. If mediation systems only collect records from the
charging gateway nodes in the GPRS network, and not from the IP network, it will not
be possible to

determine what services have been used or to differentiate the billing of specific
services (such as the various WAP offerings)

· To support future billing requirements that are not yet defined, but may need additional
data from the mediation system

· To add usage data to other operational support systems such as fraud, data warehouse
and marketing.

Table 1 – Comparison of Mediation for Voice and IP Services

Features of Mediation Voice Telephony IP Services

No unified architecture,
Network architecture Static circuit switches, well dynamic
defined, hard wired and distributed information
information sources. Still sources. Open systems

largely a mix of proprietary based.
systems.
Billing related information Telephone switches.
sources
Scheduling True real-time collection is Real-time collection and
not usually supported.
Key functions Data collection, buffering,
filtering, reformatting,
forwarding to multiple
systems.
Typical information Call start and finish times Volume in terms of packet or
contained and
date. Caller and called
in a CDR party
ID. Trunk information for
interconnect accounting.
Requirements for billing Log file collection.
Reformatting CDRs from
fixed voice, mobile, cable
etc.
platform
Multiple network devices,
including gateways, servers,
proxies, routers, firewalls, as
well
as PCs and TVs.
correlation is key.
Collection, buffering,
correlation
and consolidation, filtering,
reformatting and forwarding to
multiple systems.
byte
count. Transmission start and
end times. Applications and
content related information.
Quality/class of service and
type.
Transit, routing and peering
information from multiple
partners.
Event-based collection for
usage
and content based billing.
Support for reconciliation with
 to uniform format
recognized content providers and
by billing system. High advertisers. Higher volumes of
volumes of billing data. billing data.

Information about the usage of the GPRS network is recorded at the SGSN (serving GPRS
support node) which is the point of access to the GPRS network and the GGSN (gateway GPRS
support node) which connects the GPRS network to the IP network. The information from the
SGSN and the GGSN is consolidated at the charging gateway that provides a mechanism to
transfer charging information to the network operators mediation/billing system.

The information held in the charging gateway's log has to be converted to event data records,
EDRs, by a mediation system. The criteria and frequency for this conversion (eg each time a
user requests a service or at set time periods such as every hour) will depend upon the operators
business model, but will affect the flexibility of pricing and the number of EDRs that must be
processed by the billing system.

Events should be sent immediately for rating so that users and operators have a real-time view of
usage charges, however, the network infrastructure may not support the real-time delivery of
EDRs to the billing system. (See further information regarding pre-paid in the section entitled

GPRS Tariffing

GSM circuit-switched based voice services are charged mainly on duration of calls and time of
day. GPRS packet-based charging will be based on totally different and many more dimensions
because the user is always ‘logged-on’ to the network, whether they are actively using it or not.
Some of the tariff dimensions that could be used for GPRS subscribers are as follows:

· number of packets transported (price per packet), although the cost of counting the number of
packets may be greater than their value
· volume in terms of kilobytes (kbit/s) and megabytes (mbit/s) of data transferred
· uplink/downlink volume – GPRS has the flexibility to monitor data going from the user to
the network and vice versa. This enables tariffs such as free access for surfing and payment
for downloading type of content
· value of content
· e-commerce/m-commerce – transactions and content that are not delivered by the mobile
network but is charged to the mobile bill. For example, mobile phones can be used to
purchase items from vending machines, juke boxes and car washes (as offered by Sonera
and Radiolinja in Finland). In this scenario a user dials a particular number which
activates the machine to dispense a cold drink and the charge appears on the user’s phone
bill. In Austria, Mobilkom lets subscribers request railway schedules and buy train tickets
· number of messages
· time delay - charge more for a real-time stock quote than for a delayed one
· quality of service(QoS) – users can be charged for the class of service they opt for, such as
priority, mean throughput or delayed. Discounts will have to be offered by operators for
shortfalls in the QoS type of device used (subscriber services may vary according to the
GPRS mobile device) transaction fees - it is highly likely that a transaction fee may be the
most applicable tariff for messaging or WAP services such as a traffic query. The transport
fee would be bundled into the transaction fee of the content service
· number of emails sent and received
· mailbox size

· number of web page hits

· time of day – peak or off-peak
· location - although distance has no significance in the IP world (users do not pay
different rates to download web pages depending on the geographic location of the web
server) operators may still wish to offer location-based pricing. For example a tariff for
an area within a radius of the office or home, based on nominated cells, to encourage
GPRS usage on the operators network. Once roaming is supported on GPRS networks,
charges for roaming would be higher than for the home-network
· monthly subscription fee
· location-specific (billing according to the location of the originating call) terminal-specific
(subscribers with different terminal capabilities will experience different services and will
have different usage patterns).

