PUBLIC SPEAKING

English 322
Public speaking is the process of communicating information to an audience. It is
usually done before a large audience, like in school, the workplace and even in
our personal lives. The benefits of knowing how to communicate to an audience
include sharpening critical thinking and verbal/non-verbal communication skills.
Prepared by: John Mark F. Gabenite
 Republic of the Philippines
State Universities and Colleges
GUIMARAS STATE COLLEGE
Buenavista, Guimaras

GRADUATE SCHOOL

English 322 – Public Speaking

I. BASIC COMMUNICATION THEORIES

A. COMMUNICATION THEORIES
To quote Robert T Craig, from his landmark article, Communication Theory as a Field in 1999, "(...)
Although there exist many theories of communication (...) there is no consensus on communication
theory as a field”. Craig "proposes a vision for communication theory that takes a huge step toward
unifying this rather disparate field and addressing its complexities." Craig focused on communication
theory as a practical discipline and shows how "various traditions of communication theory can be
engaged in dialogue on the practice of communication." Craig identifies seven different traditions of
Communication Theory and outlines how each one of them would engage the others in dialogue.
 Rhetorical
 Semiotic
 Phenomenological
 Cybernetic
 Socio-Psychological
 Socio-cultural
 Critical

1. RHETORICAL THEORY
Rhetorical theory is said to have begun on the Island of Sicily when a dictator was overthrown,
leaving landowners to argue in court over who rightfully owned the land - the original owners or those
who had been given the land during the tyrant's regime? Under the Greek legal system of the time,
individuals had to present their own cases in court - creating the need for individuals to become adept
at the art of rhetoric. Corax can be credited with the first formal rhetorical theory; he wrote a treatise
‘The Art of Rhetoric’ to assist those involved in the land disputes. In this, he highlighted the importance
of probability to rhetoric; a speaker should argue from general probabilities or create a probable
connection or basis for belief when actual facts cannot be established. No longer confined to the public
domains of classical Greece, rhetorical theorists study every kind of context in which symbol use occurs.
Today, this means studying everything from intrapersonal to interpersonal to public discourse to social
movements and mediated discourse. Rhetorical theories address what makes public, personal diaries as
rhetoric, and television, the Internet, and Web sites as rhetorical artefacts. Thus rhetorical theory
includes the study of visual and nonverbal elements, such as the study of art and architecture, buildings
and all design elements of cities, and dress and appearance, to sports, to name a few. There is hardly
anything that is part of the human experience that cannot be looked at from a rhetorical perspective.
Rhetorical theory has also seen a shift away from a strict focus on persuasion. For some rhetorical
theorists, all human symbol use is inherently persuasive - no matter what our intent, anything we say or
write, whether intentional or not, affects those around us. Other rhetorical theorists continue to focus
on delineating how persuasion works in new arenas for theorizing. Yet others question the persuasive

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act itself. In general the focus on persuasion and its possibilities has led to an ongoing interest among
rhetorical theorists in rhetoric's relationship to social change.

2. SEMIOTIC THEORY
John Locke (1690) introduced the term ‘semiotics’ into the English language as a synonym for “doctrine
of signs” (Latin: doctrina signorum, the oldest name for the study of what is now called ‘semiosis’ or
“the action of signs”). There already existed in Locke’s time (and long before) the Greek term
Σημειωτικὴ, “semeiotics”, to name that branch of medical science concerned with the study of
symptoms of disease or σημεια -‘natural signs’ in today’s language. Research into sign systems began
with the ancient Greeks, and in the course of Western history many writers and scholars have studied
the various processes by means of which signification is produced. In the modern world the major areas
which have been the object of semiotic study are literature, environmental and social structures, visual
and plastic arts, ritual, myth, pedagogy, and gesture. Consequently, semiotics is very much an
interdisciplinary science. Semiotics is the science of communication and sign systems, of the ways
people understand phenomena and organize them mentally, and of the ways in which they devise
means for transmitting that understanding and for sharing it with others. Although natural and artificial
languages are central to semiotics, it covers non-verbal signaling and extends to domains whose
communicative dimension is perceived only unconsciously. Knowledge, meaning, intention and action
are thus fundamental concepts in the semiotic investigation of phenomena.

3. PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEORY
Phenomenological theorists emphasize that each person actively constructs her or his own world.
According to the Phenomenological approach to personality, the specific ways each person perceives
and interprets the world make up personality and guide one’s behavior. People's view of
reality/perspective is important in guiding their behavior and is shaped by learned expectations. These
expectations form personal constructs which are generalized ways of anticipating the world. Carl Roger's
Self Theory emphasized self-actualization which he described as the innate tendency toward growth
that motivates all human behavior. Rogers distinguished between the actual self and the ideal self.
Problems develop when the two self-concepts do not match or when one's expectations or ideals don't
match reality. Abraham Maslow (Humanistic Psychology) believed that self-actualization is not just a
human capacity but a human need. Maslow argued that there was a hierarchy of needs that all humans
have, and beginning at the bottom of the hierarchy, each need in the hierarchy must be satisfied before
one can move to the next level. Evaluation of Phenomenological Theories reports that this is an
optimistic approach that places faith in a person's ability to fulfil her/his ultimate capacities. Critics also
view the Phenomenological approach as naive, romantic, and unrealistic. They are also critical of the
lack of emphasis on the importance of inherited characteristics, biological processes, learning,
situational influences, and unconscious motivation in shaping personality. Many Phenomenological
concepts are too vague to be tested empirically.

4. CYBERNETIC THEORY
In 1948, Norbert Wiener coined the term "cybernetics" to elaborate on the existing theory of the
transmission of messages by incorporating his idea that people send messages within a system in an
effort to control their surrounding environment (Wiener, 1954). The basic function of communication,
which Wiener defines in his theory as the processing of information, is to control the environment in
which one lives. This idea suggests that the goal of human communication is to become familiarized
with a certain environment while simultaneously influencing aspects of it. With this, Wiener asserts that,
‘the purpose of Cybernetics to develop a language and techniques that enable us to attack the problem
of control and communication in general and find the proper repertory of ideas and techniques to

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classify their particular manifestations under certain concepts’ (Wiener, 1954, p.16). Thus, he defines
the problem in terms of control and system malfunctions through the understanding of the Cybernetic
theory. Wiener (1954) introduces the ideas of entropy and feedback into his theory (p. 20). A
shortcoming is that Wiener’s theory assumes people are built like complex machines and so, are capable
of interpreting and processing feedback and making changes in order to fit in to an environment.
Watzlawick et al. (1967) go beyond Wiener’s theory of Cybernetics to explain why problems in human
relationships are not easily influenced by feedback.

5. SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY
Social Psychology is a branch of Psychology that studies individuals in the social context. It focuses on
the individual and also relies on the scientific research to generate the theories of social behavior. Social
Psychology offers a considerable insight into the individual and society, and into the human condition.
One of the major currents of theory in this area sprang from the work of philosopher and sociologist
George Herbert Mead at the University of Chicago from 1894. Mead is credited as the founder of
symbolic interactions. Social exchange theory emphasizes the idea that social action is the result of
personal choices made in order to maximize benefits and minimize costs. A key component of this
theory is the postulation of the "comparison level of alternatives", which is the actor's sense of the best
possible alternative (i.e., the choice with the highest benefits relative to costs). However, social
exchange theories differ from economic theories by making predictions about the relationships between
persons, and not just the evaluation of goods. Talcott Parsons, a sociologist at Harvard University
developed a cybernetic theory of action which was adapted to small group research by Parsons' student
and colleague, Robert Freed Bales, resulting in a body of observational studies of social interaction in
groups using Bales' behavior coding scheme, Interaction Process Analysis. During his 41-year tenure at
Harvard, Bales mentored a distinguished group of sociological social psychologists concerned with group
processes and other topics in sociological social psychology.

6. SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY
Socio-cultural theory looks at the contributions that society makes to individual development. This
theory stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live. Socio-
cultural theory grew from the work of seminal psychologism. Lev Vygotsky, who believed that parents,
caregivers, peers and the culture were largely responsible for the development of higher order
functions. According to Vygotsky, "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice:
first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and
then inside the child (intra- psychological). As his work became more widely published, his ideas have
grown increasingly influential in areas including child development, cognitive psychology and education.
Socio-cultural theory focuses not only on how adults and peers influence individual learning, but also on
how cultural beliefs and attitudes impact how instruction and learning take place. An important concept
in socio-cultural theory is known as the zone of proximal development. The zone of proximal
development "is the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent
problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under
adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." Essentially, it includes all of the knowledge
and skills that a person cannot yet understand or perform on their own yet, but is capable of learning
with guidance.

7. CRITICAL THEORY
Critical theory was first defined by Max Horkheimer of the Frankfurt School of Sociology in his 1937
essay Traditional and Critical Theory. Critical theory is a social theory oriented toward critiquing and
changing society as a whole, in contrast to traditional theory oriented only to understanding or

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explaining it. Horkheimer wanted to distinguish critical theory as a radical, emancipatory form of
Marxian theory. Critical theory questions and challenges the conviction that what is, or what is in the
process of becoming, or what appears to be, or what is most commonly understood to be, or what is
dominantly conveyed to be, is also at the same time right and true, good and just, and necessary and
inevitable: critical theory does not, at least not automatically, accept any of this. Critical theory is always
particularly concerned with inquiring into the problems and limitations, the mistakes, the contradictions
and incoherence, the injustices and inequities in how human beings operate within particular kinds of
structures and hierarchies of relations with each other, facilitated and regulated by particular kinds of
institutions, engaged in particular kinds of processes and practices, have formed, reformed, and
transformed ourselves, each other, and the communities, cultures, societies, and world in which we live.
In addition to the traditional theories outlined above, the two other major theories include: General
System Theory and Information Theory. Ludwig von Bertalanffy put forth the General System Theory as
a way to determine the underlying rules governing all systems, regardless of their particular
instantiation. If their behavior is governed by the same principles, two systems are isomorphic. There
are six main criticisms of System Theory. First, it is too general to be usefully applied to the real world
since nearly anything (or everything together) can be said to be a system. Second, it is so open as to
allow contradictory findings in different fields; it is not unifying. Third, it is just a perspective, since it
doesn't adequately explain why systems do what they do. Fourth, it doesn't suggest new research. Fifth,
it's not clear whether the theory models nature (in which case apparently dissimilar events are actually
the same) or if it is only a conceptual model (in which case it is only a representation, and similarities do
not actually exist in the world). Finally, some claim the world is not as complex as system theory
purports it to be. Inspired by developments in systems theory and cybernetics, in 1949 Shannon &
Weaver formulated a new communication model that they called Information Theory. In information
theory, information is viewed as a measure of the entropy or uncertainty in a system. In the information
theory model of communication, a source produces a message to be transmitted via a channel to a
receiver. Shannon and Weaver's information theory could also be seen as a system theory. Essentially,
Shannon and Weaver’s information theory reflects a cybernetic view of communication that is entirely
focused on “nodes” (speakers and hearers), which are connected only to each other and not with their
contexts. In the information theory model, meaning is in the message; this message transmits from
point to point in a linear fashion, self-regulated via feedback loops between source and receiver. This
concept of meaning was taken to an extreme level of analysis by Osgood, who developed a
mathematical model for finding where meaning is located. Osgood created the concept of “semantic
spaces”, which are effectively cognitive locations of meaning, and analyzed the relationships between
these spaces through a process of ‘factor analysis’ (Osgood, 1957). Significantly, the information theory
regards the influence of contexts and environments on communication. It assumes that all
communication travels from point to point, either from one source to one receiver or from many
sources to many receivers. Rather than being viewed as contextual influences, extraneous information is
considered to be noise, which the receiver must filter out in order to discern the meaning of the
message. It is interesting note that there are a multiple set of theories and perspectives characterizing
the field of communication studies. It is possible to use multiple theories to examine our
communication. Theories allow us to organize and understand communication experiences, select
communication behavior to study, broaden our understanding of human communication, predict and
control communication situations, challenge current social and cultural relationships, and offer new
ways of thinking and living. It is important to recognize that no theoretical perspective is the right
perspective, although most Communication scholars do favor particular theoretical approaches over
others, and conduct communication research from their preferred perspectives.

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 B. COMMUNICATION THEORY FRAMEWORK
1. Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is examining. One must
consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on
whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social
constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world
outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that
everything outside of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle
the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.

2. Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In studying
epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge is said to be the result
of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena. This knowledge is usually attained
through use of the scientific method. Scholars often think that empirical evidence collected in an
objective manner is most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created
to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated
knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also
interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the
social world.

3. Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most
communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches. The first approach
recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set
aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important
in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and
interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage
of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from
inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values
contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that
values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be
separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of
communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological
approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and
theory development.

4. Contexts. Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called
"contexts" or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of
communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics,
and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of
journalism. While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain
their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case,
and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass
communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research,
including intercultural and international communication, small group communication,
communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and
work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific
perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more
toward production and professional preparation.

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5. The Constitutive Metamodel. Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the
assumptions that undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. Robert T. Craig suggests
that the field of communication as a whole can be understood as several different traditions who
have a specific view on communication. By showing the similarities and differences between these
traditions, Craig argues that the different traditions will be able to engage each other in dialogue
rather than ignore each other. Craig proposes seven different traditions which are: Rhetorical: views
communication as the practical art of discourse. Semiotic: views communication as the mediation
by signs. Phenomenological: communication is the experience of dialogue with others. Cybernetic:
communication is the flow of information. Socio-psychological: communication is the interaction of
individuals. Socio-cultural: communication is the production and reproduction of the social order.
Critical: communication is the process in which all assumptions can be challenged. Craig finds each
of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive approaches to describing
communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels help to organize theory by its
assumptions, and help researchers to understand why some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists decentralize
the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The idea (as argued by
Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species defined by its tools remains on the
outskirts of communication theory. It finds some representation in the Toronto School of
communication theory (alternatively sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work
of Innis, McLuhan, and others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the
technologies of communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what
communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the place of
persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of communication theory.
Some realms of communication and their theories: universal communication Law: Universal Theory,
Dynamic-transactional Ansatz. Message production: Constructivist Theory, Action Assembly Theory.
Message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model, Inoculation theory. Discourse and interaction:
Speech Acts Theory, Coordinated Management of Meaning. Developing relationships: Uncertainty
Reduction Theory, Social Penetration Theory, and Predicted Outcome Value Theory. Ongoing
relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics. Organizational: Structuration Theory,
Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory. Small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence
Theory. Media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory, Uses and Gratifications Theory.
Media and society: Agenda Setting, Information deficit model, Spiral of silence, Symbolic
Convergence Theory. Culture: Speech Codes Theory, Face-saving Theory. Making social worlds:
Coordinated Management of Meaning, Symbolic Interactionism.

