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Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603

Modern Building Materials, Structures and Techniques, MBMST 2016

Ecological high performance concrete

Wojciech Kubissaa,* , 7DPiV6LPRQb, Roman Jaskulskia, Pavel Reitermanc,
Marcin Superaa
a
Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Mechanics and Petrochemistry (Plock)
b
Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Department of Construction Materials and Technologies
c
Czech Technical University in Prague, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Experimental Centre

Abstract

In this paper the authors present the possibility to utilize two waste materials to produce high performance concrete (HPC). To
prepare the mixes, Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) of 4-16 mm fraction and Class F fly ash (from coal burning power plant)
were used. Concretes with RCA were mixed with 300 kg/m3 of different types of cements and Supplementary Cementing
Materials (SCM). The concrete sample specimens were tested for mechanical properties and for some properties which are
related to durability. After 28 days compressive strength values up to 59.5 MPa and after 90 days 71.8 MPa were achieved.
Besides we obtained good values regarding those properties, which significantly influence the durability of reinforced concrete
structures.
© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
‹7KH$XWhors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of MBMST 2016.
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of MBMST 2016
Keywords: Concrete, durability, recycled aggregate, waste utilization, RCA, high performance concrete.

1. Introduction

To reduce greenhouse gas emission, frugal natural resources management and recycling of waste materials
became necessary. By increasing the usage of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and supplementary cementitious
materials (SCM) in concrete industry it is possible to considerably enhance the environmental friendliness
of concrete production.
The more and more limited availability of resources of natural aggregates which makes up to about 60% - 70% of
the volume of concrete is becoming more and more significant due to restrictions on quarrying operations and longer
delivery distances. The disposal of residual concrete out of structure demolition at the same time is a problem to be

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +0048-24-2626254; fax. +0048-24-3672225
Email address: wkubissa@pw.plock.pl (Wojciech Kubissa)

1877-7058 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of MBMST 2016
doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2017.02.186
596 Wojciech Kubissa et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603

solved. Such wastes are deposited mostly in landfills [1]. While discussing about the future of concrete, an important
and predictable tendency is the increasing utilization of industrial waste and of recycled materials as ingredients for
concrete mixtures [2,3]. Some researchers [4,5,6] indicate the ash (over 50% m) as binder such concretes are called
high volume fly ash concretes (HVFAC).
It should be noted however, the so prepared environment friendly green concretes, despite of utilizing waste
materials, may cost more than those, which are mixed out of the currently used components [5,7]. By using RCA
as a substitute for natural aggregates and SCM as a partial cement replacement in concrete mixture is a way
to potentially address the economic and environmental concerns.
Utilization of coarse RCA in concrete manufacturing has been thoroughly researched. Dosho in 2007 [8] wrote
about studies of recycled aggregate concrete which were published just after World War II regarding: physical
properties by Glruzhge in 1946, Russia, and the influence of mixture impurities by Graf in 1948, Germany. First
detailed test results on application of RCA in concrete technology were published by Nixon in 1978 [9]. He
suggested that the main field in which more information about the behavior of the recycled concrete is required is its
durability. Studies on the application of RCA in concrete mixtures have mainly concerned mix design [10,11],
mechanical properties [12,13], structural performance [14,15] and the final purpose [16,17]. Until now many of the
durability parameters have been investigated, technological recommendation and detailed requirements based on the
quality of RCA were drawn [18]. By now it has been stated that it is possible to design and prepare durable concretes
by using RCA having adequately good quality. Recommendations for using coarse RCA in concrete manufacturing
are also defined [19,20]. RCA and waste materials used as SCM are often considered to be low quality components
which slightly lower the cost of concrete but deteriorate most of its vital properties. Some authors claim that RCA is
not a suitable component for preparing concretes with designed compressive strength higher than 25 MPa [21].
This kind of mind barrier should be broken down, and the authors aim is to hit a further hole on it. Attempts
to obtain high performance concrete with the usage of RCA and high SCM content are rare. These are usually based
on RCAs acquired from demolition of structures made out of concrete of very high compressive strength (even more
than 100 MPa) [22]. However RCA of such a high quality is a rarity and it cannot be assumed, that it will be widely
available.
The main objective of our research was to evaluate the possibility of using simultaneously RCA out of middle
compressive strength range concrete as a replacement for natural coarse aggregate and SCMs as cement replacement
to mix concretes having mechanical properties higher than average and low permeability. Utilization of SCMs
(eg. fly ash) in concrete production can lead to significant reduction in the permeability of concrete when
considering water and chloride ions [23,24]. The possibility to mix high quality concretes with coarse RCA
aggregate and significant amount of waste material: Class F fly ash was presented by Kubissa [25]. Based
on previous studies the chosen binder composition was 300 kg/m3 of cement and 300 kg/m3 of Class F fly
ash. Further was added metakaolin in an amount of 60 kg/m3 and in case of one of the mixtures (marked REC6)
fluidized fly ash. A variety of cements were used CEM I 42.5, CEM I 52.5, CEM II with blast furnace slag
and limestone additives and CEM III the main component of which was blast furnace slag. The aim to use
cementitious additives was to produce concretes which are more environment friendly. Several targets were aimed:
fresh concrete flow value to be about 40 cm after 60 minutes from adding water to the mixture (to assure good
workability), average 28 days compressive strength to be around 55 MPa and the durability parameters not to be
worse than of those ordinary concretes, which are mixed out of traditional components. To fulfil the targeted
properties high rate water reducer (superplasticizer) was used together with the addition of metakaolin and fluidized
fly ash. By the course of the main research stream it was also tested, what is the effect of replacing 2-4 mm fraction
of natural aggregate (NA) with the same fraction of RCA.