GPRS Billing

The billing system will apply single and cross-service convergent discounts for volume usage
and adjustments for any reduced quality of service, for example.

Bill presentation is key to avoiding confusion that will lead to increased customer care calls
and subsequently increased costs and churn.

WAP and GPRS services also make greater demands on convergent billing since the user has
the option to purchase items such as cinema tickets and have the cost charged back to the
mobile phone bill which need to be presented clearly. This will also be possible on prepaid
mobile phones. The cinema represents another member of the value chain (see below) that will
have to be monitored and paid (similar to interconnect) and for whom the billing system will
have to contend with.

Usage billing for WAP and GPRS is further complicated by the fact that interconnect billing in
IP is not fully regulated and difficult to calculate and enforce, but operators need to maintain
interconnect agreements and have billing systems to cater for this.

Billing the Value Chain for Mobile Content Services

Mobile content is bringing the e-commerce business model to the mobile telecommunications
industry – m-commerce. ICPs (integrated communication providers) need to provide for multi-
party content billing down through the value chain. Mobile operators have an opportunity to take
greater control of the m-commerce value chain than in the original wireline e-commerce
scenario.

In the wired world, the content value chain comprises the customer, the network operator, the
Internet service provider (ISP), the content brokers (ISPs with portals) and content providers
(who may have a chain of their own that includes publishers, writers, artists etc.). A user would
access the Internet through their ISPs point of presence (POP) via dial-up lines (PSTN or ISDN)
through their network operator. In this scenario ISPs are usually unable to take a share of e-
commerce because the customer purchases goods from the content provider by credit card
directly, as well as not having any control or understanding of their customers’ spending habits.
Therefore, they have established their own web sites or portals as the main point of access. It is
from this portal that they broker a range of content and take commissions on content purchased
from their portal along with advertising revenue, due to so many users visit their site (eg
Freeserve and AOL). Many ISPs now offer free Internet access to attract as many customers as
possible. Fixed line operators’ only revenue is from the local call charge for the time taken to
browse and download (and this is reduced with faster modems). Therefore, there are an
increasing number of operators installing IP network capability so that they can become an ISP
and mergers between operators, ISPs and content providers in order to gain revenues and
customer information.

In the wireless world, mobile operators that have a GPRS network will automatically be ISPs
because GPRS is a wireless extension of the Internet. Operators are signing up content partners
in order to set-up their own WAP-portals. For example, BT Cellnet’s Genie Internet service
offers email, web browsing and other WAP services.

Operators have several choices for billing the value chain:

· firstly the operator could bill its customers directly for the content purchased, so one
section of the bill will be much like a credit card bill. The operator will pay the content
providers minus a commission
· secondly, the operator may charge a commission for purchases made via its WAP portal
where the customer pays the content provider directly
· thirdly, the operator could bill advertisers for sponsoring content and pass on a share of the
revenue to its content partners. However, the opportunities are limited for WAP devices due
to screen size.
All three of these billing scenarios could be employed simultaneously by an operator.

Billing becomes more challenging when each event incurs a different type of billing scenario for
all the parties involved. For example a transaction fee or MB download for information
requested by the user, a fee for the content provider and charges for companies advertising with
that content, depending on the number of downloads per month that include their advertising.

Customer Care

Value-added network services such as mobile data and mobile Internet generate specific
customer problems and requirements. Therefore, an operator will need to train customer service
personnel to be aware of these issues and know how to solve them. The reality in the short and
medium term is that the need for customer support for value-added services will increase, not
decrease, as awareness of services and their usage increases and as new services and terminals
come onto the marketplace.

Web self-care, where customers can solve their own billing enquiries, for example, is a customer
benefit and a cost-saving opportunity for operators. The promotion of web self-care for basic
enquiries will be particularly important so that CSRs (customer sales representatives) in call
centres are only dealing with complex enquiries.

The user interfaces both internally and externally will need to be well designed to enable a clear
understanding and management of the information in the customer care and billing system.