II. BECOMING A PUBLIC SPEAKER

A. Preparing your Speech

1. Focusing On Your Topic

The first part of speech preparation involves focusing on your topic. This process starts with your
selecting a general subject, then deciding on your general speech purpose. Once this has been done,
you focus on your topic by narrowing it to fit the particular interests of your audience and the time limit
available to you.

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Find A Subject That Fascinates You

Begin by searching your mind for a general subject that you find interesting. You should make this
decision carefully because the choice of topic can make or break your speech. Write down a list of
single words or short phrases naming subjects that you find fascinating.

These topics can be: Airplanes, Television, Camping, Nuclear Power, Health Care, Music, Sports,
Computers, Education, etc.

Analyze Your Audience

Not every subject that is interesting to you will automatically be of interest to your audience.
Classmates who do not sew may be difficult to reach in a speech about dressmaking. You should ask
yourself "How can I make this topic interesting and acceptable to all the members of my audience?"
Answering this topic requires analysis, one of the most important steps in speech preparation. Audience
Analysis consists of asking yourself a series of questions about any topic you are considering for your
speech. Ask yourself the following questions:

Do my audience members already know much about this topic?

What can I tell them about this topic that they do not already know?
Will this topic interest some audience members more than others?
If I stand on this issue, will my audience agree with me?
If they do not agree, what interest or needs do they have through which I might change their minds?
Asking and answering questions such as these about your audience will help you organize your topic
presentation to a specific group of people.

Select Your General Speech Purpose

The general purposes for which speeches are given fall into a fairly small number of categories:

Speeches to Inform: Here your general purpose is to teach your listeners new information. You
want them to know more about your topic after your speech than they did before.

Speeches to Persuade: Persuasive speeches are designed to intensify or change listeners'

attitudes, beliefs, or behavior patterns.

Speeches to Entertain: Speeches to entertain are given simply for the enjoyment and relaxation
of the listeners. They are frequently delivered as after-dinner speeches.

Speeches of Introduction: These are usually brief speeches for the purpose of giving an
audience background information on a main speaker they are about to hear.

Speeches of Welcome: These are given when a new person joins a company, club, or a
fraternity, or when a dignitary visits a city or town for the first time. Their purpose is to make
the newcomer feel part of the group he or she is joining.

Speeches of Presentation and Acceptance: Here the purpose is to highlight the presentation or
acceptance of an award or gift to a deserving individual or organization.

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In addition, speeches are given to dedicate buildings, to honor graduates from school, to eulogize those
who have died, to say farewell when someone is moving, to demonstrate a product, to motivate groups
to perform and achieve, and to inspire an audience.

The two primary speech purposes are to inform and to persuade.

Focus on Your Specific Purpose

Once you know your general topic and general speech purpose, you are ready to focus on the specific
purpose for your speech. The specific purpose is precisely what you want your listeners to know, think,
believe, or do as a result of hearing your speech. Once you identify your specific purpose, and then
develop a purpose sentence. Examples of a purpose sentence are:

The purpose of this speech is to inform the listeners about the safety of commercial airline travel.
The purpose of this speech is to inform the audience about the history of commercial aviation.
The purpose of this speech is to tell the listeners about my most memorable airplane ride.
The purpose of this speech is to compare and contrast six different styles of commercial aircraft.
As you go about focusing on a specific purpose, keep in mind the time available for your speech. Some
topics are too broad for a short speech. You must downsize your topic to the allotted time given for the
speech.

2. Researching Your Topic

Once you have settled on a topic that is right for you, for your audience, and for the occasion, you need
to begin your research. You begin by taking stock of what you already know about your topic, then
move to the library or other outside sources of information to complete your research.

Start with What You Already Know

Write down a list of key phrases and sentences that you already know about the topic you are giving a
speech on. If you know very little about your topic, you must usually do some preliminary research
before you begin your outline.

Know What You Are Researching

Whether the purpose of your speech is to provide information or to persuade your audience to adopt
new view, what you are looking for in your research is support for the various statements you will be
making in your speech. Support is needed mainly to prove the accuracy of your statements, but it can
also be used to illustrate points and make them more interesting. Audiences are accustomed to
listening for distinct kinds of support. Among the most common types are facts, statistics, testimony,
narrative, examples, and comparisons.

For backing up the accuracy of your statements, facts offer the strongest form of support. A fact is an
event or a truth that is known to exist or has been observed. A fact is very difficult to contradict or
refute, especially if it has been witnessed by a large number of people.

Example: Beethoven's Ninth Symphony was written when the composer was totally deaf.

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Statistics are a second useful form of support for accuracy of statements. Statistics are collections of
facts stated in numerical terms. They can be used to present facts in percentages, rank order, and
averages.

Example: Roughly 52% of the world's population is female, and 48% percent is male.

Another form of support, testimony, is the quoting or restating of another person's opinion to support a
point. Often the person quoted is a recognized expert in the field.

Example: As Helen Keller once wrote, "No barrier of the sense shuts me out from the sweet, gracious
discourse of my book friends. They talk to me without embarrassment or awkwardness"

Testimony is not as strong a form of support for accuracy as facts are since testimony is merely opinion.

Narrative is supporting material in the form of a story, either real or imaginary. Besides being enjoyable
and interesting, narratives a often used in a speech to help make a point that has already been or will
soon be supported by facts or statistics.

Examples are specific instances or occurrences of a situation or principle you are attempting to describe.
Examples may be stated in the form of facts, statistics, testimony, or narrative. Examples may be stated
in the form of facts, statistics, testimony, or narrative. Thus, examples are general kinds of support that
may include one of several other forms. Three examples are used to support the following sentence:

Example: Some of this century's most noted speakers have been American presidents. Woodrow
Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and John F. Kennedy are generally considered to have been excellent
public speakers.

Examples may sometimes be used effectively to intensify or personalize your ideas.

Comparisons involve the equating of essentially unlike ideas or phrases. They highlight the similarities
that exist between basically dis-similar situations. Like examples may include facts, statistics, testimony
or narrative. They may also include the speaker's opinions if the opinions seem to offer a useful means
of illustrating the views being presented.