2. Materials and Research

2.1. Materials

Portland cements CEM I 42.5R, CEM I 52.5R, CEM II/A-M (S-LL) 52.5 N from Lafarge Cement Plant
and CEM III/A 42.5 N-LH/HSR/NA cement from GyraĪdĪe Cement Plant as per PN-EN 197 while Class F fly ash
from coal combustion in Kozienice Power Plant was used. As NA, river sand of 0-2 mm and 2-4 mm fractions were
 Wojciech Kubissa et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603 597

used. RCA was obtained by crushing concrete pieces of compressive strength between 35-50 MPa. Aggregate
fulfilled requirements of RCAC II (acc. to Rilem), type II (acc. to DIN 4226-100) and type A (acc. to PN-EN-
206:2014). RCA has been sieved into fractions of: 0-2 mm, 2-4 mm, 4-8 mm and 8-16 mm. Natural aggregate
fractions of 0-2 mm and of 2-4 mm were used together with 4-8 mm and 8-16 mm fractions of RCA. Natural
aggregate was used at air-dry condition. The RCA had been weighted and saturated with water, in an amount
of 3.5% of its air-dry weight. The absorbed water was not taken into account when calculating W/C
and (W+SP)/(C+SCM) ratios. High-range water reducer Muraplast FK 88 manufactured by MC-Bauchemie was
used. Regular tap water was used as mixing water.

Table 1. Proportions of concrete mixtures [kg/m3].

Material denomination Sign of mixture REC1 REC2 REC3 REC4 REC5 REC6

CEM I 42.5 300 300 0 0 0 300

CEM I 52.5 0 0 300 0 0 0
CEM II 52.5 A-M (S-LL) 0 0 0 300 0 0
CEM III/A 42.,5 N-LH/HSR/NA 0 0 0 0 300 0
Class F fly ash 300 300 300 300 300 300
metakaolin 60 60 60 60 60 0
fluidized fly ash 0 0 0 0 0 100
natural sand 0-2 473 473 467 470 466 427
natural sand 2-4 172 0 170 171 170 155
RCA 2-4 0 156 0 0 0 0
RCA 4-8 325 325 321 322 320 293
RCA 8-16 390 390 385 387 384 351
SP FK-88 (superplasticizer) 10 10 10 10 10 11
water 190 193 197 193 192 212
W/C 0,63 0,64 0,66 0,64 0,64 0,71
(W+SP)/(C+SCM)*) 0,30 0,31 0,31 0,31 0,31 0,32
*Previous to mixing RCA has been saturated, the saturation water is NOT incorporated in the ratio.

Six concrete mixtures were prepared. They contained 300 kg/m3 of cement. As for SCM, 300 kg/m3 of fly ash
was used, together with metakaolin in an amount of 10% and fluidized fly ash in amount of 16.7% of the total mass
of fly ash and cement. Water reducer was used in the dosage of 2% by total mass of cement, metakaolin and 50%
mass of fly ash. Mix proportions are presented in Table 1. The workability of concrete mixtures was measured by
flow table test, in accordance with PN-EN 12350-5.