· cross-product packages and discounts for mobile voice, data and content
· rapid and flexible product and service definition and rating schedule development to enable
fast time-to-market for new services and immediate changes to rating schedules that the
market is not responding to. This is achieved via rules-based systems that enable new
products and services to be set-up without expensive and time consuming customization to
the application
· support for new tariff dimensions
· understand and monitor customer requirements and usage to help define products and
services and devise relevant promotions
· analyze the profitability of individual and packaged products and services
· a single view of the customer, which requires a customer care system that can access and
process information regarding all of the services offered
· web self-care so that customers can solve their own billing enquiries, for example
· multi-party content billing down through the value chain
· independent mediation device that can collect and format data records from various sources
in multiple formats that contain new attributes that are not associated with voice telephony
real-time and pre-paid capabilities for users and operators. Users want to have immediate
access to up-to-date charges for usage, immediate activation of account detail changes,
immediate provisioning of new services and immediate top-up facilities for prepaid
services, for example. Operators need to have instant electronic payment processing and
real-time (or very near real-time) mediation, provisioning, rating and billing. However, this
may not be possible due to the hardware required to cater for peak periods and is not
worthwhile unless all elements are in real-time. It is no good rating in real-time if the
records are not sent from the mediation system in real-time to start with. IP mediation must
be in real-time, whether pre or post paid, since collection of chargeable IP events must be
at the time they occur. It will be important to offer real-time functionality for prepaid
customers but real-time rating and billing for post-paid customers will not be necessary. In
the pre-paid WAP and GPRS billing scenario the WAP gateway and SGSN/GGSN
respectively, will receive requests for pre-pay services and ask the pre-pay server or billing
system if credits exist. If so, the gateway or service node will be authorized to open service
for 15 minutes for example. Similar issues occur in GPRS as GSM voice pre-pay, such as
fraud and credit exposure
· Convergent pre-pay for voice, data and content across GSM, WAP and GPRS. However,
this is currently difficult to achieve and current IN platforms may not this. Operators may
choose to use existing pre-pay servers and interface to the GPRS environment. It is possible
that billing systems may come to the fore more in this area by offering a single credit limit
across all services and be able to calculate whether a desired transaction can be permitted
with the current credit limit scalability and performance. Some operators have estimated a
 10-fold increase in the number of records to be processed per product per day compared to
voice telephony.

Migration to GPRS Billing

Operators have several potential migration options to take them from billing GSM to GPRS. A
convergent billing system that supports mobile and IP (and fixed) enables cross-service packages
and discounts to be more easily implemented, as well as reducing the integration effort. Options
for migration:

Option 1: Implementing a convergent billing solution for billing packet switched content and
data and leave legacy system to bill for circuit-switched voice. This option will not allow for a
single convergent bill. This option is a low risk strategy.

Option 2: Integrating a convergent solution for billing voice, data and content for customers
who take all three services and leave the legacy system to bill those customers that are voice-
only. This option provides a convergent bill for those who require it and is a relatively low risk
strategy.

Option 3: Integrating a convergent solution for both rating and billing of data and content
services, as well as pure billing of voice calls. The legacy system would rate all of the voice calls
and pass rated voice events to Unicorn for customers that have services in addition to voice, but
bill those customers that have only voice services. This provides a convergent bill for those who
require it and is relatively low risk.

Option 4: Implementing a convergent solution for the billing of all services. The legacy system
would not be required. This approach has a relatively higher risk factor than options 1 – 3 due to
a big-bang approach to migration, since project management of this type of project is more
complex. However, Usha Communications Technology has migration expertise and experience
with this type of migration and does not regard it as high risk.

In order to offer GPRS services operators must install a new network overlay to allow migration
to packet switching. The key new elements in a GPRS network are:
· SGSN - the node within the GSM infrastructure that sends and receives packet data to and
from the mobile stations and keeps track of the mobiles within its service area. SGSNs send
queries to Home Location Registers (HLRs) to obtain profile data of GPRS subscribers and
detects new GPRS mobile stations in a given service area. The SGSN performs the
functions include mobility management (tracking a mobile location), user verification and
collection of billing data
· GGSN – the node that interfaces to external public data networks (PDNs) such as the
Internet and X.25. GGSNs maintain routing information that is necessary to tunnel the
Protocol Data Units (PDUs) to the SGSNs that service particular mobile stations.
Other functions include network and subscriber screening and address mapping.
· Charging Gateway - an interface between the charging gateway functionality and the
billing system. The charging gateway makes a log entry whenever there is network activity
such as data being transferred, the charging terms changing (peak/off-peak), an alteration in
the quality of service or if a GPRS session ends (known as a packet data protocol (PDP)
context). The main functions of the charging gateway are the collection of GPRS data
records from the GPRS nodes, intermediate data record storage, buffering and transfer of
data records to the mediation/billing systems.
· GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP) – a specialized protocol that operates over the top of
standard TCP/IP protocols to encapsulate IP or X.25 packets so that they can be forwarded
between the SGSN and GGSN (more information below)

In addition two network elements must also be enhanced in order to support GPRS:

