Theory of Costs

Micro Economics I 4.
1 Short-Run Costs
Econ 111 Instructor: Mr. Chandra
SekharMicro Economics I 4.1 Short-Run
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Econ 111 Instructor: Mr. Chandra Sekhar
THEORY OF PRODUCTION
Introduction
Cost functions are derived functions. They are derived from the production
function, which describes the available efficient methods of production at any
one time.
Economic theory distinguishes between short-run and long-run costs. Short-run

costs are the costs over a period during which some factors of production
(usually capital equipment and management) are fixed. The long-run costs are
those costs over a period long enough to permit the change of all factors of
production. In the long-run all factors become variable.
Both in the short-run and in the long-run, total cost is a multivariable function,
that is, total cost is determined by many factors. Symbolically long-run cost
function can be written as
C = f (X,T,Pf)
and the short-run cost function as
C = f (X,T,Pf,K)
Where C = Total Cost, X = Output, T = Technology, P f = Prices of factors, K =

Fixed factor(s).
Graphically, costs are shown on two-dimensional diagrams. Such curves imply

that cost is a function of output, C=f(X), ceteris paribus (other things being equal
or unchanged). The clause ceteris paribus implies that all other factors which
determine costs are constant. If these factors do change, their effect on costs is
shown graphically by a shift of the cost curve. This is the reason why
determinants of cost. Other than output, are called shift factors. Mathematically
there is no difference between the various determinants of costs. The distinction
between movements along the cost curve (when output changes) and shifts of
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Micro Economics I 4.1 Short-Run Costs
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the curve (when the other determinants change) is convenient only
pedagogically, because it allows the use of two-dimensional diagrams. But it
can be misleading when studying the determinants of costs. It is important to
remember that if the cost curve shifts, this does not imply that the cost function
is indeterminate.
The factor technology is itself a multidimensional factor, determined by the

physical quantities of factor inputs, the quality of the factor inputs, the
efficiency of the entrepreneur, both in organizing the physical side of the
production (technical efficiency of the entrepreneur), and in making the correct
economic choice of techniques (economic efficiency of the entrepreneur). Thus,
any change in these determinants (e.g., the introduction of a better method of
organization of production, the application of an educational program to the
existing labor) will shift the production function, the application of an
educational program to the existing labor) will shift the production function, and
hence will result in a shift of the cost curve. Similarly the improvement of raw
materials or the improvement in the use of the same raw materials will lead to a
shift downwards of the cost function.
The short-run costs are the costs at which the firm operates in any one period.
The long-run costs are planning costs or ex ante (based on prior assumptions or
expectations) costs, in that they present the optimal possibilities for expansion of
the output and thus help the entrepreneur is in a long-run situation, in the sense
that he can choose any one of a wide range of alternative investments, defined
by the state of technology. After the investment decision is taken and funds are
tied up in fixed-capital equipment, the entrepreneur operates under short-run
conditions; he is on a short cost curve.
A distinction is necessary between internal (to the firm) economies of scale and
external economies. The internal economies are build into the shape of the long-
run cost curve, because they accrue to the firm from its own action as it expands
the level of its output. The external economies arise outside the firm, from
improvement (or depreciation) of the environment in which the firm operates.
Such economies external to the firm may be realized from actions of other firms
in the same or in another industry. The important characteristic of such
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economies is that they are independent of the actions of the firm, they are
external to it. Their effect is a change in the prices of the factors employed by
the firm, they are external to it. Their effect is a change in the prices of the
factors employed by the firm (or in a reduction in the amount of inputs per unit
of output), and thus cause a shift of the cost curves, both the short-run and the
long-run.
In summary, while the internal economies of scale relate only to the long-run
and are built into the shape of the long-run cost curve, the external economies
affect the position of the cost curves; both the short-run and the long-run cost
curves will shift if external economies affect the prices of the factors and/or the
production function.
Any point on a cost curve shows the minimum cost at which a certain level of
output may be produced. This is the optimality implied by the points of accost
curve. Usually the above optimality is associated with the long-run cost curves.
Usually the above optimality is associated with the long-run cost curve.
However, a similar concept may be applied to the short-run, given the plant of
the firm in any one period.
SHORT-RUN COSTS
The Traditional Theory