2.2. Compressive and Tensile Strength Test

Specimens were prepared and cured as per PN-EN 12390-2. They were cast in steel moulds and underwent
double compaction on vibrating table. After 2 days the specimens were demoulded and water-cured in the laboratory
till the age of 28 days. The compressive strength tests were conducted in accordance with PN-EN 12390-3 on 150
mm cube specimens after 28 and 90 days of hardening. The tensile splitting strength tests were conducted
on the same type of specimens in accordance with PN-EN 12390-6. The compressive strength tests were performed
by using the machine ToniTechnic, ToniPACT II having 3000 kN loading capacity. The rate of loading was
maintained at 0.5 MPa/s for compressive strength test and 0.05 MPa/s for splitting test respectively.

2.3. Sorptivity Test and Free Water Absorption

598 Wojciech Kubissa et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603

The sorptivity and free water absorption tests were conducted on the halves of cubic specimens of 150 mm edge.
At first the specimens had been fully saturated with water for about 14 days, than weighed and subsequently oven-
dried to the permanent mass at the temperature of about 105ƒ& 7KH PDVV GLfferences were used to calculate the
values of free water absorption. The measurements of sorptivity were conducted at the temperature of approximately
20ƒ& The specimens of known weight were arranged in the vessel with water (the specimens were dipped
up to the depth of 3 mm). In specific time intervals from the beginning of the test, the specimens were weighed
again to define their weight gain resulting from water sorption. Subsequent mass gain measurements were conducted
for 6 hours. Sorptivity S in g/(cm2 x h0.5) was defined as a slope of the linear function expressing the dependence
of the mass of the water absorbed _m by the area F on the time root t0.5 [26].

2.4. Depth of Penetration of Water Under Pressure Test

For water penetration tests, 150 mm cubes were used. The tests were performed after 90 days of hardening
in accordance to PN-EN 12390-8. The specimens were water cured for 28 days and then stored in laboratory
ambient conditions for the rest of the time before the testing was started. Water pressure of 0.5 MPa was applied
on one surface of the specimens which was maintained constant for 72 h. At the end of the test, the specimens were
split vertically to record the maximum penetration depth of the water front.

2.5. Chloride Migration Coefficient Test

The Nord Test method (NT Build 492) was used in order to determine the nonsteady state chloride migration
coefficients. The tests were conducted on specimens having sizes of 150 mm in diameter and 50 mm in thickness
at the age of 90 days. After 28 day of water curing the specimens were stored under laboratory ambient conditions
until the tests started. The test were performed according to the NT Build 492 guidelines [27]. The depth of chloride
penetration into concrete specimens, in form of a visible precipitate of AgCl, was measured with a vernier calliper.
The chloride migration coefficient values were calculated by using the formulas given in NT-Build 492.

2.6. Carbonation Depth Test

Carbonation tests were performed by using 100x100x500 mm beams. They were water cured for 28 days
and kept under laboratory ambient conditions till the beginning of the tests which started 90 days after specimen
FDVWLQJ 6SHFLPHQV ZHUH SODFHG LQ YHUWLFDO SRVLWLRQ LQWR D FOLPDWLF FKDPEHU ZKHUH ƒ& temperature was
maintained. The relative humidity was set to 60% and the CO2 concentration to 10%. After 7, 14 and 28 days from
the top of the test specimens several centimeters were split off. The splitting surfaces were then sprayed with
phenolphthalein solution. Depth of non-coloured area was measured in eight points, 2 cm away from the corners
of the specimens and perpendicular to each of their lateral surfaces. The mean value of the eight measurements is
the result of the test.

3. Research Results

Research results are presented in the Table 2. The results are mean values of six measurements. Only for fresh
concrete mixtures, the result of flow is an average of three measured values.

3.1. Workability of Concrete

Flow values of concrete after 60 minutes for all concrete mixtures were within the targeted limits. Differences
in flow values of concrete mixtures which were measured after 15 and 60 minutes following the mixing for series
REC1, REC3, REC4 and REC6 were relatively small. In relation to the 15 minutes measurements they were 1.19%,
4.65%, 7.78% and 4.55% respectively. For concrete mixture REC5, containing CEM III cement the difference
in flow value after 15 and 60 minutes was significantly higher and it was 14.29%. This value is still acceptable.
Comparing recipes REC1 and REC2, a high influence of 2-4 mm fraction of RCA on concrete consistency was
 Wojciech Kubissa et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603 599

observed. To obtain flow value of 385 mm after 60 minutes, (to get near to the targeted one) additional dosage
of water was required. But this resulted in a concrete flow value of the 15 minutes measurement to be 520 mm.
The flow value decrease was significant, 25.96%. From these results it is obvious, by appropriate binder blending
and the parallel usage of a superplasticier it is possible to obtain a concrete mixture even if using RCA as 100%
of coarse aggregate which will have a minor decrease in its one hour flow value.

