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Unless otherwise indicated, all Scripture quotations are from the ESV® Bible (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®),
copyright © 2001 by Crossway Bibles, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved.
Italics within Scripture quotations indicate emphasis added.

Includes bibliographic references and indexes.

Copyright © 2013 by David E. Graves
Published by David E. Graves, Electronic Christian Media, Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada
Revision 1 – Nov 25, 2013; Rev. 2 – May 5, 2014; Rev. 3 – June 5, 2014; Rev. 4 – Dec 8, 2014.

ISBN–13: 978–1490922744
ISBN–10: 1490922741
1. BibleAntiquities 2. Bible:History 3. Bible:Evidence, authority, etc. I. Title.

No portion of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
(i.e., electronic, scanning, photocopy or recording) without the written permission of the publisher. The only exception is brief
excerpts for reviews.

Printed by CreateSpace, Charleston SC

Interior Book Design: David E. Graves

Cover Design: David E. Graves

Left: Reproduction of a Roman Oil lamp: David E. Graves

Middle: The Deësis mosaic of Christ Pantocrator at Hagia Sophia church in Istanbul, Turkey: David E. Graves
Right: Reproduction of the Judaea Capta coin: David E. Graves
Bottom and back cover closeup of the Madaba map: David E. Graves

Courtesy of the Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com. Nos. 12, 18, 22, 24, 25, 115, 118.
Biblical Antiquities Reproduction Group Inc. No. 64.
BiblePlaces.com: Photo by Todd Bolen: Nos. 5, 49, 51, 58, 60, 74, 75, 96, 105, 108, 109, 114.
Peter J. Gentry Photo taken in 1996. Nos. 46, 71, 83, 87.
David E. Graves: no. 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43,
44, 45, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 62, 66, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 76, 78, 84, 86, 88, 89, 90, 93, 98, 99, 100, 106, 107, 111,
117. Full color images can be found at http://smyrnaean.blogspot.com.
Ferrell Jenkins, BiblicalStudies.info. Nos. 101, 103.
Licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. http://creativecommons.org/licenses /by:sa/3.0/deed.en. CC:BY:SA:
3.0CC:BY:SA:3.0: Public Domain (PD). Nos. 14, 21, 22, 23, 36, 47, 48, 63, 65, 67, 80, 82, 104, 112, 116, 119.
Carl Rasmussen, Image courtesy of www.HolyLandPhotos.org. Nos. 95, 110.
Mark Wilson: no. 92.
Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. This is a faithful photographic reproduction of an original two:dimensional
work of art. The work of art itself is in the public domain for the following reason: This work is in the public domain in
the United States, and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years or less. Nos. 3, 77, 79,
81, 85.

David Steeves: no. 61

Ritmeyer Archaeological Design: no. 102.

David E. Graves: all charts

David E. Graves: no. 1, 4, 91, 94, 97.

 To
Dr. Scott Stripling

For his friendship

and
the privilege of excavating and publishing with him.
$ %&' (

This book owes a great debt of gratitude to many friends and family whose professionalism
and passion for the Bible and archaeology have contributed to its completion. First among
them is Dr. Ralph Richardson, who was not only my teacher but who invited me to teach the
course “Themes of the Bible” with him at Atlantic Baptist University, now Crandall
University. It is from the opportunity of teaching this course that this work was born.
Next thanks is due to Glen Ruffle who performed the tedious work of proof reading the
manuscript. His diligence and faithfulness to this project along with his careful eye to detail is
very much appreciated.
I also wish to express my gratitude to Todd Bolen, Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.,
Peter J. Gentry, Ferrell Jenkins, Carl Rasmussen, Leen Ritmeyer, David Steeves, and others
for their permission to use their fine works in photographs, illustrations, and images. They
have visually enhanced the text for the reader.
Lastly, I wish to express my thankfulness to my wife Irina for her helpful comments,
deep love, care, and patience during the long hours of writing and editing this work at our
home on Madeira Island, Portugal.

Sola Deo Gloria

$ ' %) % (

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OLD TESTAMENT (HEBREW BIBLE) ............................................................................ XXIV
NEW TESTAMENT .......................................................................................................... XXIV
APOCRYPHA ........................................................................................................................ XXV
OT PSEUDEPIGRAPHA ................................................................................................... XXV
DEAD SEA SCROLLS......................................................................................................... XXV
APOSTOLIC FATHERS ..................................................................................................... XXV
NT APOCRYPHA AND PSEUDEPIGRAPHA .......................................................... XXVI
ANCIENT SOURCES ....................................................................................................... XXVI
MODERN SOURCES........................................................................................................ XXXI
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AN INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDY ............................................................................................ 41
THE DOMINATING THEME .................................................................................................... 41
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GENRE ........................................................................................................................................ 43
GOSPELS ..................................................................................................................................... 43
The Definition of “Gospel” ........................................................................................................ 43
The Genre “Gospel” .................................................................................................................. 44
Their Literary Style ................................................................................................................... 45
The Synoptic Gospels ................................................................................................................. 46
The Synoptic Problem ................................................................................................................ 47
ACTS ............................................................................................................................................ 53
The Genre of Acts ..................................................................................................................... 53
The Historicity of Acts .............................................................................................................. 53
The Contents of Acts ................................................................................................................. 54
The Purpose of Acts................................................................................................................... 55
EPISTLES ..................................................................................................................................... 56
The Pauline Epistles.................................................................................................................. 56
The General or Catholic Epistles ............................................................................................... 59
The Letter to the Hebrews.......................................................................................................... 60
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REVELATION.............................................................................................................................. 62
The Occasion of Revelation ......................................................................................................... 63
The Genre of Revelation ............................................................................................................. 65
The Genre of the Seven Messages ................................................................................................ 67
Local References ......................................................................................................................... 69
The Cultural Background .......................................................................................................... 72
THE SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA MINOR ............................................................................. 80
Ephesus (Rev 2:1–7) ................................................................................................................. 80
Smyrna (Rev 2:8–11)................................................................................................................ 83
Pergamum (Rev 2:12–17) ......................................................................................................... 86
Thyatira (Rev 2:18–29) ............................................................................................................ 88
Sardis (Rev 3:1–6) .................................................................................................................... 89
Philadelphia (Rev 3:7–13) ........................................................................................................ 92
Laodicea (Rev 3:14–22)............................................................................................................ 94
Blessings for Overcomers ............................................................................................................. 96
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THE VIRGIN BIRTH................................................................................................................... 99
MATTHEW’S ACCOUNT .......................................................................................................... 101
LUKE’S ACCOUNT ................................................................................................................... 104
THE GENEALOGIES IN MATTHEW AND LUKE ................................................................. 104
HEROD THE GREAT ............................................................................................................... 106
HEROD ANTIPAS ..................................................................................................................... 107
THE FULFILLMENT OF PROPHECY ...................................................................................... 110
THE PERSON OF CHRIST........................................................................................................ 110
Humanity ................................................................................................................................ 111
Deity........................................................................................................................................ 113
THE BAPTISM OF JESUS .......................................................................................................... 117
The Descent of the Holy Spirit ................................................................................................. 118
The Temptations of Jesus.......................................................................................................... 120
Physical Appetite ..................................................................................................................... 120
Spiritual Attainment ............................................................................................................... 121
Worldly Ambition ................................................................................................................... 122
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CHRONOLOGY ......................................................................................................................... 125
JESUS’ MINISTRY...................................................................................................................... 125
Early Judea ............................................................................................................................. 126
Samaria ................................................................................................................................... 126
Galilee ..................................................................................................................................... 126
Among Gentiles ....................................................................................................................... 127
Galilee ..................................................................................................................................... 128
Jerusalem ................................................................................................................................. 128
Judea ....................................................................................................................................... 129
Perea........................................................................................................................................ 129
Going up to Jerusalem .............................................................................................................. 130
In Jerusalem ............................................................................................................................. 130
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THE TEACHING METHODS OF JESUS.................................................................................. 131