· Base Station System (BSS): must be enhanced to recognize and send user data to the
SGSN that is serving the area
· Home Location Register (HLR): must be enhanced to register GPRS user profiles and
respond to queries originating from SGSNs regarding these profiles.
Figure – GPRS Network
To provide an overview of how these elements fit together it is useful to use an example of a
business person with a laptop connected to a GPRS cellular phone. The GPRS phone
communicates with a GSM base station that sends the data packets to the SGSN (whereas a
circuit-switched data calls is connected to voice networks by the mobile switching centre.) The
SGSN communicates with the GGSN, a system that maintains connections with other networks
such as the Internet, X.25 networks or private networks. A GPRS network can use multiple
serving nodes, but requires only one gateway node for connecting to an external network such as
the Internet. IP packets from the Internet addressed for the mobile station are received by the
GGSN, forwarded to the SGSN and then transmitted to the mobile station.

To forward IP or X.25 packets between each other, the SGSN and GGSN encapsulate these
packets using a specialized protocol called the GPRS tunnel protocol (GTP) which operates over
the top of standard TCP/IP protocols. The user experiences a straightforward IP or X.
connection, but a network connection is actually established for each transaction and released
once the transaction is completed (see below for further information).

GPRS uses the same radio channel as voice calls, a channel that is 200 kHz wide. This radio
channel carries a raw digital radio stream of 271 kbit/s which, for voice calls, is divided into 8
separate data streams, each carrying approximately 34 kbit/s. After protocol and error correction
overhead, 13 kbit/s is left for each voice connection or about 14 kbit/s for data. Circuit-switched
data today uses one voice channel. GPRS can combine up to 8 of these channels, and since each
of these can deliver up to 14 kbit/s of data throughput, the net result is that users will be able to
enjoy rates over 100 kbit/s. But not all eight-voice channels have to be used. In fact, the most
economical phones will be ones that are limited to 56 kbit/s. The GPRS standard defines a
mechanism by which a mobile station can request the amount of bandwidth it desires at the time
it establishes a data session.

GPRS Architecture:
 Fig: GPRS Architecture

Charging Gateway

The charging gateway is a single logical interface between the charging gateway functionality
and the billing system. The charging gateway functionality can be either a separate centralised
network element or a distributed resident in SGSN and GGSN.

GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP)

GTP is the protocol that tunnels the protocol data units through the IP backbone by adding
routing information. GTP operates on top of TCP/IP. ETSI has defined the functions of the
GTP as:

· CDR transfer mechanism between GPRS nodes generating CDRs and the charging gateway
functionality
· redirection of CDR transfer to another CGF (charging gateway functionality) ability to detect
communication failures between the CDR handling GPRS network elements by echo
messaging.
· ability of a CDR handling node to advertise the peer CDR handling GPRS network
elements about its CDR transfer capability (e.g. after a period of service downtime).
· ability to prevent duplicate CDRs that might arise during redundancy operations. If so
configured, the CDR duplication prevention function may also be carried out by
marking

potentially duplicated CDR packets and delegating the final duplicate deletion task to CGF
or Billing System (instead of handling the possible duplicates solely by GTP' messaging).

· the aim of the duplication prevention support of GTP' is to reduce the number of duplicated

CDRs sent towards the billing system and to support the billing system in keeping the
efforts for duplicate CDR checking as small as possible.

Additional GPRS Network Protocols

There are several protocols used in the GPRS network equipment besides GTP. The following is
a brief description of each protocol layer:

· Sub-Network Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) – a protocol that maps a

network-level protocol, such as IP or X.25, to the underlying logical link control. SNDCP
also

provides other functions such as compression, segmentation and multiplexing of network-

layer messages to a single virtual connection

· Logical Link Control (LLC) - a data link layer protocol that assures the reliable transfer
 of user data across a wireless network
· Base Station System GPRS Protocol (BSSGP) - BSSGP processes routing and quality of
service (QoS) information for the BSS. BSSGP uses the Frame Relay Q.922 core protocol as
its transport mechanism
· GPRS Mobility Management (GMM) - protocol that operates in the signalling plane of
GPRS and handles mobility issues such as roaming, authentication and selection of
encryption algorithms.

· Network Service - protocol that manages the convergence sub-layer operating between
BSSGP and the Frame Relay Q.922 core by mapping BSSGP's service requests to the
appropriate Frame Relay services
· BSSAP+ - protocol that manages paging for voice and data connections and optimises

paging for mobile subscribers. BSSAP+ is also responsible for location and routing updates
as well as mobile station alerts.