Get To Know Your Library

Libraries are a good place to do research for your speech topic. Through the library you have exposure
to the following:

Internet (a network of computers which provides information rapidly through websites)

Encyclopedias
Yearbooks
Biographic Aids (Who's Who in America, Dictionary of American Biography)
Atlases
Periodical Indexes (The Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature, Current Magazines, Newsweek, Reader's
Digest, Time, U.S. News & World Report)
Computerized Databases (computerized research services allows you to find obscure or highly
specialized information rapidly through the use of computers)

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Find Other Sources of Support

Although the library will often provide you with much of the information you need for a speech, do not
overlook other valuable sources of information. Interviews with people knowledgeable about your topic
can prove very helpful. If your topic concerns business, why not interview a teacher in the business
department of your school or a local business leader?

Other sources of support frequently overlooked are television and radio, particularly news programs.
Since the main purpose of local and network news teams is to gather and sort out facts and testimony,
their reports are a gold mine of current information with which to support your ideas. Keep up with
world and local news and jot down the date of the program as well as the source of the information
whenever you hear an item that might prove useful.

Another form of support is taking an informal survey of public opinion among friends or neighbors. You
can also write to special interest groups to obtain information to support a controversial topic.

Record Your Evidence

As you discover facts, statistics, testimony, and other forms of support for your speech, be sure to write
them down. You may not be certain that you will use a piece of information, but it's a good practice to
write it down and the source you discovered while it is before you.

A good way to record information is by using 3 X 5 inch index cards. You can also record information on
a laptop computer or palm pilot since they are portable.

3. Organizing and Outlining Your Speech

As you go about researching your speech topic, you will also be deciding on an organizational pattern for
your presentation. Though you are free to arrange your speech materials in any manner you choose,
over the years certain methods of arrangement have proved effective for particular occasions and
audiences. Your specific purpose will also have a great deal to do with the type of organizational pattern
you select.

Select a Pattern of Speech Organization

One common pattern for speeches is the chronological pattern. This arrangement proceeds from past
to present, to future; in other words, the speech develops in the same order that the events developed
in time. The essential feature of the chronological pattern is that the ideas or events in the speech move
forward according to a time sequence.

When parts of a speech are tied together by space arrangements rather than by time sequence, the
organizational pattern is called spatial. It is useful in speeches in which the speaker describes a place for
the audience. For example, if you wish to give a speech on "My Vacation trip to Disney World", you
might choose a spatial pattern of organization in which the four major sections of the speech would be
about Frontierland, Tomorrowland, Fantasylandy, and Adventureland.

A third organizational pattern, called topical, is also frequently used. This is a broadly defined pattern in
which the subject is broken down into its natural parts. An example would be a speech about "The

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United States Congress" divided into the Senate and House, then subdivided into the Democrats and
Republicans.

The problem-solution pattern is still another pattern used in speeches. Here the speaker devotes
roughly the first half of the speech to describing a problem that exists, or is about to occur, and the
second half developing one or more solutions. Presidential addresses on national television generally
follow this format. For example, if the issue is the drug problem in our country, the President might
spend the first half of the time proving how serious the problem is and the second half calling on the
American people to help him to find solutions.

Another pattern used especially by salespersons is called Monroe's Motivated Sequence. This pattern
was originally suggested by Alan H. Monroe for the use in persuasive speeches. It consists of five
separate steps:

1) The Attention Step (Gaining the audience's attention)

2) The Need Step (the salesperson shows them that they have needs not being met)
3) The Satisfaction Step (present a solution that will meet the unmet needs of the audience)
4) The Visualization Step (the salesperson helps them see the change that will occur)
5) The Action Step (involves telling the listeners what action they must take to bring about the
improvement the speaker has promised)

Start Your Outline with a Purpose Sentence

A good outline is like a tree without its leaves. All the basics are present in the tree---the overall
direction, the necessary support, the division into branches. Your speech outline also needs a basic
purpose or direction, supporting materials, and appropriate subdivisions. If your speech outline is to
have any order about it, you must know clearly what your purpose is in making the speech. The best
way to begin a clear speech outline is by writing at the top of your outline the purpose sentence you
selected. Remember, the purpose sentence states exactly what you hope to accomplish by giving the
speech: what you hope your listeners will know, think, believe, or do as a result of hearing your speech.

Develop Main Heads and Subheads

The major divisions of a speech outline are referred to as main heads. Most speeches should only have
two or three main heads. If you were outlining a speech on "School Vacations":

Purpose Sentence: "The purpose of this speech is to persuade the audience that our school calendar
should include another week of vacation"

Main Heads:
I. Vacations help us become better students.
II. Our school has one week less vacation time than schools in neighboring towns.
III. Our vacations should be the same as those of our friends in neighboring towns.

Subheads relate to main heads in the same manner that main heads relate to the purpose sentence.
They subdivide the main head into parallel parts. Notice how the following subheads A, B, and C
support the first main head in a speech titled "Skydiving"

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I. Skydiving is safer than most people imagine.
A. Only highly qualified personnel may serve as trainers.
B. Extensive training is mandatory before a "live" jump.
C. Chutes must be checked and rechecked before a jump.

Use Complete Sentences For Main Heads and Subheads

Main heads and subheads in speech outlines should be stated as complete sentences. Writing down the
basic ideas in complete thoughts forces you to think through the ideas and also helps set them in your
memory. Sentences should not be long, but brief and simple as possible.

4. Rehearsing

Rehearsal is the crowning point of speech preparation. Without rehearsal a speaker is like the beginning
golfer entering the U.S. Open after having read all the golfing manuals, but never actually played.

One or two brief run-throughs does not constitute thorough rehearsal. Start preparing your speech well
before you deliver the speech. Allow time for several rehearsal sessions. Rehearsal that is crammed
into one evening is ineffective compared to three or four rehearsal sessions on successive nights.

Since the actual speech will be spoken aloud, you need a place for rehearsal where you can speak aloud.
Simply saying the speech to yourself, or whispering it quietly, only allows you to practice the mental
parts of the speech---the ideas. But public speaking demands a number of physical skills as well. You
need to rehearse proper breathing and voice projection, clear articulation, good timing, and correct
synchronization of words with body movements.

You can rehearse alone first, then with audience such as family or friends. This is sort of a dress
rehearsal. While you are doing this, also consider timing yourself. This can be critical because you don't
want to have too little to speak on or too much and run over time.

B. Ethics in Public Speaking

1. Be Honest and Avoid Plagiarism

Credible public speakers are open and honest with their audiences. Honesty includes telling your
audience why you’re speaking (thesis statement) and what you’ll address throughout your speech
(preview). For instance, one example of dishonest speech is when a vacation destination offers
“complimentary tours and sessions” which are really opportunities for a sales person to pitch a
timeshare to unsuspecting tourists. In addition to being clear about the speech goal, honest speakers
are clear with audience members when providing supporting information.