Parables................................................................................................................................... 131
Miracles ................................................................................................................................... 134
THE TEACHINGS OF JESUS .................................................................................................... 138
Prayer ...................................................................................................................................... 138
The Kingdom of God ............................................................................................................... 140
The Sermon on the Mount ....................................................................................................... 143
The Beatitudes ......................................................................................................................... 146
THE TRANSFIGURATION ....................................................................................................... 149
The Definition of Transfiguration............................................................................................. 149
The Transfigured Lord ............................................................................................................ 150
The Lord’s Companions .......................................................................................................... 150
The Presence of God................................................................................................................. 151
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THE CROSS ............................................................................................................................... 153
THE ORIGIN OF CRUCIFIXION ............................................................................................. 154
CRUCIFIXION BY THE ROMANS ............................................................................................ 156
CRUCIFIXION AMONG THE JEWS ......................................................................................... 156
PREPARATION FOR CRUCIFIXION ....................................................................................... 158
THE PROCEDURE OF CRUCIFIXION .................................................................................... 158
THE ACCOUNT OF THE CRUCIFIXION ................................................................................ 162
THE MEANING OF THE CRUCIFIXION ................................................................................ 164
Blessing.................................................................................................................................... 164
Cursing.................................................................................................................................... 164
Holy Scapegoat ........................................................................................................................ 164
Substitutionary Death.............................................................................................................. 165
Christian Symbolism................................................................................................................ 166
THE BURIAL ............................................................................................................................. 168
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THE SKEPTICS’ CASE .............................................................................................................. 170
WHO MOVED THE STONE?................................................................................................... 170
No One Moved the Stone......................................................................................................... 171
Jesus’ Twin Brother Moved the Stone ....................................................................................... 172
Jesus Moved the Stone .............................................................................................................. 172
The Disciples Moved the Stone ................................................................................................. 173
Joseph of Arimathea Moved the Stone ...................................................................................... 173
Jesus’ Enemies Moved the Stone ............................................................................................... 174
God Moved the Stone............................................................................................................... 174
AN HISTORICAL FACT............................................................................................................ 174
Fact 1: The Empty Tomb........................................................................................................ 175
Fact 2: The Resurrection Appearances ..................................................................................... 177
Fact 3: The Development of the Christian Faith and the Belief of the Church........................... 178
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 181
THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESURRECTION .................................................................... 181
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WHY IS THE RESURRECTION IMPORTANT?........................................................................ 181

The Believers Resurrection ........................................................................................................ 181
Curious Questions .................................................................................................................... 182
THE ASCENSION ...................................................................................................................... 183
The Purpose of the Ascension ................................................................................................... 184
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THE DEFINITION OF THE CHURCH .................................................................................... 186
OT ROOTS ................................................................................................................................ 187
NT BEGINNING ...................................................................................................................... 188
Pentecost .................................................................................................................................. 188
Jewish Tradition....................................................................................................................... 189
New Testament ........................................................................................................................ 189
Pentecost in the Early Church .................................................................................................. 189
THE CHURCH AND THE SYNAGOGUE ................................................................................ 190
THE DESCRIPTIONS OF THE CHURCH ................................................................................ 194
Saints ...................................................................................................................................... 194
The Elect ................................................................................................................................. 194
Remnant Chosen by Grace ....................................................................................................... 194
The Bride of Christ .................................................................................................................. 195
The Body of Christ................................................................................................................... 195
The Household of God (Faith) ................................................................................................. 195
Holy Temple ............................................................................................................................ 196
The New Israel ........................................................................................................................ 196
The New (Heavenly) Jerusalem ................................................................................................ 196
A Holy (Royal) Priesthood ...................................................................................................... 196
The Flock of God .................................................................................................................... 197
An Army ................................................................................................................................ 197
The Pillar and Buttress of the Truth ........................................................................................ 197
Vine and Branches .................................................................................................................. 197
Strangers in the World ............................................................................................................. 197
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THE ASPECTS OF THE CHURCH............................................................................................ 200
Local and Universal................................................................................................................. 200
Gathered and Dispersed ........................................................................................................... 201
Organized and Organic ............................................................................................................ 202
Visible and Invisible ................................................................................................................ 202
Militant and Triumphant ........................................................................................................ 203
THE OFFICERS OF THE CHURCH ......................................................................................... 203
The Extraordinary Officers ...................................................................................................... 204
The Ordinary Officers .............................................................................................................. 206
CHURCH ORGANIZATION ..................................................................................................... 212
NonDecclesiastical...................................................................................................................... 212
Erastian .................................................................................................................................. 213
Episcopal ................................................................................................................................. 214
Presbyterian ............................................................................................................................. 216
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Congregational ......................................................................................................................... 217

The Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15) ......................................................................................... 217
MARKS OF THE CHURCH ....................................................................................................... 219
The True Preaching of the Word of God .................................................................................. 219
The Right Use of the Ordinances.............................................................................................. 220
The Faithful Exercise of Spiritual Discipline ........................................................................... 229
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 230
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THE BACKGROUND OF THE FIRST CENTURY CHURCH .................................................. 232
The Roman Military................................................................................................................ 233
The Roman Roads ................................................................................................................... 233
The Roman Language ............................................................................................................. 235
The Roman Government .......................................................................................................... 235
Roman Citizenship .................................................................................................................. 236
THE APOSTLE PAUL ............................................................................................................... 239
Paul’s Conversion and Call...................................................................................................... 241
Paul’s Missing Years ............................................................................................................... 241
The Ministry of Paul ............................................................................................................... 242
THE FIRST MISSIONARY JOURNEY ...................................................................................... 243
Cyprus ..................................................................................................................................... 244
Asia Minor: First Visit .......................................................................................................... 246
The Jerusalem Council ............................................................................................................. 248
THE SECOND MISSIONARY JOURNEY ................................................................................. 248
Asia Minor: Second Visit ....................................................................................................... 249
Macedonia: First Visit ............................................................................................................ 250
Achaia: First Visit ................................................................................................................. 254
THE THIRD MISSIONARY JOURNEY .................................................................................... 259
Asia Minor: Third Visit......................................................................................................... 259
Macedonia: Second Visit ......................................................................................................... 264
Achaia: Second Visit .............................................................................................................. 264
Asia Minor: Fourth Visit ....................................................................................................... 264
Voyage to Rome ...................................................................................................................... 274
Rome ....................................................................................................................................... 275
PAUL’S RELEASE FROM PRISON ........................................................................................... 277
PAUL’S JOURNEY TO SPAIN ................................................................................................... 277
THE FOURTH MISSIONARY JOURNEY ................................................................................. 278
PAUL’S DEATH......................................................................................................................... 282
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CHARACTERISITICS OF APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE ........................................................ 286
VOCABULARY OF CHRIST’S RETURN ................................................................................... 289
Apokalypsis ............................................................................................................................ 289
Day of the Lord ....................................................................................................................... 289
Parousia .................................................................................................................................. 291
Epiphaneia .............................................................................................................................. 293
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SIGNS OF CHRIST’S SECOND COMING ................................................................................ 296

To evangelize all nations........................................................................................................... 297
The Salvation of all Israel ........................................................................................................ 297
Tribulation and Great Apostasy .............................................................................................. 299
The Antichrist ......................................................................................................................... 302
Signs and wonders .................................................................................................................... 313
The creation of the State of Israel .............................................................................................. 315
CHRIST’S RETURN ................................................................................................................... 315
TIME OF CHRIST’S RETURN................................................................................................... 315
PLACE OF HIS RETURN........................................................................................................... 316
MANNER OF CHRIST’S RETURN ........................................................................................... 316
Personal return......................................................................................................................... 316
Physical return ......................................................................................................................... 316
Visible and audible return ....................................................................................................... 316
Sudden return .......................................................................................................................... 317
Glorious return ........................................................................................................................ 317
PURPOSE OF HIS RETURN ..................................................................................................... 317
Resurrection ............................................................................................................................. 317
Judgment .................................................................................................................................. 317
Final state ............................................................................................................................... 317
METHODS OF INTERPRETATION ......................................................................................... 318
Preterist method ....................................................................................................................... 318
Historicists method ................................................................................................................... 318
Futurist method ....................................................................................................................... 319
Idealist method ......................................................................................................................... 319
Literalism ................................................................................................................................ 320
RULES OF INTERPRETATION ................................................................................................ 320
A mystery ................................................................................................................................ 320
Identify nouns........................................................................................................................... 320
Identify symbols ........................................................................................................................ 320
Identify parallel passages........................................................................................................... 321
Identify the time ....................................................................................................................... 321
Identify conditions..................................................................................................................... 321
Determine fulfillment ................................................................................................................ 321
Be careful ................................................................................................................................. 321
Be Christocentric ...................................................................................................................... 321
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PRIMARY SOURCES AND REFERENCE WORKS .................................................................. 355
SECONDARY SOURCES ........................................................................................................... 370
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1. Map of Israel in the time of Jesus. ....................................................................................................... xxxviii

2. Roman gate remains at Hierapolis, Pamukkale. ....................................................................................... 50
3. Folio from 46 a 3rd cent. Papyrus codex of the Epistles of Paul containing 2 Corinthians
11:33:12:9. P. Chester Beatty II; Ann Arbor, Univ. of Michigan. PD. .............................................. 56
4. Map of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor............................................................................................... 61
5. Island of Patmos where John received his vision of Revelation (Photo by Todd Bolen.
BiblePlaces.com) .......................................................................................................................................... 62
6. The traditional tomb of the apostle John located in the ruins of the 6th cent. Basilica of St.
John in Selçuk near ancient Ephesus in Turkey. .................................................................................... 62
7. Bust of Julius Claudius (AD 41:54) discovered in Nikomedia; now on display in the
Istanbul Archaeology Museum, Turkey................................................................................................... 64
8. Restored Library of Celsus, Ephesus. The relief in the foreground is reminiscent of the
elements of armor given in Ephesians 6:13–17, including the belt, breastplate, greaves for
the feet, shield, helmet and sword. While the Library was only completed in 135 AD and
was not present in Paul’s day, the relief may have existed earlier, as it was not attached to
the structure. ................................................................................................................................................. 67
9. Martyrdom of Polycarp. Painting on the ceiling of St. Polycarp Catholic Churh, Smyrna
(modern Izmir), Turkey. ............................................................................................................................. 73
10. Round altar (ara) used in the Imperial Cult from the 2nd or 3rd cent. AD. Altars were
usually decorated with the works of the most notable artists of the day. Most altars were
erected outside in the open air and in sacred groves. Side Museum, Turkey. .................................. 73
11. The iconic statue of Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome, being suckled by a wolf.
While traditional scholarship holds that the figure of the wolf is Etruscan (5th cent. BC),
with the figures of Romulus and Remus being added later by Antonio Pollaiuolo (15th
cent. AD), more recent scholars (La Regina) have suggested that the wolf is a medieval
sculpture (13th cent. AD). ........................................................................................................................... 74
12. Bronze sestertius coin (65 AD) of Nero (54:68 AD). Laureate head right. The inscription
reads “NERO CLAVD CAESAR AVG GER P M TR P IMP P P.” The obverse features
the goddess Roma helmeted in military dress and seated left on a cuirass with her foot on
a helmet, holding Victory in her right hand while resting her left hand on a dagger (Lat.
parazonium), surrounded by weaponry on the ground behind. Courtesy of Classical
Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com. .......................................................................... 75
13. Priest who served in the temple of the Imperial Cult. This statue comes from Ephesus and
dates from the 2nd cent. AD. The priesthood of the emperor cult was usually held by the