Traditional Theory distinguishes between the short run and the long run. The
short run is the period during which some factor(s) is fixed; usually capital
equipment and entrepreneurship are considered as fixed in the short run. The
long run is the period over which all factors become variable.
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In the traditional theory of the firm total costs are split into two groups: total
fixed costs and total variable costs:
TC = TFC + TVC
The fixed costs include:

(a) Salaries of administrative staff
(b) Depreciation (wear and tear) of machinery
(c) Expenses for building depreciation and repairs
(d) Expenses for land maintenance and depreciation
Another element that may be treated in the same way as fixed costs is the
normal profit, which is a lump sum including a percentage return on fixed
capital and allowance for risk.
The variable costs include:

(a) The raw materials
(b) The cost of direct labor
(c) The running expenses of fixed capital, such as fuel ordinary
repairs and routine maintenance.
Total fixed cost is graphically denoted by a straight line parallel to the output
axis (fig.1). The total variable cost is the traditional theory of the firm has
broadly an inverse – S shape (fig. 2) which reflects the law of variable
proportions. According to this law, at the initial stages of production with a
given plant, as more of the variable factor(s) is employed, its productivity
increases and the average variable factor(s) employed, its productivity increasesTC
and the average variable cost falls.
TVC
C
TFC
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O X O X O X
Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3
This continues until optimal combination of the fixed and variable factors is
reached. Beyond this point as increased quantities of the variable factor(s) are
combined with the fixed factor(s) the productivity of the variable factor(s)
declines 9 and the AVC rises). By adding the TFC and TVC we obtain average
cost curves. The average fixed cost is found by dividing TFC by the level of
output:
AFC = TFC
X
Graphically the AFC is a rectangular hyperbola, showing at all its points the
same magnitude, that is, the level of TFC (fig. 4). The average variable cost is
similarly obtained by dividing the TVC with the corresponding level of output:
AVC = TVC
X
Graphically the AVC at each level of output is derived from the slope of a line
drawn from the origin to the point on the TVCVC curve corresponding to the
particular level of output. For example fig.5 the AVC at X 1 is the slope of the
ray Oa, the AVC at X 2 is the slope of a ray through the origin declines
continuously until the ray becomes tangent to the TVC curve falls initially as the
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productivity of the variable factor(s) increases, reaches a minimum when the
plant is operated optimally (with the optimal combination of fixed and variable
factors), and rises beyond that point fig.6.
C
TVC
C
SAVC
0 x1 x2 x3 x4 X O x1 x2 x3 x4 X
Fig. 5 Fig. 6
The ATC is obtained by dividing the TC by the corresponding level of output:
TC TFC +TVC
ATC= = = AFC + AVC
X X
Graphically the ATC curve is derived in the same way as the SVAC. The ATC at
any level of output is the slope of the straight line from the origin to the point on
the TC curve corresponding to that particular level of output (fig.7). The shape
of the ATC reaches a minimum at the level of optimal operation of the plant
(XM) and subsequently rises again (fig.8). The U shape of both the AVC reflects
the law of variable proportions or law of eventually decreasing returns to the
variable factor(s) of production. The marginal cost is defined as the change in
TC which results from a unit change in output. Mathematically the marginal
cost is the first derivative of the TC function. Denoting total cost by C and
output by X we have .
∂C TC
MC=
∂X
SATC
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O x1 x2 xM xL X
Fig. 8
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O x1 x2 xM xL X
Fig.7
Graphically the MC is the slope of the TC curve (which of course is the same at
point as the slope of the TVC). The slope of a curve at any one of its points is
the slope of the tangent at that point. With an inverse S shape of the TC (and
TVC) the MC curve will be U-shaped. In fig.9, we observe that the slope of the
tangent to the total-cost curve declines gradually, until it becomes parallel to the
X-axis (with its slope being equal to zero at this point), and then starts rising.
Accordingly we picture the MC curve in fig.10 as U shaped.
C TC SMC
0 XA X O XA X
Fig.9 Fig.10
In summary: the traditional theory of costs postulates that in the short run the
cost curves (AVC, ATC and MC) are U shaped, reflecting the law of variable
proportions. In the short run with a fixed plant there is a phase of increasing
productivity (falling unit costs) and a phase of decreasing productivity
(increasing unit costs) of the variable factor(s). Between these two phases of
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plant operation there is a single point at which unit costs are at a minimum.
When this point on the SATC is reached the plant is utilized optimally, that is
with the optimal combination (proportions) of fixed and variable factors.
The relationship between ATC and AVC
The AVC is a part of the ATC, given ATC=AFC+AVC. Both AVC and ATC are
U-shaped, reflecting the law of variable proportions. However, the minimum
point of the ATC occurs to the right of the minimum point of the AVC (fig.11).
This is due to the fact that ATC includes AFC, and the latter falls continuously
with increase in output. After the AVC has reached its lowest point and starts
rising, its rise is over a certain range offset by the fall in the AFC, so that the
ATC continues to fall despite the increase in AVC. However, the rise in AVC
eventually becomes greater than the fall in the AFC so that the ATC starts
increasing. The AVC approaches the ATC asymptotically as X increases.
SMC SATC
a SAVC
AFC
O X1 X2 X
Fig.11
In fig.11 the minimum AVC is reached at X 1 at while the ATC is at its minimum
at X2. Between X1 and X2 the fall in AFC more than offsets the rise in AVC so
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that the ATC continues to fall. Beyond X 2 the increase in AVC is not offset by
the fall in AFC, so that ATC rises.
The relationship between MC and ATC
The MC cuts the ATC and the AVC at their lowest points. We will establish this
relation only for the ATC and MC, but the relation between MC, but the relation
between MC and AVC can be established on the same lines of reasoning.
The MC is the change in the TC for producing an extra unit of output. Assume
that we start from a level of n units of output. If increase the output by one unit
the MC is the change in total cost resulting from the production of the (n+1) th
unit.
The AC at each level of output is found by dividing TC by X. Thus the AC at