Data transmission in a GPRS network

Although a user experiences a continuous connection, a network connection needs to be opened

and closed for each transaction. Data transmission in a GPRS network requires several steps to
be undertaken (in the context of the protocol layers described above):

· Network Access - once a GPRS mobile station is switched on, it ‘introduces’ itself to the
network by sending a ‘GPRS attach’ request. Network access can be achieved from either
the fixed side or the mobile side of the GPRS network - point-to-point, point-to-multi-point
or

anonymous connections are then available. As in cellular networks, several administrative

functions are performed to validate a user, including :
 · User Registration - associates the mobile ID with the user's PDP (packet data
protocol) and address within the PLMN (public land mobile network). Within the
home area of the mobile station, traditional HLRs are enhanced to reference GPRS
data.

Outside the home area, dynamically allocated records are referenced in VLRs (visitor
location registers)

· Authentication - ensures the validity of the GPRS mobile station and its associated
services. Mobility management functions (GMM protocol stack) are used for this
part of the signalling
· Call Admission Control (CAC) - determines the required network resources for the
quality of service (QoS) that is requested. If these resources are available, they will
be reserved

· Routing and Data Transfer - once a mobile station begins data transmission, routing is

performed by the GSNs on a hop-by-hop basis through the mobile network using the
destination address in the message header. Routing tables are maintained by the GSNs
utilising the GTP layer which may carry out address translation and mapping functions
to

convert the external PDN (public data network) addresses to an address that is usable for
routing within PLMNs. The data itself will go through several transformations as it
travels through the network. Depending on the destination PDN, the data can be:

· Forwarded - using the relay function, to go from one node to the other in the route
· Tunnelled - to transfer data from one PLMN to another
· Compressed - to use the radio path in an efficient manner (compression algorithms
may be used for manufacturers to differentiate themselves, however, they may face
interoperability issues in heterogeneous networks)
 · Encrypted - to protect the mobile station from eavesdropping (encryption algorithms
can also be used as a differentiating factor).
· Mobility Management - as a mobile station moves from one area to another, mobility
management functions are used to track its location within each PLMN. SGSNs
communicate with each other and update the user location. The mobile station's profiles are
preserved in the VLRs that are accessible to SGSNs via the local MSC (mobile services
switching centre). A logical link is established and maintained between the mobile station
and the SGSN at each PLMN. At the end of transmission or when a mobile station moves out
of the area of a specific SGSN, the logical link is released and the resources associated with it
can be reallocated.

RFID SECTION:

RFID is an acronym for Radio Frequency Identification. In general terms, RFID is

a means of identifying a person or object using a radio frequency transmission. In
other words RFID is an electronic method of exchanging data over radio frequency
waves. The technology can be used to identify, track, sort or detect a wide variety
of objects.

There are three major components to a RFID system: Transponder (Tag), Antenna
and a Controller. Communication takes place between a Reader (some times called
interrogator) and a Transponder (Silicon Chip connected to an antenna) often
called a Tag.

RFID System
 In a typical RFID system tags are attached to objects. Each tag has a certain
amount of internal memory (EEPROM) in which it stores information about the
object, such as its unique ID (serial) number, or in some cases more details
including manufacture date and product composition. When these tags pass
through a field generated by a reader, they transmit this information back to the
reader, thereby identifying the object.

Until recently the focus of RFID technology was mainly on tags and readers
which were being used in systems where relatively low volumes of data are
involved. This is now changing as RFID in the supply chain is expected to generate
huge volumes of data, which will have to be filtered and routed to the backend IT
systems. To solve this problem companies have developed special software
packages called savants, which act as buffers between the RFID front end and the
IT backend. Savants are the equivalent to middleware in the IT industry.

COMMUNICATION

The Communication process between the Reader and Tag is managed and
controlled by one of several protocols, such as the ISO 15693 and ISO 18000-3 for
HF or the ISO 18000-6, and EPC for UHF. Basically what happens is that when
the reader is switched on, it starts emitting a signal at the selected frequency band
(typically 860 - 915MHz for UHF or 13.56MHz for HF). Any corresponding tag in
the vicinity of the reader will detect the signal and use the energy from it to wake
up and supply operating power to its internal circuits. The tags must use the power
they receive to operate their integrated circuits and return a signal with their ID to
the reader. Once the Tag has decoded the signal as valid, it replies to the reader,
and indicates its presence by modulating (affecting) the reader field.
TAGS: The Transponder (Electronic Transmitter/Responder) contains a silicon
microchip, smaller than a grain of rice, and a small antenna. Tags are classified
into two types based on operating power supply fed to it.