2. Identify Your Sources

The first step of ethical speech preparation is to take notes as you research your speech topic.
Careful notes will help you remember where you learned your information. Recalling your sources is
important because it enables speaker honesty. Passing off another’s work as your own or neglecting to
cite the source for your information is considered plagiarism. This unethical act can result in several
consequences, ranging from a loss in credibility to academic expulsion or job loss. Even with these
potential consequences, plagiarism is unfortunately common. In a national survey, 87 percent of
students claimed that their peers plagiarized from the Internet at least some of the time. This statistic

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does not take into account whether or not the plagiarism was intentional, occurring when the writer or
speaker knowingly presented information as his or her own; or unintentional, occurring when careless
citing leads to information being uncredited or discredited. However, it is important to note that being
unaware of how to credit sources should not be an excuse for unintentional plagiarism. In other words,
speakers are held accountable for intentional and unintentional plagiarism. The remainder of this
section discusses how to ensure proper credit is given when preparing and presenting a speech.

3. Decide When to Cite

When speaking publicly you must orally cite all information that isn’t general knowledge. For
example, if your speech claims that the sun is a star, you do not have to cite that information since its
general knowledge. If your speech claims that the sun’s temperature is 15.6 million Kelvin, then you
should cite that source aloud. Ethical speakers are not required to cite commonly known information
(e.g., skin is the largest human organ; Barack Obama was elected President of the U.S. in 2008).
However, any information that isn’t general knowledge must be orally cited during a speech. The same
is true in the text of a speech outline: cite all non-general information.

4. Understand Paraphrasing and Direct Quotations

Next, it is important to understand the process for paraphrasing and directly quoting sources in
order to support your speech claims. First, what is the difference between paraphrasing and directly
quoting a source? If you research and learn information from a source—the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC), for instance— and then share that information in your own words; you don’t use
quotation marks; but you do credit the CDC as your source. This is known as a paraphrase—a sentence
or string of sentences that shares learned information in your own words. A direct quote is any sentence
or string of sentences that conveys an author’s idea word-for-word. According to the APA (American
Psychological Association), when writing speech content, you must include quotation marks around an
author’s work when you use his or her keywords, phrases, or sentences. This would be relevant for a
speech outline, a handout, or a visual aid. It is also important to specify a direct quote when you are
orally citing during your speech. This indicates to the audience that you are using the original author’s
exact words. While it is acceptable to use the phrases “begin quote” and “end quote” to indicate this to
your audience, such phrases can be distracting to the audience. One way to clearly and concisely
indicate a direct quote is to take a purposeful pause right before and after the quoted material. This
differentiates between your words and the source material’s words.

5. Develop Accurate Citations

Ethical speakers share source information with the audience. On written materials, such as
handouts or speech outlines, citations are handled much like they would be in any essay. In addition to
written citations, oral citations provide source information to audience members who may not see your
written speech. In all citations, enough information should be given so that the audience can easily find
the source.

6. Set Responsible Speech Goals

Jensen coined the term “rights abilities” to explain how a communicator must balance tensions
between speaker rights and responsibility to others. Ensuring that you have responsible speech goals is
one way to achieve ethical communication in public speaking. There are several speech goals that
support this mission. This section will focus on five goals: 1) promote diversity, 2) use inclusive language,
3) avoid hate speech, 4) raise social awareness, and 5) employ respectful free speech.

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7. Promote Diversity
One important responsibility speakers have is fostering diversity, or an appreciation for differences
among individuals and groups. Diversity in public speaking is important when considering both your
audience and your speech content. Promoting diversity allows audience members who may be different
from the speaker to feel included and can present a perspective to which audience members had not
previously been exposed. Speakers may choose a speech topic that introduces a multicultural issue to
the audience or can promote diversity by choosing language and visual aids that relate to and support
listeners of different backgrounds. Because of the diversity present in our lives, it is necessary to
consider how speakers can promote diversity.

8. Use Inclusive Language

Avoiding sexist language is one way to use inclusive language. Another important way for speakers
to develop responsible language is to use inclusionary pronouns and phrases. For example, novice
speakers might tell their audience: “One way for you to get involved in the city’s Clean Community
Program is to pick up trash on your street once a month.” Instead, an effective public speaker could
exclaim: “One way for all of us to get involved in our local communities is by picking up trash on a
regular basis.” This latter statement is an example of “we” language—pronouns and phrases that unite
the speaker to the audience. “We” language (instead of “I” or “You” language) is a simple way to build a
connection between the speaker, speech content, and audience. This is especially important during a
persuasive speech as “we” language establishes trust, rapport, and goodwill between the speaker and
the audience. Take, for example, the following listener relevance statements in a persuasive speech
about volunteering:

“You” language: You may say that you’re too busy to volunteer, but I don’t agree. I’m here to tell you
that you should be volunteering in your community.

“We” language: As college students, we all get busy in our daily lives and sometimes helpful acts such as
volunteering aren’t priorities in our schedules. Let’s explore how we can be more active volunteers in
our community.

9. Avoid Hate Speech

Another key aspect of ethical speaking is to develop an awareness of spoken words and the power
of words. The NCA Credo of Ethical Communication highlights the importance of this awareness: “We
condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through distortion, intimidation,
coercion, and violence, and through the expression of intolerance and hatred.” Words can be
powerful—both in helping you achieve your speech goal and in affecting your audience in significant
ways. It is essential that public speakers refrain from hate or sexist language. Hate speech, according to
Verderber, Sellnow, and Verderber, “is the use of words and phrases not only to demean another
person or group but also to express hatred and prejudice.” Hate language isolates a particular person or
group in a derogatory manner. Michael Richards, famous for the role of Cosmo Kramer on Seinfeld,
came under fire for his hate speech during a comedy routine in 2006. Richards used several racial
epithets and directed his hate language towards African-Americans and Mexicans. Richards apologized
for his outbursts, but the damage to his reputation and career was irrevocable. Likewise, using hate
speech in any public speaking situation can alienate your audience and take away your credibility,
leading to more serious implications for your grade, your job, or other serious outcomes. It is your
responsibility as the speaker to be aware of sensitive material and be able to navigate language choices
to avoid offending your audience.

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10. Raise Social Awareness
Speakers should consider it their ethical responsibility to educate listeners by introducing ideas of
racial, gender, or cultural diversity, but also by raising social awareness, or the recognition of important
issues that affect societies. Raising social awareness is a task for ethical speakers because educating
peers on important causes empowers others to make a positive change in the world. Many times when
you present a speech, you have the opportunity to raise awareness about growing social issues. For
example, if you’re asked to present an informative speech to your classmates, you could tell them about
your school’s athletic tradition or you could discuss Peace One Day—a campaign that promotes a single
day of worldwide cease-fire, allowing crucial food and medicine supplies to be shipped into warzone
areas.

III. ORGANIZING THE SPEECH

A. DEVELOPING THE INTRODUCTION

1. Focuses the attention of your audience. Use to command the attention of the audience and get
them interested in the speech. Avoid gimmicks and stay consistent with your speech topic and
style of speaking. Can include humor, startling ideas, drama, suspenseful story, quotations, etc.
2. Orients your audience to the topic. Give your audience a sense of why the subject matter of
your speech is relevant or important, set the stage and prepare them for the main ideas of the
speech to come.
3. Presents the thesis. State a single, clear, identifiable thesis in a way that is as concrete, specific,
and precise as possible.
4. Previews the content of the speech. Give the audience a preview of the ideas to come and their
organization. This makes your speech much easier to follow and aids in audience knowledge
retention.