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local aristocracy, providing them with political status and a means of social advancement.
Izmir Archaeological Museum. ................................................................................................................. 76
14. Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina. The basis of the Campo Marzio Colonna
Antonina, relief on the front face of the pedestal of the Antoninus Pius’ column, three:
quarter view. 161 A.D. Rome, gardens of the Vatican Museums, Cortile delle Corazze
(Photo by Author Lalupa; PD). ............................................................................................................... 76
15. The Sebasteion (Gr. Sebastós = Lat. Augustus) or Augusteum, in Aphrodisias (in modern
Turkey AD 5) was jointly dedicated, according to a 1st cent. inscription on its propylon,
“to Aphrodite, the Divine Augusti and the People.” The temple was used by the Imperial
Cult to honor Augustus and the Julio:Claudian Emperors.. ............................................................... 77
16. Parts of the colossal statue of Emperor Domitian (AD 81:96), Ephesus Museum, Selçuk,
Turkey. The Ephesians displayed their gratitude for being designated as the Temple
Warden by building a statue of Domitian which stood five meters tall. ........................................... 77
17. Marble Statue of Imperator Marcus Ulpius Trajanus (Trajan AD 98:117) in armor
discovered in the Hall of the Perge Theatre, now on display in the Antalya Museum,
Turkey............................................................................................................................................................ 78
18. Silver Denarius coin (AD 82:83) of Domitian, which features his deified infant son, who
was born in AD 73 and died young (Suetonius Dom. 3.1), seated on a globe surrounded
by seven stars. The child has been identified as the empress Domitia Longinas’ son (AD
82:96 left). DIVVS CAESAR IMP DOMITIANI: “The Deified Caesar, Son of the
Emperor Domitian.” The stars symbolize the child’s divine status. The globe suggests that
Romans believed the earth was a sphere although Eratosthenes (276:194 BC) of Cyrene
(modern Libya) was the first to discover that the earth is round. Did John have this coin in
mind when he penned “and in the midst of the seven lampstands One like the Son of
Man, clothed with a garment down to His feet … He had in His right hand seven stars”
(Rev 1:13, 16). Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com. .............................. 79
19. Reproduction of the Ephesian Greek goddess Artemis (Roman goddess Diana). She was
the goddess of the hunt, wild animals, childbirth, virginity, and twin of Apollo. Homer
describes Artemis “of the Wilds” (Agrotera) and “Mistress of Animals” (Potnia Theron; Il.
21.470) and she is often depicted as a huntress carrying a bow and arrow (Ovid Metam.
3.251). The Ephesian depiction of Artemis was unique with multiple breasts, sometimes
identified by scholars as bull testicles, pomegranates, or eggs and wearing a long cloak of
bees. There seemed to be similar attributes with Cybele (an Anatonian mother goddess,)
including being served in the Temple by female slaves, young virgins, and eunuch priests.
Missing on this statue were two staffs with entwined serpents. The Ephesians believed
their cult image had fallen from the sky (Acts 19:35). .......................................................................... 80
20. Artemis, the goddess of hunting, as portrayed in Cyrene (2nd cent. AD). She was originally
holding a bow in her hand. She is represented with many breasts or eggs in Ephesus.
Istanbul Archaeological Museum, Turkey. ............................................................................................. 81
21. Recreation of the Artemision, Temple of Artemis, as it would have looked at Epehsus.
This model is at Miniatürk Park, Istanbul, Turkey (Photo by Magnus Manske; PD). .................... 81
22. Ephesian Drachma coin (ca.202:133 BC). A bee depicts the Artemision priestess. A stag is
depicted in front of the sacred palm tree (tree:shrine) depicting the sacred groves. Classical
Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com ........................................................................... 82
23. This single, remaining column of the original 127, and this foundation, are all that remains
of the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.