1. Active Tags
2. Passive Tags

Active Tags: These tags have integrated batteries for powering the chip. Active
Tags are powered by batteries and either have to be recharged, have their batteries
replaced or be disposed of when the batteries fail.

Passive Tags: Passive tags are the tags that do not have batteries and have
indefinite life expectancies.
 Different types of tags

Tags come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Tags can be attached to various objects. These
objects include products, cartons, totes, pallets, parts, assemblies in manufacturing, cars, trucks,
physical assets, etc. Tags come in various forms including Smart cards, Tags, Labels, watches
and even embedded in mobile phones. Tags are sold in various types. These include adhesive
back labels, credit card shaped laminate, screw down plastic assemblies and a host of other types
of tags.

ANTENNA

The Antenna is a device that either reads data from tags or, in some cases, writes data to tags
using radio Frequency waves. Antenna's come in all shapes and sizes depending on the
environment or the required range. Antennas can be mounted on the floor, to sides of conveyors,
on lift trucks, or on building structures.

Antennas come in all sorts of sizes and shapes. The size of the antenna determines
the range of the application. Large antennas used with Active Tags can have a
range of 100 feet or more. Large antennas used with Passive Tags generally have a
range of 10 feet of less. There are dock door antennas (some times called Portals)
that allow a forklift driver to drive between two antennas. Information can be
collected from the tags without the forklift driver having to stop. There are
antennas that mount between rollers on conveyors for reading/writing from below.
While other antennas are available that mount to the side of or above the
conveyors. Handheld Reader/Writers are available as well.

RFID READER

Active RFID and Passive RFID technologies, while often considered and
evaluated together, are fundamentally distinct technologies with substantially
different capabilities. In most cases, neither technology provides a complete
solution for supply chain asset management applications. Rather ,the most
effective and complete supply chain solutions leverage the advantages of each
technology and combine their use in complementary ways. This need for both
technologies must be considered by RFID standards initiatives to effectively meet
the requirements of the user community.

RFID Reader Module, are also called as interrogators. They convert radio
waves

Returned from the RFID tag into a form that can be passed on to Controllers,
which can

Make use of it. RFID tags and readers have to be tuned to the same frequency in
order to

Communicate. RFID systems use many different frequencies, but the most
common and

Widely used & supported by our Reader is 125 KHz.

Functions

1. Supports reading of 64 Bit Manchester Encoded cards

2. Pins for External Antenna connection

3. Serial Interface (TTL)

4. Wiegand Interface also available

5. Customer application on request

Technical Data:

Frequency: 125 kHz

Read Range: up to 8 cm

Power supply: 5V DC ( ± 5 %)
Current consumption max. : 60 mA

Operating temperature: -20 ... +65° C

Storing temperature: -40 ... +75° C

Interface: RS232 (TTL), Wiegand and others (on Demand)

Dimensions (l x w x h) : 36 x 18 x 10 mm

Serial Interface Format: 9600Baud, No Parity, 8 Data bits, 1 Stop bit

Note: The TTL RS-232 Interface can not be connected directly to a PC COM
port.

Therefore the signal must be converted to RS 232 level for PC connection.

This Firmware has the following Functions:

Read Tag-ID

Send Tag-ID in ASCII Format through the Serial/ Wiegand Interface.

Sequence starts with Tag ID follows from Carriage-Return/Line-Feed (0Dh 0Ah),

Example: '041201938C<CR><LF>’
Applications:

Our readers can be used for Access control, Time & Attendance, Vending
machines,

Industrial and other applications where Reading the data from the Card only is
required.

READERS

The Controller (Interrogator) is the electronic device that receives

the data from the antenna, or transmits data to the antenna, and usually
communicates this data to a host computer or Microcontrollers.

Generally Readers are realized using the Microcontroller. Readers

are available to communicate with most Networks (Ethernet, Device Net, Pro-
Fibus, etc). They typically have serial ports for programming and data transfer.
Readers (realized using Microcontrollers) are usually shipped with programming
software to set-up and customize the application.
RFID FREQUENCIES

Tags and Antennas are tuned or matched much the same way as a radio is tuned
to a frequency to receive different channels. These frequencies are grouped into Four basic
ranges: Low Frequency, High Frequency, Very High Frequency and Ultra-High Frequencies.
The communication frequencies used depends to a large extent on the application, and range
from 125 KHz to 2.45 GHz.

Each frequency range has its advantages and disadvantages. Europe uses 868
MHz. for its UHF applications while the US uses 915 MHz. for its UHF applications. Japan does
not allow the use of the UHF frequency for RFID applications. Low Frequency tags (LF) are less
costly to manufacturer than Ultra High Frequency (UHF) tags. UHF tags offer better read/write
range and can transfer data faster then other tags. HF tags work best at close range but are more
effective at penetrating non-metal objects especially objects with high water content.