B. DEVELOPING THE BODY

1. Organized around a limited number of main ideas. Audiences have to remember all of your
ideas and their connections. Most speakers should work to limit themselves to 3-5 main ideas
which are organized in a clear pattern that is highlighted for the audience.
2. Transitioning and signposting: Like in papers they help the speech hangs together, defining the
connections and relationships between the major elements of the speech. Overt and deliberate
transitions are even more critical for speeches than essays because audience cannot go back to
catch a link they may have missed the first time.
a. Transitions link points together by expressing relationships between ideas.
b. Signposts mark the ―direction‖ of the speech, linking structural segments, orienting the
audience, and reminding them of where they are in the speech (what has come and
what is next).

C. DEVELOPING THE CONCLUSION

A. Summarizes your main points. Remind the audience of the main ideas explored in your
speech. Paraphrase and combine in logical ways—do not just mechanically recount the
previous ideas.
B. Leave your audience with something to think about. Speeches should end with a bang, not
a whimper. Try to finish with a sentence or two that leaves your audience with a sense of
the significance of what they just heard. This may be accomplished by returning to the focus
of the introduction, ending with a powerful and appropriate quotation, or concluding with
your own assessment of the importance of the topic.

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IV. DEVELOPING SUPPORTING MATERIALS

A. LOCATING SUPPORTING MATERIALS

There are a variety of types of support material which can be used to illustrate or prove points you
make. The following kinds of materials are commonly used to support assertions in speeches:
 example -- a concrete instance of the point you are making
 testimony -- direct quotation or paraphrase of a credible source used to prove or illustrate a
point
 Statistics/surveys -- quantitative information which proves or illustrates a point.
 Definition -- providing a dictionary or personal meaning for an unfamiliar or technical word.
e.g., "A tariff is a tax placed on imported goods."
 Narration -- A narration is a small story used in a speech or essay (usually appealing to the
"mind's eye," told in chronological order).
 Analogy - a comparison of the unfamiliar to the familiar.
 description/explanation -- describing why your point is valid in your own words, usually in vivid
concrete language
 Audio/Visual aids -- anything the audience can see or hear (other than your words) which helps
you make a point.

B. USING THE INTERNET TO SUPPORT YOUR SPEECH

THE USEFULNESS OF INTERNET CONNECTIVITY

 The Internet provides a very fast and cost effective means of communication and information
sharing. It is also one of the best sources of information especially when it comes to developing
speech.
 It is quick and very convenient
 It offers a wide range of information and data
 It can be used as a medium for long distance learning.
 It provides up to date information on any subject or topic etc.
 Access to professionals and Consultants in any field of endeavor.

OFFERS WIDE RANGE OF INFORMATION AND ACCESS TO DATA

 Through the Internet it is possible to have information on any topic or subject of interest.
Information is available on the following:
 Educational Institutions, course available and requirements.
 Update on research and recent discoveries
 Any subject of study and recent developments in the particular fields
 In depth data and analysis a presented on many subject areas and issues
 Politics
 News etc.
 Some Universities are already running programs via the Internet.

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V. THE INFORMATIVE SPEECH

A. Selecting a Topic and Purpose

How to Choose the Right Informative Topic
Half the battle of presenting a speech or writing an essay is choosing the right topic. Choosing a
good informative speech topic or informative essay topic can keep your audience entertained, your
reader interested, and your own work process more enjoyable. Here are a few tips to help you
choose a topic:
 Know your audience or reader: Your informative presentation – whether through speech or
essay – should cover a subject not already well known to your audience, but still relevant to
them. If you do choose a topic they’re familiar with, then present new and exciting information.
Consider the age, knowledge level, and interests of your audience when preparing your
informational speech or essay.

 Consider your own interests: Think of your own passions and areas of expertise that you think
people could benefit from learning more about. Choosing a topic you care about will help your
speech or essay be better received. Your passion will keep them engaged and curious to learn
more.

 Consider length requirements: How much time are you allotted for your informative speech?
What is the page requirement for your informative essay? You should be able to thoroughly
cover the topic in the amount of time you are given. If you don’t think you have enough
knowledge or personal interest to talk about illegal drug use among teens, saving money as a
college student, or another informative topic for 20 minutes, you may need to consider a
different subject.

 The good news is that there are countless options available. Below are lists of informative topics
for speeches and essays. Remember that, in order to choose the best informative topic for you,
you need to consider your audience, your interests, and your time and length requirements.
Then, customize the central idea to suit your situation.

B. Simple ways to approach an informative speech

 THE AUDIENCES - Think about your audiences. This is the most challenging as the speaking
circumstances, forums and topic can vary. Before presenting the speech, analyze who your
audiences are? Why are they present in your speech? Focusing on these details, you can explore
the best ways to present your speech.
If you are speaking about the lung cancer, you should know its basics as well. Some
audiences might not understand the depth. So start your speech from the basic. Do not presume
that audiences are familiar with the background of your topic. Again, do not assume they do not
know. This is the main reason, knowing the audiences are essential. Besides, it depends on the
situation of the speech.

 LANGUAGES - Use proper language. Speak the language that audiences desire to listen. You
deliver the speech with a goal to provide useful information to the audiences. If audiences do
not understand what you speak, the speech becomes useless. The main target of informative
speech is to give knowledge about a particular topic. If you can explain well the topic in simple

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 language better use it. Try to make the speech simple and understanding. Do not rush to
complete the speech quickly. Instead, think about educating your audiences with your speech.
Explain the term if necessary.

 TIME - Understanding the time flow of the speech will be helpful to make your speech effective.
Speaker should create a link between their topic and the interest of audiences. Here describe
the significance of the topic. Also, express the main points with some interesting examples and
quotes. A speaker confessing their own experience encourages the audiences to share the same
interest.

 TRY TO BECOME CLEAR AND CONCISE - To become a good speaker, you have to be clear and
concise at first. Spend lots of time on simple concepts instead of the harder one. Since giving
many examples to prove a single point might not work well. This way your audiences may find
your speech boring. Better, explore some new ideas and prepare the topic well. Try to provide
detailed information. Most of the audience gets influenced by details and descriptive
presentation.

 USE AUDIO OR VISUALS IF POSSIBLE - Try practicing using audio or visuals if possible. They help
to find out your mistake. You can improve after you know where the mistake is. Additionally,
informative speech can be effective with demo presentation and visual support. So, using them
properly helps to deliver your speech in a proper way.