xv
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Originally it measured 67 meters (220 ft.) wide by 130 meters (425 ft.) long and was 18
meters (60 ft.) high. (Photo by Adam Carr; PD) ................................................................................... 82
24. Silver Tetradrachm coin from Smyrna (Ca. 155:145 BC) featuring Tyche/Cybele wearing a
turreted crown, and with the obverse displaying the magistrate’s monogram
ZMUR/NAIWN within a laurel wreath. Classical Numismatic Group,
Inc.http://www.cngcoins.com.................................................................................................................. 84
25. Bronze statue of a runner wearing the laurel wreath (crown) awarded to the winner. Found
in the Aegean Sea off the coast of Cyme. Roman copy of a late Hellenistic statue dating to
the 2nd cent. AD. Izmir Archaeological Museum, Turkey.................................................................... 84
26. Acropolis of Pergamum, with the Hellenistic theatre (ca. 225–200 BC) carved vertically
out of the side of the mountain with a capacity of ca. 10,000 citizens. Visible on the top
are the pillars of the Temple of Trajan (2nd cent. AD), which after Alexandria, was the
second largest library (200,000 volumes) in the world. ......................................................................... 85
27. Original location of the altar of Zeus at Pergamum. The structure around the altar
dedicated to Zeus is actually not a temple but an open:air altar. The tree in the centre
marks the location of the altar, but the structure which surrounded it was relocated to the
Pergamum Museum in Berlin, Germany to prevent it from being destroyed by locals
during excavation between 1878 and 1886. Strangely, it is only mentioned by Ampelius,
who described it as “Pergamon altar forty feet tall with very large marble sculpture, which
contains a Battle of the Giants” (Lib. Mem. 8.14 [Graves]). This has been identified by
some commentators as the “throne of Satan” in the message to the church in Pergamum.
However, other centers like Olympia, Greece also had open:air altars to Zeus. ............................. 86
28. The Trajaneum (temple) in Pergamum was started under the Roman Emperor Trajan (98–
117 AD) and enlarged and completed under Hadrian (117–138 AD). This temple for the
worship of the emperor may have been similar to the temple to Tiberius which was built
earlier in Smyrna. If one holds to a late date for the writing of Revelation, then this temple
to the emperor Trajan was built shortly after the book was written. The temple was
uncovered in the 1880’s under the direction of the architect H. Stiller. It was abandoned,
but received renewed interest in the 1960’s from the Turkish Antiquities and the German
Archaeological Institute (DAI).................................................................................................................. 86
29. Column in the courtyard of the entrance (propylon) of the Asclepion (hospital), from the
lower site of Pergamum, decorated with snakes. Snakes were worshipped in the cult of
Asclepius, the god of healing. The way serpents shed their skins to renew themselves
became a symbol of new life. John stated that Satan lived in Pergamum, and some believe
that this is one of the local references. The symbol of the intertwined snakes still decorates
medical emblems today. ............................................................................................................................. 87
30. This white stone pillar at Pergamum with names inscribed on it reminds us of Jesus’
words: “And to the angel of the church in Pergamum write:... I will give him a white
stone, with a new name written on the stone that no one knows except the one who
receives it.” (Rev 2:12, 17).......................................................................................................................... 88
31. The Temple of Artemis in Sardis (330 BC). The scrolled (Ionic) capitals on the top of the
columns add to the beauty of this temple. However, because these capitals were never
fluted, it indicates the temple was never finished. The small red brick building in the
foreground is a 4th cent. AD Byzantine church. The acropolis of the city is visible on the
mountain in the distance. The only remains visible on the summit are Byzantine
structures. ...................................................................................................................................................... 90

xvi
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32. The Bema of the 3rd cent. AD synagogue in Sardis (modern Turkey) which was used as the
reading platform in a synagogue. Some believe that the lion statues and the eagles carved
on both sides of the altar are evidence of synchetism to appease the Roman authorities. ............ 91
33. Hieropolis’ (modern Pamukkale, Turkey) travertine terrace pools formed by the mineral
laden hot springs. The water not only provided a medical eye salve but also water for the
city of Laodicea across the valley.............................................................................................................. 94
34. Water tower at Laodicea. Calcification is visible inside the terra:cotta water pipes, formed
by the mineral laden water from the hot springs in Hieropolis. ......................................................... 95
35. Church of the Annunciation with the Grotto below the small building where it is believed
that Mary and Joseph lived while residing in Nazareth. ..................................................................... 100
36. Yad Avshalom (Absalom’s Tomb) in the Kidron Valley (Photo by Ariel Horowitz; PD). ......... 101
37. The nativity star in the crypt of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, indicating the
traditional spot where Jesus was born. .................................................................................................. 102
38. Tall el:Hammâm, and the area around the Tall, which is believed by the author to be the
location of Livias. Livias was famous for its hot springs and the white arrows indicate the
location of two of the hot springs. ......................................................................................................... 105
39. Al Khazneh or The Treasury at Petra, Jordan which was the Nabataean capital, and the
center of their caravan trade. ................................................................................................................... 106
40. Madaba map, Jordan. Site 2, according to scholars, is the location of Livias. This site is
also in the same location on the map as Tall el:Ḥammâm. Site 1 would be Abila according
to scholars. .................................................................................................................................................. 106
41. Roman bath complex excavated in 2011:2012 from Tall el:Hammâm, Jordan. The site is
believed to be the city of Livias and this structure originally may have been Herod
Antipas’ bath complex. The building this room was located in measures 35 x 40 metres. .......... 107
42. The author standing beside a Roman mile marker indicating 6 Roman miles to Livias. Mt.
Nebo museum, Jordan. ............................................................................................................................ 108
43. Livia Drusilla, (58 BC:AD 29, Tiberius’ mother), Ephesus Museum, Turkey. After her
formal adoption into the Julian family in AD 14, she was deified by Claudius, subsequently
acquiring the additional name Julia Augusta......................................................................................... 108
44. The Christological pendulum depicts the erroneous views which depart from the
Chalcedon definition that stressed a distinction without separation. ............................................... 109
45. The Deësis mosaic (ca. AD 1261) of Christ Pantocrator at Hagia Sophia church in
Istanbul, Turkey. ........................................................................................................................................ 112
46. The Capernaum synagogue where Jesus gave his sermon on the bread of life (John 6:35–
59), healed the centurion’s servant (Luke 7:3) and confronted the demoniac (Mark 1:21:
27). While this present structure dates to later than the first century, excavations have
revealed an earlier stone wall that dates to the time of Jesus (Photo by Peter J. Gentry in
1996). ........................................................................................................................................................... 113
47. The James ossuary (bone box) was on display at the Royal Ontario Museum from
November 15, 2002 to January 5, 2003 (Photo by Paradiso; PD). ................................................... 114
48. Close:up of the Aramaic inscription on the James ossuary which was on display at the
Royal Ontario Museum from November 15, 2002 to January 5, 2003 (Photo by Paradiso;
PD). .............................................................................................................................................................. 115