ANTI-COLLISION

If many tags are present then they will all reply at the same time, which at the
reader end is seen as a signal collision and an indication of multiple tags. The
reader manages this problem by using an anti-collision algorithm designed to allow
tags to be sorted and individually selected. There are many different types of
algorithms (Binary Tree, Aloha....) which are defined as part of the protocol
standards. The number of tags that can be identified depends on the frequency and
protocol used, and can typically range from 50 tags / s for HF and up to 200 tags / s
for UHF.

Once a tag is selected, the reader is able to perform a number of operations such as
read the tags identifier number, or in the case of a read/write tag write information
to it. After finishing dialoging with the tag, the reader can then either remove it
from the list, or put it on standby until a later time. This process continues under
control of the anti collision algorithm until all tags have been selected.

RFID READER used in Project

The RFID Reader used in our project is 28 pin IC. The pin-out diagram of RFID
Reader along with its clip is shown below.

PIN NO. SIGNAL DESCRIPTION

Transmit data (TTL level) output
Pin No : 6 TxD
from module to serial interface
Wiegand DATA HIGH

Pin No : 4 It will give DATA HIGH signal.

( available in
Wiegand )
Receive data (TTL level) input to
Pin No : 8 RxD
the module from serial interface
Buzzer will buzz for 280 ms
Pin No : 12 Buzzer (active low)
when tag is detected
 LED will glow for 280 ms when
Pin No : 13 LED ( active low)
tag is detected

Wiegand DATA LOW

Pin No : 14 It will give DATA LOW signal.
( available in
Wiegand )
Loop Antenna should be
Pin No:27,28 Antenna Input
connected.

USES of RFID

For many years RFID technology has been used for tracking livestock on farms.
Tags are installed either on or under the skin of animals. These tags store information about the
animal such as its identification number, its medical history, and its weight and age. Being able
to identify the needs of an animal during feeding and medical attention without having to look up
the animals history in printed logs saves the farm considerable time and money.
Some airports currently use RFID technology to track and sort baggage in the terminal. This
allows for a completely automated baggage handling facility. Currently the
applications of RFID include material handling, logistics, warehousing, manufacturing, personal
identification and many more applications. Simply put, applications are limited only by your
imagination.
ADVANTAGES OF RFID

RFID technology is frequently compared to Barcode technology. While RFID technology will
probably never replace Barcode technology, it does have many advantages. The following is a
list of a few of these advantages:

• You must have 'Line of Sight" to read a barcode label.

• RFID tags can be placed inside containers or on surfaces that are not in the line of
sight from the antenna.
• RFID technology has a longer read range compared to Barcode Technology.
• Considerably more data can be stored on RFID tags than on a Barcode label.
• You cannot write to a barcode label whereas some RFID tags have Read/Write capabilities.

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

In this project we are using ARM7 TDMI-S based NXP’s (national semiconductors and Philips)
LPC 2148 microcontroller in LQFP (Liquid Quad Flat package) with 64 pins. One of the
important feature is Power requirement of LPC2148 Microcontroller is 3.3VDC.

The power supply (3.3.v) for the LPC2148 is produced by using the power supply
circuit which consists of mainly four components. 1. Transformer 2.Rectifier 3. Filter and
4.Regulator.The conversion AC to DC supply which includes four most basic steps, first voltage
is step downed by using transformer, (2) rectifier for converting AC to dc (here we are not
obtaining pure dc voltage), (3) so in the filter circuit, capacitor bypasses the AC to ground and it
blocks dc voltage. (4) The obtained pure dc voltage is supplied to regulator for getting the
required voltage which we need to give for the lpc2148.

In this project we can check the status of no of products manufactured in different nodes.

The monitoring layer is the core of the RFID manufacturing monitoring system. With the
help of the readers placed in different locations, the information in the tags nearby will be
collected, if gaining the permission, the readers can read the data on the tags and transfer the data
to the end-user devices.