VI. THE PERSUASIVE SPEECH

A. Developing Arguments
 Reasoning can be defined as the process of proving inferences or conclusions from evidence.
Reasoning through a persuasive speech is a process of building one or more arguments created
to change people’s opinions, influence behavior, or justify the arguer’s beliefs or actions. Sound
reasoning is based on solid evidence backed by credible sources, and avoids logical fallacies.
WHAT IS AN ARGUMENT?
 An argument is a stated position, with support for or against an idea or issue. Persuasive
speeches use arguments to present one alternative as superior to other alternatives.
 The core elements of an argument consist of:
The Claim: This states the speaker’s conclusion about some issue.
The Evidence: This confirms that the claim is true or valid.
The Warrant: This provides reasons that the evidence is valid or supports the claim.
STATING A CLAIM
 To state a claim (or proposition) is to declare a state of affairs about an issue.
 Claims are often (but not always) presented as a thesis statement.
 Claims answer the question: “What are you trying to prove”.
 However, in order to make the claim believable, the speaker must provide proof, or evidence, in
support of the claim.
PROVIDING EVIDENCE
 Every key claim you make in a speech must be supported with evidence, or supporting material
that provides grounds for belief.

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  The goal in using evidence is to make a claim more acceptable, or believable, to an audience. If
the evidence itself is believable, then the claim is more likely to be found acceptable to the
audience.
WARRANTS: JUSTIFYING THE LINK BETWEEN THE CLAIM AND EVIDENCE
 Warrants help to support a claim and to create a link between the claim and the evidence. They
show why the claim and evidence is valid, or warranted.
 Other terms for warrants are reasoning and justification.
 When Formulating an argument: (1)Write your claim (2)List all possible evidence (3) Write
corresponding warrants to link the evidence to the claim.

B. Organizing the Persuasive Speech

 There are three common patterns that persuaders can utilize to help organize their speeches
effectively: Monroe’s motivated sequence, problem-cause-solution, and comparative
advantage. Each of these patterns can effectively help a speaker think through his or her
thoughts and organize them in a manner that will be more likely to persuade an audience.
 Alan H. Monroe’s (1935) motivated sequence is a commonly used speech format that is used by
many people to effectively organize persuasive messages. The pattern consists of five basic
stages: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action. In the first stage, a speaker gets
an audience’s attention. In the second stage, the speaker shows an audience that a need exists.
In the third stage, the speaker shows how his or her persuasive proposal could satisfy the need.
The fourth stage shows how the future could be if the persuasive proposal is or is not adopted.
Lastly, the speaker urges the audience to take some kind of action to help enact the speaker’s
persuasive proposal.
 The problem-cause-solution proposal is a three-pronged speech pattern. The speaker starts by
explaining the problem the speaker sees. The speaker then explains what he or she sees as the
underlying causes of the problem. Lastly, the speaker proposes a solution to the problem that
corrects the underlying causes.
 The comparative advantages speech format is utilized when a speaker is comparing two or more
things or ideas and shows why one of the things or ideas has more advantages than the other(s).

VII. SPECIAL OCCASION SPEECHES

A. Using Language to Style the Speech

1. Be Concise in Your Speech
 Use fewer words to express your thoughts.
 Use contractions
(I'm instead of I am, he's instead of he is, Dalley's the best instead of Dalley is the best, etc.).
*Being concise in your speech is more easily understood and allows for better flow.

2. Use some Sentence Fragments

It's okay to use sentence fragments and short phrases when giving a speech (but not in written
language). Just don't make all your sentences fragments. Actually, I dare you to try and make all your
sentences fragments or even simple sentences (you'll sound pretty stupid). Often sentence fragments
coupled with tone and body movement can enhance the "feeling" of your speech and it can give your
speech some personality (your personality).

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3. Remember that Repetition is the Mother of Skill
Good speeches often repeat key words and phrases. Repetition adds emphasis to main ideas helps
listeners follow the speaker's logic, creates a style to the speech.

4. Use Transitions
Transitional statements help the audience follow along with the flow and intent of the speech. The use
of good transitions helps to connect main ideas to supporting details to other main ideas to other
supporting details. Think of transitions as street signs that are telling you where you are going (or in my
case a GPS that talks in a sexy computer voice).

5. Use Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns in speech (I, you, me, we, and us) are great to use when speaking because it
personalizes the speech and can help audience members connect to you as the speaker and to the
message.

6. Use Culturally Sensitive Language (you Hippy!)

As a public speaker it's critical to be sensitive to cultural variations.
Here are some things to be aware of:
 Biased Language. This refers to language that relies on unfounded assumptions, negative
descriptions, or stereotypes a given group's age, class, gender, disability, geographic, ethnic,
racial, or religious characteristics.
 Colloquial Language. Refers to language/sayings that are specific to a certain region or group of
people. Use of colloquial language can help you "hit the nail on the head" with your speech, or
just might make you look as "dumb as a load of coal." If you're not getting what I'm saying than
there's a good chance you are "as slow as mud" or just "too dumb to pound sand in a rat hole."

7. Don't be Sexist. Steer clear from referring to everyone as "he" or being generic when referring to
stereotypical jobs. All nurses are not females, and not all construction workers are males. No longer is
there such thing as "chairmen" it's now "chairperson." If you're struggling with this, then go ahead and
struggle, but it's not going to change.

8. Be Sensitive to Disabilities. A disability does not define a person. There are many different types of
mental and physical disabilities, so be aware of language that will accord dignity, respect, and fairness.

9. Choose Concrete over Abstract

Use concrete words that are specific, tangible, and definite. Use a Thesaurus and Dictionary to help you
understand and use this. The opposite of concrete is abstract. Abstract words are general and
nonspecific. The problem with using abstract words is these words can be left to the interpretation of
individual audience members, which may confuse and frustrate listeners.
10. Paint a Picture with Words
Using vivid images to paint a mental picture for the audience will get their imaginations involved.

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B. Methods of Delivery
For a seasoned speaker, the process of writing and delivering a speech is second nature. For others, the
delivery methods are unknown. Between the preparation of writing a speech and getting ready to
present the speech, a speaker must decide which speech method to use. There are four main types of
speech delivery, each having their own benefits and drawbacks.

 Manuscript - The manuscript method of delivering a speech involves writing a manuscript used
for reference during the speech and for official records. Manuscript delivery should avoid
reading the manuscript word for word, otherwise the speaker risks sounding mechanical. The
use of eye contact and facial expressions helps bring personality to this type of speech delivery.

 Memorization - The memorization method involves memorizing a speech word for word. This
can run the risk of sounding as mechanical as the manuscript method. As in the manuscript
method, memorizing key talking points gives the speaker a more personal approach. Add
personality with voice inflection, eye contact and facial expressions.

 Impromptu - The impromptu method involves speeches with little or no time for preparation
and speech writing. In situations like this, speakers should do everything in their power to take a
few minutes to prepare themselves. Organizing a speech and breaking it down into parts is a
quick way to mentally prepare a speech. Preparation should be started at the beginning of an
introduction, or as soon as a speaker realizes they may be called on to speak. The typical
organizational format includes a main point, proof, additional proof if possible, and a conclusion.

 Extemporaneous - The extemporaneous method has more preparation than the impromptu
method. It involves writing, rewriting and editing. In addition, the delivery is practiced, recited,
and main points are memorized. Typically, a speaker uses an outline for the main points and the
exact wording is not concrete until the delivery is given. Audiences typically perceive
extemporaneous speeches as spontaneous, while the speaker still maintains control of the
speaking points.