the level of Xn is
TC n
AC n =
Xn
and the AC at the level Xn+1 is

TC n+1
AC n =
X n+1
clearly
TCn+1 =TC n +MC
Thus:
(a) If the MC of the (n+1)th unit is less than Can (the AC of the
previous n units) the ACn+1 will be smaller than the ACn.
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(b) If the MC of the (n+1)th unit is higher than ACn (the AC of the
previous n units) the ACn+1 will be higher than the ACn.
So long as the MC lies below the AC curves, it pulls the latter downwards when
the MC rises above the AC, it pulls the latter upwards. In fig.11 to the left of a
the MC lies below the AC curve, and hence the latter falls downwards. To the
right of a the MC curve lie above the AC curve, so that AC rises. It follows that
at point a, where the intersection of the MC and AC occurs, the Ac has reached
its minimum level.
The Modern Theory of Short-run Costs
The U-shaped cost curves of the traditional theory have been questioned by
various writers both on theoretical a priori and on empirical grounds. As early
as 1939 George Stigler suggested that the short-run average variable cost has a
flat stretch over a range of output which reflects the fact that firms build plans
with some flexibility in their productive capacity. The reasons for this reserve
capacity have been discussed in detail by various economists. As in the
traditional theory, short-run costs are distinguished into average variable costs
(AVC) and average fixed costs (AFC).
The Average Fixed Cost

This is the cost of indirect factors, that is the cost of the physical and personal
organization of the firm. The fixed costs include the costs for:
(a) the salaries and other expenses of administrative staff

(b) the expenses for maintenance of buildings,
(c) the wear and tear of machinery (standard depreciation
allowances),
(d) the expenses for maintenance of buildings,
(e) the expenses for the maintenance of land on which the plant is
installed and operates..
The planning of the plant (or the firm) consists in deciding the size of these
fixed, indirect factors, which determine the size of the plant, because they set
limits to its production. Direct factors such as labor and raw materials are
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assumed not to set limits on size; the firm can acquire them easily with a figure
for the level of output which entrepreneur anticipates selling, and he will choose
the size of plant which will allow him to produce this level of output more
efficiently and with the maximum flexibility. The plant will wants to have some
reserve capacity for various reasons.
The businessman will want to be able to meet sensational and cyclical