LOCATION-AWARE SELECTIVE UNLOCKING a tag is unlocked only when it is in an

appropriate (pre specified) location. This mechanism is suitable for applications where
reader location is fixed and well known in advance. For better protection against attacks,
the location can also be used as a valid context for unlocking of toll cards. The money
transactions will be accessed only if the CARD is authorized Sand the status update will be
transmitted to the web page

SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

ABOUT SOFTWARE
Software used:

*Keil software for c programming

ABOUT KEIL SOFTWARE:\

It is possible to create the source files in a text editor such as Notepad, run the
Compiler on each C source file, specifying a list of controls, run the Assembler on
each Assembler source file, specifying another list of controls, run either the
Library Manager or Linker (again specifying a list of controls) and finally running
the Object-HEX Converter to convert the Linker output file to an Intel Hex File.
Once that has been completed the Hex File can be downloaded to the target
hardware and debugged. Alternatively KEIL can be used to create source files;
automatically compile, link and covert using options set with an easy to use user
interface and finally simulate or perform debugging on the hardware with access to
C variables and memory. Unless you have to use the tolls on the command line, the
choice is clear. KEIL Greatly simplifies the process of creating and testing an
embedded application.

Projects:

The user of KEIL centers on “projects”. A project is a list of all the source
files required to build a single application, all the tool options which specify
exactly how to build the application, and – if required – how the application should
be simulated. A project contains enough information to take a set of source files
and generate exactly the binary code required for the application. Because of the
high degree of flexibility required from the tools, there are many options that can
be set to configure the tools to operate in a specific manner. It would be tedious to
have to set these options up every time the application is being built; therefore they
are stored in a project file. Loading the project file into KEIL informs KEIL which
source files are required, where they are, and how to configure the tools in the
correct way. KEIL can then execute each tool with the correct options. It is also
possible to create new projects in KEIL. Source files are added to the project and
the tool options are set as required. The project can then be saved to preserve the
settings. The project is reloaded and the simulator or debugger started, all the
desired windows are opened. KEIL project files have the extension

Simulator/Debugger:

The simulator/ debugger in KEIL can perform a very detailed simulation of

a micro controller along with external signals. It is possible to view the precise
execution time of a single assembly instruction, or a single line of C code, all the
way up to the entire application, simply by entering the crystal frequency. A
window can be opened for each peripheral on the device, showing the state of the
peripheral. This enables quick trouble shooting of mis-configured peripherals.
Breakpoints may be set on either assembly instructions or lines of C code, and
execution may be stepped through one instruction or C line at a time. The contents
of all the memory areas may be viewed along with ability to find specific variables.
In addition the registers may be viewed allowing a detailed view of what the
microcontroller is doing at any point in time.

ARM SOFTWARE:
About KeilARM:

1. Click on the Keil u Vision3 Icon on Desktop

2. The following fig will appear

3.Click on the Project menu from the title bar

4.Then Click on New Project

5.Save the Project by typing suitable project name with no extension in u r own
folder sited in either C:\ or D:\
6.Then Click on Save button above.

7.Select the component for u r project. i.e.NXP……

8.Click on the + Symbol beside of NXP

9.Select LPC2148 as shown below
10.Then Click on “OK”

11.The Following fig will appear

12.Then Click YES

13.Now your project is ready to USE

14.Now double click on the Target1, you would get another option “Source
group 1” as shown in next page.
15.Click on the file option from menu bar and select “new”
16.The next screen will be as shown in next page, and just maximize it by double
clicking on its blue boarder.
17.Now start writing program in either in “C” or “ASM”

18.For a program written in Assembly, then save it with extension “. asm” and
for “C” based program save it with extension “ .C”
19.Now right click on Source group 1 and click on “Add files to Group Source”
20.Now you will get another window, on which by default “C” files will appear
21.Now select as per your file extension given while saving the file
22.Click only one time on option “ADD”
23.Now Press function key F7 to compile. Any error will appear if so happen.
24.If the file contains no error, then press Control+F5 simultaneously.
25.The new window is as follows
 26.Then Click “OK”

27.Now Click on the Peripherals from menu bar, and check your required port
as shown in fig below
29.Drag the port a side and click in the program file
29.Now keep Pressing function key “F11” slowly and observe.
30.You are running your program successfully
 CONCLUSION

The project “SECURED END TO END COMMUNICATION” has been

successfully designed and tested.

It has been developed by integrating features of all the hardware components used.
Presence of every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully thus
contributing to the best working of the unit.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. http://www.garmin.com/products/gps35

2. http://www.alldatasheet.com

3. http://www.mathworks.com

4. M. A. Mazidi, J. C. Mazidi, R. D. Mckinaly, The 8051 Microcontroller and

Embedded Systems, Pearson Education, 2006.

5. http://www.national.com/ds/LM/LM35.pdf

6. http://www.nxp.com/documents/user_manual/UM10139.pdf

1. GPS

2. ALL DATA SHEETS

3. ALL MATHEMATICAL EQUATIONS

4. 8051 MAZIDI TEXT BOOK

5. TEMPERATURE SENSOR

6 .ARM DATASHEET