Table 2. Test results.

Concrete property / Sign of mixture REC1 REC2 REC3 REC4 REC5 REC6

IORZ´G´DIWHUPLQ>PP@ 420 520 430 450 490 440

IORZ´G´DIWHUPLQ>PP@ 415 385 410 415 420 420
compr. strength 28d fcm [MPa] 57.11 54.53 58.75 59.54 52.66 51.09
tensile strength 28d fctm [MPa] 3.37 3.43 3.61 4.10 3.69 3.99
compr. strength 90d fcm [MPa] 63.05 63.30 61.43 71.78 64.68 52.26
tensile strength 90d fctm [MPa] 4.10 3.78 4.36 4.41 4.62 3.95
ZDWHUDEVRUSWLRQ´Q´G>@ 5.89% 6.69% 6.79% 6.06% 6.79% 8.26%
VRUSWLYLW\´6´G>FP/h0.5] 0.117 0.141 0.131 0.117 0.085 0.130
ZDWHUDEVRUSWLRQ´Q´G>@ 6.78% 7.37% 6.81% 6.50% 6.92% 7.92%
VRUSWLYLW\´6´G>FP/h0.5] 0.116 0.128 0.142 0.123 0.085 0.129
watertightness (penetration) test [mm] 18.33 20.50 17.93 19.67 15.67 17.38
-12 2
chloride migration Dnsst [10 m /s] 3.025 3.230 2.643 2.895 2.599 2.120
carbonation depth 7d [mm] 3.69 3.54 2.40 2.58 4.42 3.34
carbonation depth 14d [mm] 5.15 5.46 4.98 5.25 6.17 5.44
carbonation depth 28d [mm] 7.71 7.13 6.88 7.71 10.90 8.50

3.2. Compressive Strength of Concrete

The highest value of mean compressive strength 59.54 MPa was obtained for REC4 series containing CEM II
52.5 A-M (S-LL) cement. This mixture reached also the highest compressive strength of 71.78 MPa after 90 days,
which means a strength gain of 20.57% due to post hardening. A significant gain in compressive strength from
52.66 MPa after 28 days to 64.86 MPa (23.18%) after 90 days was also observed for REC5 mixture. In the opinion
of the authors, specifying only the strength after 28 days for concretes mixed with CEM II and CEM III cements,
does not fully reflect the real strength properties. Mixtures REC1, REC2 and REC3 did not obtain surprising gain
in strength between 28 and 90 days, they were 10.40%, 16.08% and 4.56% respectively. Still the 28 days
compressive strength of these latter mixes with 57.11 MPa for REC1, 54.53 MPa for REC2 and 58.75 MPa
for REC3 fulfilled the target. At the same time the compressive strength of REC5 and REC6 mixtures at the age
of 28 days only reached 52.66 MPa and 51.09 MPa respectively, which are below the targeted value of 55 MPa.
Concrete containing CEM III (REC5) however after 90 days reached the compressive strength of 64.86 MPa which
is 2.87% and 2,46% more than those ones which were achieved by REC1 and REC2 mixtures. They were both
mixed with the same strength class but CEM I ordinary Portland cement. Mixture REC6, in which instead
of metakaolin fluidized fly ash was used has reached the lowest strength values after 28 and 90 days, which were
51.09 MPa and 52.26 MPa, respectively. It is an intriguingly low increase in strength between 28 and 90 days
amounting only to 2.29 %. Comparing concrete series out of REC1 and REC2 mixtures showed that REC1 concrete
achieved 4.5% higher compressive strength than REC2. The difference was mainly the result of using 2-4 mm
fraction of natural aggregate in REC1 concrete series instead of RCA of the same fraction in REC2 concrete. This
explains the requirement in EN-206 standard which exclude 0-4 mm fractions of RCA from the usage in concrete
production. At the same time if this strength decrease due to the fine RCA is compensated, than the authors would
not exclude the utilizability of such RCA fractions.
600 Wojciech Kubissa et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603