C. The Voice/Body in Delivery

VOICE
 Articulate your words. Your natural speaking tone or style doesn't matter, as long as what you're
saying can be heard clearly. Speaking even one second slower between your words than you usually
do makes a huge difference to both you and your audience (you, for better pacing, breathing,
thinking, and your audience for fewer distractions and greater understanding).

 Animate your words. Give life and character to your words to keep your audience attentive and
entertained. For example, say the word "excited" in the same tone that it's described: "I was so
EXCITED to find out the news," or the word "challenging" in a lower, longer stretch: "It was the most
chaaallenging experience I've ever had." It's like onomatopoeia for words that aren't onomatopoeic!

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 Be aware of fillers like "um" and "uh." When we're nervous, we tend to use fillers in between our
words to fill time and space. But pauses are powerful - get comfortable with them. Take the time in
between for an extra breath. Fillers are one of the most distracting nervous habits of public
speaking. And the most underrated but equally distracting filler? "So." You'd be surprised how often
"so" is used when the best option would be a simple PERIOD and sentence end. Be aware!

 Lower your voice when ending a sentence, as opposed to raising your voice, like you are asking a
question. When people up speak, it sounds like this? At the end of every sentence? When it should
sound like this. Or that. I hope you hear the difference.

 Up speaking is probably my biggest personal distraction when listening to others. It occurs out of
nerves, but gives the impression of lack of confidence and assuredness, as if you are asking for
validation each time. If you're making statements, make statements. If you're asking questions, ask
questions. The two are not interchangeable in sound and inflection.

BODY
 Divide your audience into quadrants or thirds. Make eye contact with one person from each section,
and repeat. All the people around that person will feel as if you're speaking right to them, too. Treat
each moment of eye contact as a moment in conversation with a new person in your audience. If
you are uncomfortable with direct eye contact, look at people's foreheads or just above the top of
their head. In big audiences, I have a natural tendency to use the latter technique, and there is really
no noticeable difference.

 Stand up straight. Keep feet hip-width apart and rooted in the ground. Shoulders back. It feels
awkward to you, but looks proper to everyone else. If using a lectern, rest your hands on its edges to
avoid constant gesturing or other hand distractions.

 Use open body language. Crossing your arms makes you look uninviting and even clutching your
hands in front of you may also make you appear nervous. Keep your hands at your side or held onto
each other behind you. If you can, turn to slightly face different sections of the audience throughout
your delivery. If you pace while you talk, walk to one side of the room, stand and speak a bit, walk to
the other side, repeat.

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VIII. EVALUATING SPEECHES

A. Guidelines for evaluating Speeches

The following criteria are of equal importance in evaluating the speaker:

I. Analysis and Content

 Did the speaker answer the question?
 Was the content informative?
 Was there sufficient use of logic, facts, examples, and/or expert opinion?
 Was the information adequately documented?
 Was the information pertinent to the specific topic?
II. Organization
 Introduction
 Did the speaker get attention?
 Was the topic clearly stated?
 Did the speaker preview and give focus to the key ideas?
 Body
 Were divisions clear and appropriate to the topic?
 Did the speaker make effective use of signposting, internal summaries, and transitions?
 Was adequate time devoted to each division within the 7 minute time limit?
 Was there a logical progression of ideas?
 Conclusion
 Did the speaker tie the speech together?
 Was the answer to the question clear?
 Was there a note of finality?
III. Delivery
 Language Style
 Was the language suitable to informing the audience?
 Was the language precise, grammatically correct, and vivid?
 Was the delivery natural and spontaneous?
 Did it reinforce the ideas of the speech?
 Vocal Delivery
 Was enunciation clear?
 Was volume appropriate?
 Was there sufficient variety in rate, pause, and pitch?
 Physical Delivery
 Did the speaker exhibit poise and confidence?
 Were gestures varied, movement motivated, and eye contact direct?
 If note card was used, was it an unobtrusive part of the delivery?

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B. Rubric for Evaluating Speeches
Rating
Rating Rating Rating
Needs Score
Criterion Excellent Good Satisfactory
Improvement
Points 10-9 Points 9-8 Points 8-7 Points 7-6
Introduction (1) Gets Meets any three Meets any two of Meets only one
attention of the four criteria the four criteria of the four
(2) Clearly criteria
identifies topic
(3) Establishes
credibility
(4) Previews the
main points
Body Main points are Main points are Main points Main points
clear, somewhat clear, need clarity are not clear
well supported, some support, and support and have no
and and lack of support
sources are some sources and and no sources or
documented documentation documentation documentation

Conclusion (1) Reviews main Reviews main Brings closure Does not bring
points points , brings closure; the
(2) Brings closure closure audience is left
(3) Memorable hanging

Eye Contact Eye contact with Eye contact with Eye contact with Little or no eye
audience virtually audience less audience less contact
all the time than 80% of the than 75% of the
(except for brief time time
glances at notes)
Use of Use of language Use of language Use of language Use of language is
Language contributes to does not have causes potential inappropriate
effectiveness of negative impact, confusion, and/or
the speech, and and vocalized vocalized pauses
vocalized pauses pauses (um uh er etc.)
(um uh er etc.) (um uh er etc.) are distracting
not distracting not distracting

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Body Body language, Body language, Body language, Body language,
language gestures, and gestures, and facial expressions gestures, and
facial expressions facial and gestures facial expressions
adds greatly to expressions lack variety and are lacking or
the message compliment spontaneity inappropriate
message

Clarity Speaks clearly Speaks clearly and Speaks clearly and Often mumbles or
and distinctly all distinctly nearly distinctly most of cannot be
the time with no all the time with the time with no understood with
mispronounced no more than one more than two more than three
words mispronounced mispronounced mispronounced
word words words

Topic is Topic is specific, Topic is clear Topic lacks clarity No specific

specific, appropriate and appropriate and and focus purpose--
follows adapted somewhat needs adapting to inappropriate for
assignment adapted audience audience or
Adapted to occasion
audience

Visual Aids Visual aids well- Minor problems Significant No visual aids
chosen and with visual aids problems with
presented visual aids

Time Within allotted Within 10% of Within 20% of Not within 20% of
time allotted time allotted time allotted time
(Adapted from Dan Rooney, 2016)

References:

 http://members.tripod.com/teaching_is_reaching/preparing_your_speech.htm
 http://www.iacact.com/?q=commfwk
 https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/10-ways-use-voice-body-perfect-speech-delivery-gloria-eid
 https://bizfluent.com/info-8559937-four-methods-delivering-speech.html
 http://canonsofrhetoric.blogspot.com/2012/10/using-language-style-for-your-speech.html
 http://open.lib.umn.edu/publicspeaking/chapter/17-3-organizing-persuasive-speeches/
 http://www.myspeechclass.com/informativetopics2.html
 https://publicspeakingresources.com/informative-speech-topics/
 https://www.ncc.gov.ng/archived/speeches/speech_byECAMedia_for_Children_summit.pdf
 http://ccetompkins.org/resources/guidelines-for-to-scoring-speeches
 https://www.uiltexas.org/speech/extemp/criteria-for-evaluating-informative-speakers

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