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49. Numerous mikvot (ritual purity baths) lined with plaster were discovered at Qumran
scattered throughout the site indicating that the Essenes practiced immersion. Fresh water
(living water) was supplied from local springs. This mikveh is split down the middle with a
30 cm. (12 in.) crack as a result of an earthquake in 31 BC which destroyed Qumran
(Photo by Todd Bolen. BiblePlaces.com) ............................................................................................. 119
50. View of Israel from Mt. Nebo. The plaque indicates the location of various sites on the
opposite side of the Jordan. This may have been the location of Jesus' third temptation,
when Satan showed Jesus all the kingdoms of the world. .................................................................. 120
51. The top stone with the trumpeting inscription on it from the southwest corner of the
Temple Mount. From its shape the stone suggests that the priests stood on this very spot
to announce the Sabbath to the city of Jerusalem. It probably fell from its original position
at the top of the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount to street level below during
the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in AD 70. The inscription appears to be a
notification to the stone cutter as to the final location of this specially:cut stone (Photo by
Todd Bolen. BiblePlaces.com) ................................................................................................................ 121
52. Southwest corner of the Herodian temple precinct. This may be the Pinnacle mentioned
in Luke 4:9 on which Satan asked Jesus to throw himself down from. ........................................... 122
53. Perean fortress of Machaerus where Herod Antipas had John the Baptist imprisoned for
two years before beheading him. The Dead Sea is visible in the background with Israel on
the opposite side. ....................................................................................................................................... 127
54. Oval Plaza. The biblical city of Gerasa is known today as Jerash, Jordan. Gerasa was one
of the cities of the Roman Decapolis and is one of the best preserved cities of the
Decapolis. The high point of Gerasa was in the 2nd cent., when it had a population of
20,000–25,000. Most of the ruins are from the Roman and Byzantine periods. The city
was rediscovered in 1806 by Seetzen, and the restoration of the ruins began in 1925. ................ 128
55. This ancient olive garden next to the Church of All Nations is believed to be the garden of
Gethsemane and some botanists believe that these trees may date back to the time of
Jesus in the 1st cent., as olive trees live can live for thousands of years. However, this is
unlikely as it was reported that during the siege of Jerusalem in AD 70, the Romans
removed all the trees on the Mount of Olives (Josephus J.W. 6.1.1). .............................................. 129
56. Reconstruction of the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount under King Herod’s
Diorama. Robinson’s arch is part of the staircase leading down to Tyropean Street. Tower
of David, Museum of the History of Jerusalem................................................................................... 129
57. Chart of the Kingdom of God indicating the relationship between the Old and New
Testaments. ................................................................................................................................................. 141
58. The Plain of Gennesaret, on the northwestern shore of the Sea of Galilee from Mt. Arbel,
sits between Capernaum and Magdala and was surely crossed by Jesus and his disciples
many times. According to the Gospels, Jesus’ earthly ministry centered around the Sea of
Galilee. While important events occurred in Jerusalem, the Lord spent most of the three
years of his ministry along the shore of this freshwater lake. Here he gave more than half
of his parables and here he performed most of his miracles (Photo by Todd Bolen.
BiblePlaces.com). ....................................................................................................................................... 145
59. Church of the Beatitudes, Israel.............................................................................................................. 146
60. Basilica of the Transfiguration. The date of the earliest churches on Mt. Tabor is
unknown. The anonymous Pilgrim of Piacenza saw three basilicas in 570. Willibaldus, in
723, mentions only one church dedicated to Jesus, Moses, and Elijah. There may have

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been three chapels joined together into one building, as in the present building. The
current church was built in 1924 and belongs to the Franciscans (Photo by Todd Bolen.
BiblePlaces.com). ....................................................................................................................................... 150
61. An artist’s rendition of a first century cross. ........................................................................................ 153
62. Caesarea, Israel: Pontius Pilate (26–37 AD) limestone, inscription (82.0 cm H, 65.0 cm w)
Building dedication with 4 lines of writing in Latin. Discovered in 1961 and now on
display in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem with a replica at Caesarea Maritima (AE 1963
no. 104)........................................................................................................................................................ 154
63. Ossuary of the high priest, Joseph Caiaphas, found in Jerusalem in 1990. The Israel
Museum, Jerusalem (Photo by deror_avi ; PD). .................................................................................. 155
64. Replica of the iron nail found in the heelbone of the crucified man identified as Jehohanan
ben Ha’galqol. Courtesy of the Biblical Antiquities Reproduction Group Inc. ............................. 159
65. The Alexamenos graffito (Photo from Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries,
1898 by Rodolfo Lanciani; PD). ............................................................................................................. 161
66. Gordon’s Calvary ....................................................................................................................................... 165
67. Facade and Parvis of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem (Photo by Deror avi; PD). .......................... 166
68. In 1955, during construction of the Dominus Flevit (The Lord wept) Church, a burial
chamber was discovered. Excavations uncovered a number of ossuaries (bone boxes)
from the time of Jesus with numerous inscriptions of biblical names and geometric
shapes. ......................................................................................................................................................... 167
69. Removing Jesus from the cross. A modern Greek Orthodox mosaic hanging over the
Anointing Stone in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Israel. ......................................................... 168
70. The Garden Tomb, Jerusalem................................................................................................................. 174
71. First century tombs still evident beneath the north wall of the rotunda of the church of
the Holy Sepulchre. Typical of 1st cent. tombs, it has two long recesses or kokhim in which
a body could be placed. Defaced over the years by pilgrims however, the tombs are
classified as Arcosolium (Photo by Peter J. Gentry in 1996). ............................................................... 175
72. View of the Dead Sea from Machaerus in Jordan looking over to En Gedi, Israel. ..................... 179
73. Mount of Olives opposite the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. The modern Church of All
Nations has a beautiful mosaic on its façade located next to the garden of Gethsemane. .......... 183
74. This is the Synagogue of Gamla, on the Golan Heights, overlooking the Sea of Galilee. It
dates from the 1st cent. AD, making it one of the earliest synagogues yet excavated. Four
tiers of steps were located behind the columns which supported the central part of the
roof. When the Gospels record that Jesus went throughout Galilee, teaching in the
synagogues (Matthew 4.23; Mark 1.39; Luke 4.15), these places of worship would have
been similar to the one excavated in Gamla (Photo by Todd Bolen. BiblePlaces.com). ............. 190
75. The 2nd cent. “Galilean” style synagogue at Chorazin built from basalt stone and
characterized by its rectangular shape with three hallways with doors supported by two
rows of pillars, and benches around the interior walls (Photo by Todd Bolen.
BiblePlaces.com). ....................................................................................................................................... 192
76. The 3rd cent. BC synagogue in Sardis (modern Turkey). Sardis may have gained its Jewish
community in the 3rd cent. BC, when King Antiochus III (223:187 BCE) encouraged Jews