fluctuations in his demand. Such fluctuations cannot always be met efficiently
by a stock-inventory policy. Reserve capacity will allow the entrepreneur to
work with more shifts and with lower costs than a stock – piling policy.
Reserve capacity will give the businessman greater flexibility for repairs for
broken down machinery without disrupting the smooth flow of the production
process.
The entrepreneur will want to have more freedom to increase his output if
demand increases. All businessmen hope for growth. In view of anticipated
increases in demand the entrepreneur builds some reserve capacity, because he
would not like to let all new demand go to his rivals, as this may endanger his
future old on the market. It also gives him some flexibility for minor
alternations of his product, in view of changing tastes of customers.
Technology usually makes it necessary to build into the plant some reserve
capacity. Some basic types of machinery may not be technically fully employed
when combined with other small types of machines in certain numbers, more of
which may not be required given the specific size of the chosen plant. Also such
basic machinery may be difficult to install due to time – lags in the acquisition.
The entrepreneurs will thus buy from the beginning such a ‘basic’ machine
which allows the highest flexibility, in view of future growth in demand, even
though this is a more expensive alternative now. Furthermore some machinery
may be so specialized as to be available only to order, which takes time. In this
case such machinery will be bought in excess of the minimum required at
present numbers, as a reserve.
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Some reserve capacity will always be allowed in the land and buildings, since
expansion of operations may be seriously limited if new land or new buildings
have to be acquired.
Finally, there will be some reserve capacity on the organizational and

administrative level. The administrative staff will be hired at such numbers as to
allow some increase in the operations of the firm.
In summary, the businessman will not necessarily choose the plant which will
give him today the lowest cost, but rather that equipment which will allow him
the greatest possible flexibility, for minor alternations of his product or his
technique.
Under these conditions the AFC curve will be as in fig.15. The firm has some
largest-capacity units of machinery which set an absolute limit to the short-run
expansion of output (boundary b in fig. 15). The firm has also small-unit
machinery, which sets a limit to expansion (boundary A in fig. 15). this is not an
absolute boundary, because the firm can increase its output in the short run(until
the absolute limit B is encountered), either by paying overtime to direct labor for
working longer hours (in this case AFC shown by the dotted line in fig.15), or
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by buying some additional small-unit types of machinery (in this case the AFC
curve shifts upwards, and starts falling again as shown by the line ab in fig.15).
The Average variable cost
As in the traditional theory, the average variable cost of modern

microeconomics includes the cost of:
(a) direct labor which varies with output,
(b) raw materials,
(c) running expenses of machinery.
The SAVC in modern theory has a saucer-type shape that is broadly shaped but
has a flat stretch over a range of output (fig.16). The flat stretch corresponds to
the built-in the plant reserve capacity. Over this stretch the SAVC is equal to the
MC, both being constant per unit of output. To the left of the flat stretch the MC
lies below the SAVC, while to the right of the flat stretch the MC rises above the
SAVC. The falling part of the SAVC shows the reduction in costs due to the
better utilization of the fixed factor and the consequent increase in skills and
productivity of the variable factor (labor) with better skills the wastes in raw
materials are also being reduced and a better utilization of the whole plant is
reached.
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The increasing part of the SAVC reflects reduction in labor productivity due to
the longer hours of work, the increasing cost of labor due to overtime payment
(which is higher than the current wage), the wastes in materials and the more
frequent break down of machinery as the firm operates with overtime or with
more shifts.
The innovation of modern microeconomics in this field is the theoretical