3.3. Tensile Strength of Concrete

In accordance with the compressive strength values, the highest splitting tensile strength after 28 days could be
measured on the concrete out of REC4 mixture, which was 4.10 MPa. After 90 days the highest measured splitting
tensile strength obtained was for concrete out of REC5 mixture, which was 4.62 MPa. The gain between 28 and 90
days varied form 1.36% to 25.28% in case of the concretes of REC6 and REC5 mixtures respectively. As in the case
of compressive strength concrete with fluidised fly ash gained only a small increase in splitting tensile strength after
28 days of hardening. The fcm(28)/fctm(28) ratio ranged from 6 Author / Procedia Engineering 00 (2016) 1-8 5.90 (for
REC1 mixture) to 7.81 (for REC6 mixture). The mean splitting tensile strength of the concretes is 6.67 MPa. The
fcm(90)/fctm(90) ratio ranged from 5.97 (for REC2 concrete) to 7.73 (for REC6 concrete) and the average value for
all concrete is 6.76. These are typical values for concrete of that level of average strength. Utilization of RCA 2-4
mm fraction instead of NA resulted in 1.9% higher average tensile strength value.

3.4. Depth of Penetration of Water Under Pressure

All tested concretes showed high level of watertightness. The lowest value was observed for concrete of REC5
PL[WXUHDQGLWZDVPP&RQFUHWHLVFRQVLGHUHG´LPSHUPHDEOH´DFFRUGLQJWR',1LI the average depth
of penetration does not exceed 30 mm. Utilization of RCA 2-4 mm fraction instead of NA resulted in 11.8%
increase in water penetration depth. Even the higher absorption capability of RCA aggregate and the utilization
of additives to all mixes allowed to achieve high watertightness of the concretes.

3.5. Sorptivity of Concrete

The lowest value of sorptivity after 28 days was observed in case of concrete out of REC5 mixture, it was 0.085
cm/h0.5. Similar influence of CEM III and addition of fly ash to reduce the sorptivity was presented in [28].
Concretes of REC1 and of REC4 mixtures had sorptivity values by 37.65% higher but they are also classified
as ´YHU\ JRRG´ DFFRUGLQJ WR SURWHFWLYH TXDOLW\ RI FRQFUHWH FODVVLILFDWLRQ SUHVHQWHG LQ Table 3 of [25]. Sorptivity
values for concretes of REC2, REC3, and REC6 mixtures were 65.90%, 53,52% and 53.03% higher than of REC5
PL[WXUHEXWWKHFRQFUHWHVFDQVWLOOEH FODVVLILHGDV´JRRG´DFFRUGLQJWR protective quality. Replacing 2-4 mm NA
fraction with RCA has a large impact on sorptivity. Difference in measured values between the concretes of REC1
and REC2 mixtures was 20.56% in favour of REC1 which FDQEHFODVVLILHGDV´YHU\JRRG´&RQFUHWHRXWRI5(&
mixture by the same classification achieved only the ´JRRG´FODVVOHYHO6RUSWivity values measured after 90 days
were slightly lower than those measured after 28 days for all concretes except for the one out of REC4 mixture.
The reduction in sorptivity was 1.21%, 9.50%, 9.62%, 0.10% and 0.70% for REC1, REC2, REC3, REC5 and REC6
respectively. For REC4 we experienced a modest increase in its value by 4.44%. It confirms the results which were
presented in [26]

Table 3. Concrete durability classification based on the value of sorptivity [25].

Concrete durability class
Sorptivity [cm/h0.5] very low low middle high very high
>0.37 0.37-0.20 0.20-0.12 0.12-0.05 <0.05

3.6. Water Absorption of Concrete

Using RCA, which has several times higher water absorbing capability than NA, caused an expected increase
in water absorption of the concrete samples. Therefore to achieve an absorption value which would be below 5%
proved to be impossible. Between the 28th and the 90th age days the absorption increased in case of concretes
out of REC1 - REC5 mixtures. The increase ranged from 0.43 % to 15.12 % for concretes out of REC3 and REC1
mixtures respectively. For concrete of REC6 mixture we observed a slight decrease of 4.45 % in water absorption
between the 28th and 90th age days testing. Concretes of REC1, REC3, REC4 and REC5 mixes with the addition
 Wojciech Kubissa et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603 601

of metakaolin had similar water absorption values between 6.5% and 7.0% regardless of the type of cement used. As
in the case of sorptivity test the negative impact of utilization of RCA 2-4 mm fraction instead of NA on water
absorption was observed. Its value for REC2 concrete (with RCA 2-4 mm fraction) was 13.72% higher
in comparison to REC1 series (with NA 2-4 mm fraction). Concrete of REC6 mixture with fluidized fly ash had
the highest absorption, 7.92%. The authors opinion is that, taking into account the resistance against the selected
corrosive factors of the tested concretes, absorption should not be the main criteria for assessing the suitability
of concretes with RCA aggregate. Reduction of absorption to 5% or below is practically impossible, which will rule
out the usage of such concretes in corrosive environments. Further researches of frost resistance and long lasting
tests under corrosive factors are needed. These may prove the useability of the tested concretes despite their higher
water absorbing capability than of concretes which are mixed with NA.