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to move to Sardis. Josephus may have refered to the synagogue as “a place of their own”
(Ant. 14.10.17). ........................................................................................................................................... 193
77. Fresco of the Dutch artist Sandro Botticelli of Augustine of Hippo (AD 1490) located in
Ognissanti, Florenz. Augustinus in betrachtendem Gebet (Photo by Thomas Gun; PD). ......... 202
78. The Shofar or ram’s horn is blown during synagogue services on Rosh Hashanah and
Yom Kippur (Lev 23:24; 25:9; Num 29:1). They were also blown at the start of a war (Josh
6:4; Judg 3:27; 7:16, 20; 1 Sam 8:3). Later, it was employed in processions (2 Sam 6:15; 1
Chron 15:28), as musical accompaniment (Ps 98:6) and eventually it was inserted into the
temple orchestra by David (Ps 150:3). ................................................................................................... 205
79. Portait of Thomas Erastus by Tobias Stimmer (AD 1582) in the Kunst museum, Basel,
Switzerland. PD. ........................................................................................................................................ 214
80. John Knox statue on the former John Knox Memorial Institute, Haddington. The
religious reformer is believed to have been born in the town’s Giffordgate (Photo by Kim
Traynor; PD). ............................................................................................................................................. 215
81. Portrait attributed to Hans Holbein the Younger of the French reformer John Calvin
(1509:1564) (http://library .calvin.edu/hda/node/2384; PD). ........................................................ 216
82. Photograph of G. Campbell Morgan (1863–1945) from 1907. He was a noted British
minister and evangelist who served as pastor of Westminster Chapel in London for
twenty:five years and held to a Congregationalist form of church government (Photo by
Michael Andrews http://www. gcampbellmorgan.com; PD). .......................................................... 217
83. On the south side of the Temple Mount a series of 1st cent. mikvot (public ritual baths)
were discovered. With strict requirements for purity before entering the temple, demand
for such installations was high. This large mikveh illustrates the required dividing wall to
separate the entrance from the exit as worshippers entered in an unclean state and exited
clean and ready to enter the holy place. This may have been used for the 3,000 new
believers who were baptized on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2), along with the Pool of
Siloam (Photo by Peter J. Gentry in 1996). .......................................................................................... 221
84. Baptistry (AD 6th cent.) used for adult baptism by immersion in the basilica of St. John, in
Ephesus (AD ca. 565) built about 3.5 km (2.2 mi) from Ephesus by Justinian. Steps lead
down and up the other side for the person to enter and exit the water. The apostle John is
believed to be buried in this church. It was modeled after the Church of the Holy Apostles
in Constantinople which no longer exists. Ken Dark and Ferudun ÖzgümüZ, “New
Evidence for the Byzantine Church of the Holy Apostles from Fatih Camii, Istanbul,”
Oxford Journal of Archeology 21, no. 4 (2002): 393–413. ......................................................................... 223
85. The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci (AD 1452–1519) 1495:1498 located in the
refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria della Grazie, Milan, Italy. It depicts the twelve
disciples moments following Judas’ betrayal (Scan by Platonides
www.haltadefinizione.com; PD). ............................................................................................................ 226
86. Roman centurion (Lat. centurio; Gr.: κεντυρίων). These military officers usually commanded
80 men in their unit, although senior officers usually commanded cohorts. Tower of
David Museum, Jerusalem. ...................................................................................................................... 232
87. Replica of a siege engine used as a battering ram in the production of the movie Masada
(Photo by Peter J. Gentry in 1996). ........................................................................................................ 233

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88. The author sitting on a Roman mile marker discovered lying beside the Roman Road from
Hesbon (Esbus) to Livias. The road leads from Jerusalem to Mt. Nebo from the Via
Traiana Nova. ............................................................................................................................................. 234
89. Manhole cover from the Roman road in Ephesus. ............................................................................. 235
90. An Egyptian mummy portrait (known as the Fayoum portrait) of a man from the middle
of the 2nd cent. AD (Coptic period) painted on the coffin boards. Pushkin Museum,
Moscow, Russia. ........................................................................................................................................ 238
91. Map of the first missionary journey ....................................................................................................... 244
92. Inscription of Sergius Paulus, the proconsul in Paphos, Cyprus, housed in the Yalvac
Museum, Pisidian Antioch. Photo by Mark Wilson. ........................................................................... 245
93. Emperor Hadrian (AD 117 to 138). He suppressed the Jewish Bar Kokhba revolt in
Judaea, renaming the province Syria Palaestina. .................................................................................. 247
94. Map of the second missionary journey. ................................................................................................. 250
95. View looking northeast towards the Temple of Apollo in Corinth (Photo by Carl
Rasmussen, Image courtesy of www.Holy LandPhotos.org). ........................................................... 256
96. The Gallio inscription from the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, Greece (Photo by Todd
Bolen. BiblePlaces.com). .......................................................................................................................... 258
97. Map of the third missionary journey and trip to Rome. ..................................................................... 259
98. The theatre in Ephesus is the largest in Anatolia and was the scene of the protest against
Paul and his preaching against Artemis, the goddess of Ephesus. The Arcadian Way
(street) that leads to the harbour was lined on both sides with shops and colonnades. The
harbour, visible today only as a circular green patch at the end of the street, was silted in
during ancient times, meaning Paul had to use the harbor at Miletus. ............................................ 261
99. The visible area of the synagogue in Miletus next to the colossal circular Harbor
Monument (63 BC). Paul may have met the Ephesian elders here. ................................................. 266
100. An inscription on a theatre seat in the Miletus theatre that states “Place of the Jews, who
are also called God:fearing.” The term Godfearer is mentioned in the NT (Acts 13:16; 26). .... 266
101. Mosaic at Caesarea Maritima quoting Romans 13:3. The original mosaic is on display at
the Kibbutz Sdot Yam Museum. Photo by Ferrell Jenkins, BiblicalStudies.info. .......................... 268
102. Jerusalem, Herod’s Temple Mount. A reconstruction based on archaeological and
historical evidence. This drawing illustrates the Herodian Temple Mount with associated
structures and features, as seen from the southwest. This reconstruction is based directly
on Leen Ritmeyer’s own work at the Temple Mount. Ritmeyer Archaeological Design.
Labels by David E. Graves. ..................................................................................................................... 269
103. The Theodotus (priest and synagogue ruler) inscription discovered by Raymond Weill in
Jerusalem in 1914 preventing Gentiles from entering the sacred space of the Temple.
Photo by Ferrell Jenkins, BiblicalStudies.info. ..................................................................................... 270
104. Scale model of the four towers of the Antonia Fortress built by Herod the Great (37–4
BC). This fortress towers over the northwest corner of the Temple Mount (Photo by
Deror avi; PD). .......................................................................................................................................... 270
105. Herod’s Promontory Palace, Caesarea Maritima. Herod build this “most magnificent
palace” (Josephus Ant. 20.137) on a promontory jutting out into the Mediterranean Sea.
Herod had a large olympic size swimming pool carved out of the rock, surrounded by a