establishment of a short-run SAVC curve with a flat stretch over a certain range
of output (fig.18). It should be clear that this reserve capacity is planned in
order to give the maximum flexibility in the operation of the firm. It is
completely different from the excess capacity which arises with the U-shaped
costs of the traditional theory for the firm. The traditional theory assumes that
each plant is designed without any flexibility: it is designed to produce
optimally only a single level of output (X M in fig. 17). If the firm produces an
output X smaller than XM there is excess (unplanned) capacity, equal to the
difference XM – X. This excess capacity is obviously undesirable because it
leads to higher unit costs.
In the modern theory of costs the range of output X1, X2 in fig. 18 reflects the
planned reserve capacity which does not lead to increases in costs. The firm
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anticipates using its plant sometimes closer to X1 and at others closer to X2. On
the average the entrepreneur expects to operate his plant within the X1X2 range.
Usually firms consider that the ‘normal’ level of utilization of their plant is
somewhere between two-thirds and three-quarters of their capacity, that is, at a
point closer to X2 than X1. The level of utilization of the plant which firms
consider as ‘normal’ is called ‘the load factor’ of the plant.
C C SAVC
SAVC
Reserve Capacity
excess capacity
O X XM X O X1 X2 X
Fig. 17 Fig. 18
The Average Total Cost
The average total cost is obtained by adding the average fixed (inclusive of
normal profit) and the average variable costs at each level of output. The ATC is
shown in fig.19. The ATC curves falls continuously up to the level of output
(X2) at which the reserve capacity is exhausted. Beyond that level ATC will
start rising. The MC will intersect the average total-cost curve at its minimum
point (which occurs to the right of the level of output X A at which the flat stretch
of the AVC ends).
MC SATC
C
SAVC
AFC
MC
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O Fig. 19 XA X
Mathematically the cost-output relation may be written in the form
C = b0 + b1X
TC = TFC + TVC The TC is a straight line with a positive slope over
the range of reserve capacity (fig. 20).
TC
C C
TVC
SAC
SAVC=MC
TFC
AFC
O
O Fig. 20 X X X
range of reserve capacity
Fig. 21
The AFC is a rectangular hyperbola

AFC = bo
X
The AVC is a straight line parallel to the output axis
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(b1 X )
AFC = =b 1
X
The ATC is falling over the range of reserve capacity
b0
ATC= +b
X 1
The MC is a straight line which coincides with the AVC
∂C
=b
∂X 1
Thus the range of reserve capacity we have MC=AVC=b1, while ATC falls
continuously over this range (fig. 21). Note that the above total cost function
does not extend to the increasing part of costs, that is it does not apply to ranges
of output beyond the reserve capacity of the firm.
LONG-RUN COSTS
Long-run costs of the Traditional Theory: The Envelope Curve

In the long – run all factors are assumed to become variable. It is known that
the long-run cost curve is a planning curve, in the sense that it is a guide to the
entrepreneur in his decision to plan the future expansion of his output.
The long run average cost curve is derived from short-run cost curves. Each
point on the LAC corresponds to a point on a short-run cost curve, which is
tangent to the LAC at that point. Let us examine in detail how the LAC is
derived from the SAC curves.
Assume, as a first approximation, that the available technology to the first at a