3.7. Chloride Migration Coefficient of Concrete

The highest chloride migration coefficient (Dnssm) value out of the concretes which were mixed with 2-4 mm NA
fraction was in case of REC2 mixture, it was 3.025x10-12 m2/s. The CMC values for concretes out of REC3, REC4,
REC5 mixtures were similar and they were lower than of the concrete out of REC2 mixture by 12.63%, 4.29%
and 14.08% respectively. The CMC value of concrete REC6 mixture with fluidized fly ash addition was 29.90%
lower than for REC2 mixture. This is close to meet the requirement IRU WKH ´YHU\ JRRG´ FODVV &RPSDULVRQ
of the results with limit values given in [29] demonstrate that values for all concretes are in WKHUDQJHRIWKH´JRRG´
class. Slightly negative impact of utilization of 2-4 mm RCA fraction instead of NA was observed, the difference
in chloride migration coefficient was 6.78%.

3.8. Carbonation Depth of Concrete

Carbonation depth measured after 28 days of exposure to CO2 is small, for most of the examined concretes
it is lower than 8 mm. This allows us to predict long life for the structures without problems which are caused
by the neutralization of concrete which is covering the steel rebars. The lowest measured average carbonation depth
of 6.88 mm was in case of concrete out of REC3 mixture. Concrete out of REC6 mixture had 23.64% higher depth
of carbonation after 28 days. The result is confirmed by the literature [30,31], concrete with blast furnace cement
CEM III results greater depth of carbonation. The depth after 28 days for concrete of REC5 mixture was 58.48%
higher than for REC3 mixture. Replacing 2-4 mm fraction of NA with RCA had a negligible influence
on carbonation depth. Still, it caused a decrease in carbonation depth after 7 days by 3.95%, an increase after
14 days by 6.07% and a decrease in depth after 28 days by 7.57%.

4. Summary and Conclusions

In the paper it has been shown that it is possible to produce a high quality concrete with a targeted 55 MPa mean
compressive strength at the age of 28 days and of more than 60 MPa after 90 days. Good durability influencing
properties could be measured at the same time by the usage of coarse RCA of an average quality
and by simultaneous addition of Class F fly ash as SCM.
The increase in strength between 28 and 90 day of laboratory ambient conditions curing shows that test after
more than 28 days period reflects better the actual properties of the tested concretes. This applies to both
the mechanical properties and to those which are associated with durability.
Chloride migration coefficient and the values obtained regarding sorptivity allow to classify the tested concretes
out of the examined mixtures as a good quality concrete.
Based on our results it we feel it necessary to interpret / evaluate differently the results regarding absorbability
concrete. The limit of 5 % of water absorption is practically impossible to meet.
Replacing 2-4 mm fraction of natural aggregate with RCA caused slight worsening of most of the concrete
durability properties with the exception of sorptivity which worsened significantly (20% increase). This leads
to the conclusion that it is safer to use RCA fractions above 4 mm and this conclusion is consistent
602 Wojciech Kubissa et al. / Procedia Engineering 172 (2017) 595 – 603

with the provisions of the standards and recommendations in the literature. At the same time following further
researches this effect might be compensated.
Further research is planned with applying CEM III cement as binder. It is also planned to study such concretes
for frost resistance and long lasting tests regarding selected corrosive factors resistance.

Acknowledgments

The research described in the article have been carried out in Laboratory of Innovative Technologies
and Materials in Plock co-financed by the European Union from the European Regional Development Fund under
the Regional Operational Programme for Mazowieckie Voivodeship 2007-2013. This article is part of a project
´3RVVLELOLW\RIXWLOL]DWLRQRIZDVWHPDWHULDOVDQG6&0IRUSURGXFWLRQRIHQYLURPHQWDOIriendly DQGGXUDEOHFRQFUHWH´
under the Executive Programme of Polish and the Czech Republic.

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