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stoa lined by pillars and rooms. Following Herod’s death, Caesarea became the seat of
Roman government in the region and it was likely here that Paul appeared before Felix,
Festus, and Agrippa II (Acts 23:2; Photo by Todd Bolen. BiblePlaces.com). ............................... 272
106. Beside the arch of Septimius Severus (left) is the Mamertinum (building on the right)
which, according to the Italian sign over the entrance, which reads “Prigione dei ss
apostoli pietro e paolo”, was the prison of St. Peter and Paul. It is believed that Paul and
Peter were held prisoner here under the protection of the Praetorian Guard. .............................. 274
107. Roman Forum: Arch of Septimius Severus, Temple of Saturn, the ruins of the Temple of
the Vestal Virgins, Temple of Vespasian, Arch of Titus with the coliseum visible in the far
centre of the picture. ................................................................................................................................. 274
108. St. Paul’s Island, on Malta, where tradition states that Paul was shipwrecked (Acts 27:28).
St. Paul’s island is an uninhabited, rocky islet at the entrance to St. Paul’s bay, as Acts
27:41 states that the ship ran aground on a piece of land “with sea on both sides”.
Whether it was a reef, sandbar, or land jutting into the water will never be known.
However, this photo indicates the treacherous coastline in the area (Photo by Todd Bolen.
BiblePlaces.com). ....................................................................................................................................... 275
109. Erastus inscription which some claim refers to the Erastus mentioned by Paul in Romans
16:23 (Photo by Todd Bolen. BiblePlaces.com). ................................................................................. 280
110. View of the Latin inscription that mentions Babbius who was an aedile (Roman official)
at Corinth. John McRay translates the inscription as follows: “Cnaeus Babbius Philinus
aedile and pontifex, had this monument erected at his own expense, and he approved it in
his official capacity as douvir” pp. 332 (Photo by Carl Rasmussen, Image courtesy of
www.Holy LandPhotos.org). ................................................................................................................... 281
111. A part of the Via Appia, which is now called the Via Sacra (Lat. meaning Sacred Way or
Road) in the Roman Forum which began at Capitoline Hill. It was the main street of
ancient Rome. It passes through the Roman Forum, leaving it just after the Arch of Titus,
which is visible in the distance. ............................................................................................................... 283
112. Statue of St. Paul in front of the facade of the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside:the:Walls,
Rome (Photo by Berthold Werner; PD)................................................................................................ 284
113. A chart showing the breakdown of the chapters of Revelation indicating how the
contents recapitulate as a progressive parallelism. ............................................................................... 287
114. The flat spacious Jezreel Valley, running north to south, provided a convenient highway
for ancient travelers involved in international trade from Egpyt to Babylon. According to
premillenialists, this is the location where the Messiah will return and his armies will gather
to defeat the Antichirst and the Devil in the Battle of Armageddon (Gr. Harmagedōn,
Mountain of Megiddo. Rev 16:16; Photo by Todd Bolen. BiblePlaces.com). ................................ 288
115. Silver tetradrachm (17.03 gm) depicting the diademed head of Antiochus IV Epiphanes
(175:164 BC) (left). Obverse (right) shows Zeus enthroned, holding Nike (victory) on his
extended right hand with a sceptre in his left. There is a palm branch in the outer left field.
The Greek monogram bears the inscription ΒΑΣΙΛΕiΣ ΑΝΤΙΟΧΟΥ ΘΕΟΥ
ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΥΣ ΝΙΚΗΦΟΡΟΥ (“[of] Basileus [king] Antiochus, God Manifest, Bearer of
Victory”). A popular joke at the time was to silently call him Antiochus Epimanes (The
Mad One or The Raving Lunatic) to mock him with a play on his title Epiphanes (God
Manifest or The Illustrious). Courtesy of the Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.
http://www.cngcoins.com ...................................................................................................................... 299

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116. Statue of Antiochus IV Epiphanes of Syria from the Altes Museum in Berlin (Photo by
Jniemenmaa; PD)....................................................................................................................................... 300
117. Herodian dressed masonry of the western wall tunnel in Jerusalem with the characteristic
5:10 cm margin around each block. The stones are dressed so carefully that each stone fits
the adjoining blocks perfectly. Each course is recessed about 2 cm (.75 in.) from the one
below. This building method gives additional stability to the western wall as well as adding
to its beauty.The largest ashlar stone visible measures some 12.8 meters in length, 3.4
meters high and 4.3 meters deep; it weighs about 660 tons. The rectangular notches were
cut in the wall at a later time to attach plaster to an underground cistern. The small stones
on the top are from the Umayyad period. ............................................................................................ 303
118. Bronze Sestertius coin (AD 71) of Vespasian (AD 69:79). On the left is the laureate head
of Vespasian with the words IMP CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M TR P P P COS III.
The right depicts Vespasian, holding a spear and standing with his left foot on a helmet
over a Jewess mourning over the destruction of Jerusalem. It reads IVDAEA CAPTA:
Judea captured. In AD 69 Vespasian left his son Titus to suppress the Jewish revolt led by
the Zealots, John of Gischala and Simon bar Giora. Titus finished the task in AD 70 by
entering Jerusalem and plundering the temple. Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.
http://www.cngcoins.com. ..................................................................................................................... 304
119. Bust of Nero at the Capitoline Museum, Rome (Photo by cjh1452000; PD). ............................. 306

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