Analog Transmission

DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing

one of the characteristics of an analog signal based on
the information in digital data.

Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion :

Amplitude Shift Keying

Frequency Shift Keying
Phase Shift Keying
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Digital-to-analog conversion
Types of digital-to-analog conversion
Bit rate is the number of bits per second. Baud rate is
the number of signal
elements per second.

In the analog transmission of digital data, the baud

rate is less than
or equal to the bit rate.
Example

An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If

1000 signal elements are sent per second, find the bit
rate.

Solution
In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is unknown. We
can find the value of N from
Example

An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud

rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements are carried
by each signal element? How many signal elements do
we need?
Solution
In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r and L are
unknown. We find first the value of r and then the
value of L.
• Bandwidth: The required bandwidth for
analog transmission of digital data is
proportional to the signal rate except for FSK,
in which the difference between the carrier
signals needs to be added.

• Carrier Signal:
• In analog transmission, the sending device
produces a high-frequency signal that acts as a
base for the information signal. This base
signal is called the carrier signal or carrier
frequency.
Modulation (Shift keying)

• The receiving device is tuned to the frequency

of the carrier signal that it expects from the
sender.
• Digital information then changes the carrier
signal by modifying one or more of its
characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or
phase). This kind of modification is called
modulation (shift keying).
Amplitude shift keying
• Amplitude shift keying (ASK), the amplitude of
the carrier signal is varied to create signal
elements. Both frequency and phase remain
constant while the amplitude changes.
• ASK is normally implemented using only two
levels (0 & 1).
• This is referred to as binary amplitude shift
keying or on-off keying (OOK).
Binary amplitude shift keying
• The bandwidth is proportional to the signal rate (baud rate).
• However, there is normally another factor involved, called d,
which depends on the modulation and filtering process.
• The value of d is between 0 and 1.
• So required bandwidth has a minimum value S and maximum
value 2S.
• The most important point here is the location of the bandwidth.
• The middle of the bandwidth is where fc, the carrier
frequency, is located. This means if we have a bandpass
channel available, we can choose our fc so that the modulated
signal occupies that bandwidth.
• This is in fact the most important advantage of digital-to-
analog conversion. We can shift the resulting bandwidth to
match what is available.
Implementation of binary ASK
Example
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which
spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using ASK with d = 1?
Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz.
This means that our carrier frequency can be at fc =
250 kHz. We can use the formula for bandwidth to
find the bit rate (with d = 1 and r = 1).
Binary frequency shift keying
Example
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which
spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using FSK with d = 1?
Solution
This problem is similar to Example 5.3, but we are
modulating by using FSK. The midpoint of the band is
at 250 kHz. We choose 2Δf to be 50 kHz; this means
 Implementation
• 2 implementation in BFSK
– Non-coherent
•There may be discontinuity in the phase when one
signal element ends and next begin.
•Implemented by treating BFSK as two ASK modulations
using 2 carrier frequencies.
– Coherent
•The Phase continues through the boundary of two
signal elements.
•Implemented by using Voltage Control Oscillator (VC0)
• The VCO changes the frequency according to
input voltage.

• The amplitude of NRZ is zero, the oscillator

keeps regular frequency.

• The amplitude of NRZ is one, the oscillator

increases its frequency.
Bandwidth of BFSK
Binary phase shift keying

0 degree & 180 degree

• BPSK is more susceptible to noise.

• Noise can change amplitude easier than

phase.

• No need to use 2 carrier frequencies.

• PSK needs more sophisticated hardware to be

able to distinguish between phase.
 Implementation of BASK

+ve voltage is represented by phase staring at 0 deg.& -ve

with Phase starting at 180 deg.
 Quadrature PSK (QPSK)
• To increase the bit rate and reduce the baud rate,
we can code 2 or more bits onto one signal
element.
• In QPSK, we parallelize the bit stream so that
every two incoming bits are split up and PSK a
carrier frequency. One carrier frequency is phase
shifted 90o from the other - in quadrature.
• The two PSKed signals are then added to produce
one of 4 signal elements. L = 4 here.
• The two composite signals are created by each
multiplier are sine wave with same frequency.

• When they are added the result is another

sine wave with one of four possible phases:
phases:45o,-45o,135o,-135 o

• There are four kinds of signal elements in the

output signal (L= 4), so we can send 2 bits per
signal element (r = 2).
QPSK and its implementation
 Constellation Diagrams

• A constellation diagram helps us to define

the amplitude and phase of a signal when
we are using two carriers, one in
quadrature of the other.
• The X-axis represents the in-phase carrier
and the Y-axis represents quadrature
carrier.
Concept of a constellation diagram
Three constellation diagrams
 Note
Quadrature amplitude modulation is a combination of ASK and PSK.

5.30
Constellation diagrams for some QAMs
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of

analog information by an analog signal. One may ask
why we need to modulate an analog signal; it is already
analog. Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass
in nature or if only a bandpass channel is available to
us.
Modulation Techniques:
Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Phase Modulation
Types of analog-to-analog modulation
Amplitude modulation
Note

The total bandwidth required for AM

can be determined
from the bandwidth of the audio
signal: BAM = 2B.
Standard Bandwidth Allocation for AM
Radio
•The bandwidth of an audio signal (speech and music) is
usually 5 kHz.
•Therefore, an AM radio station needs a bandwidth of 10 kHz.
•In fact, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
allows 10 kHz for each AM station.
•AM stations are allowed carrier frequencies anywhere
between 530 and 1700 kHz (1.7 MHz).
•However, each station's carrier frequency must be separated
from those on either side of it by at least 10 kHz (one AM
bandwidth) to avoid interference.
•If one station uses a carrier frequency of 1100 kHz, the next
station's carder frequency cannot be lower than 1110 kHz.
Frequency modulation
The total bandwidth required for FM can be determined from the bandwidth
of the audio signal: BFM = 2(1 + β)B.

FM band allocation
Phase modulation
Note
The total bandwidth required for PM can be determined from the bandwidth
and maximum amplitude of the modulating signal:
BPM = 2(1 + β)B.
 KEY POINTS
• Both analog and digital information can be encoded as either
analog or digital signals. The particular encoding that is
chosen depends on the specific requirements to be met and
the media and communications facilities available.
• Digital data, digital signal: The simplest form of digital
encoding of digital data is to assign one voltage level to binary
one and another to binary zero. More complex encoding
schemes are used to improve performance, by altering the
spectrum of the signal and providing synchronization
capability.
• Digital data, analog signal: A modem converts digital data to
an analog signal so that it can be transmitted over an analog
line. The basic techniques are ASK, FSK, and PSK.
 KEY POINTS
• Analog data, digital signals: Analog data, such as voice and
video, are often digitized to be able to use digital transmission
facilities. The simplest technique is PCM (Pulse Code
Modulation), which involve sampling the analog data
periodically and quantizing the samples. Another technique is
Delta Modulation.
• Analog data, analog signals: Analog data are modulated by a
carrier frequency to produce an analog signal in a different
frequency band, which can be utilized on an analog
transmission system. The basic techniques are AM (Amplitude
Modulation), FM (Frequency Modulation), and PM (Phase
Modulation).