particular point of time includes three methods of production, each with a
different plant size: a small plant, medium plant and large plant. The small plant
operates with costs denoted by the curve SAC1, the medium – size plant operates
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with the costs on SAC2 and the large – size plant gives rise to the costs shown on
SAC3 (fig.1).
SATC1
C1
C| 1 SATC2
SATC3
C| 2
C2
C3
0 X1 X|1 X||1 X2 X|2 X3 X
Fig. 1
If the firm plans to produce output X 1 it will choose the small plant. If it plants
to produce X2 it will choose medium size plant. If it wishes to produce X 3 it will
choose the large size plant. If the firm starts with the small plant and its demand
gradually increases, it will produce at lower costs (up to level x 1). Beyond that
point costs start increasing. If its demand reaches the level X”1 the firm can
either continue to produce with the small plant or it can install the medium size
plant. The decision at this point depends on not on costs but on the firm’s
expectations about its future demand. If the firm expects that the demand will
expand further thatnX”1 it will install the medium plant because with this plant
outputs larger than X”1 are produced with a lower cost. Similar considerations
hold for the decision of the firm when it reaches the level X” 2. If it expects its
demand to stay constant at this level, the firm will not install the large plant,
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given that it involves a larger investment which is profitable only if demand
expands beyondX”2. For example, the level of output X3 is produced at a cost
C3 with the large plant, while it costs C’ 3 if produced with medium size plant
(C’2 >C3).
Now if we relax the assumption of the existence of only three plants and assume
that the available technology includes many plant sizes, each suitable for a
certain level of output, the points of intersection of consecutive plants are more
numerous. In the limit, if we assume that there are a very large number of
plants, we obtain a continuous curve, which is the planning LAC curve of the
firm. Each point of this curve shows the minimum (optimal) cost for producing
the corresponding level of output. The LAC curve is the locus of points
denoting the least cost of producing the corresponding output. It is a planning
curve because on the basis of this curve the firm decides what plant to set up in
order to produce optimally the expected level of output. The firm chooses the
short-run plant which allows it to produce the anticipated output at the least
possible cost. In the traditional theory of the firm the LAC curve is U-shaped
and it is often called the ‘envelope curve’ because it envelopes the SRC curves
Fig. 2
LAC
O Fig. 2 XM X
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Let us examine the U shape of the LAC. This shape reflects the laws of returns
to scale. According to these laws the unit costs of production decreases as plant
size increases, due to the economies of scale which the larger plant size make
possible. The traditional theory of the firm assumes that economies of scale exist
only up to a certain size of plant, which is known as the optimum plant size,
because with this plant size all possible economies of scale are fully exploited.
If the plant increases further than this optimum size there are diseconomies of
scale, arising from managerial inefficiencies. It is argued that management
becomes highly complex, managers are overworked and the decision making
process becomes less efficient. The turning-up of the LAC curve is due to
managerial diseconomies of scale, since the technical diseconomies can be
avoided by duplicating the optimum technical plant size.
A serious assumption of the traditional U-shaped cost curves is that each plant
size is designed to produce optimally a single level of output (e.g. 1000 units of
X). Any departure from that X no matter how small (e.g., an increase by 1 unit
of X) leads to increased costs. The plant is completely inflexible. There is no
reserve capacity, not even to meet seasonal variations in demand. As a
consequence of this assumption the LAC curve ‘envelopes’ the SRAC. Each
point of the LAC is a point of tangency with the corresponding SRAC curve.
The point of tangency occurs to the falling part of the SRAC curves for points
lying to the left of the minimum point of the LAC: since the slope of LAC is
negative up to M the slope of the SRAC curves must also be negative, since at
the point of their tangency the two curves have the same slope. The point of
tangency for outputs larger than XM occurs to the rising part of the SRAC
curves: since the LAC rises, the SAC must rise at the point of their tangency
with the LAC. Only at the minimum point M of the LAC is the corresponding
SAC also at a minimum. Thus at the falling pat of the LAC the plants are not
worked to full capacity to the rising part of the LAC the plants are overworked;
only at the minimum point A is the (short-run) plant optimally employed.
We stress once more the optimality implied by the LAC planning curve: each
point represents the least unit-cost for producing the corresponding level of
output. Any point above the LAC is inefficient in that it shows a higher cost for
producing the corresponding level of output. Any point below the LAC is
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economically desirable because it implies a lower unit-cost, but it is not
attainable in the current state of technology and with the prevailing market
prices of factors of production.
The long-run marginal cost is derived from the SRMC curves, but does not
envelope them. The LRMC is formed from the points of intersection of the
SRMC curve with vertical lines (to the x-axis) drawn from the points of
tangency of the corresponding SAC curves and the LRA cost curve (fig. 3).
LMC
C
a
SMCM
SMC1
SMC2 LAC
0 X|1 X1 X||1 X2 XM X
Fig. 3
The LMC must be equal to the SMC for the output at which the corresponding
SAC is tangent to LAC. For levels of X to the left of tangency a the
SAC>LAC . At the point of tangency SAC=LAC. As we move from a position
of inequality of SRAC and LRAC to a position of equality. Hence the change in
total cost (i.e. the MC) must be smaller for the short-run curve than for the long-
run curve. Thus LMC>SMC to the left of a. For an increase in output beyond
X1 (e.g.X||1) the SAC>SMC. That is we move from the position a of equality of
the two costs to the position b where SAC is greater than LAC. Hence the
addition to total cost (= MC) must be larger for the short run curve than for the
long run curve. Thus LMC<SMC to the right of a.
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Since to the left of a, LMC>SMC, and to the right of a, LMC<SMC, it follows

that a, LMC = SMC. If we draw a vertical line from a to the X – axis the point
at which it intersects the SMC (point A for SAC1) is a point of the LMC.
If we repeat this procedure for all points of tangency of SRAC and LAC curves
to the left of the minimum point of the LAC, we obtain points of the section of
the LMC which lies below the LAC. At the minimum point M the LMC
intersects the LAC. To the right of M the LMC lies above the LAC curve. At
point M we have
SACM = SMCM = LAC = LMC
There are various mathematical forms which give rise to U-shaped unit cost
curves. The simplest total cost function which would incorporate the law of
variable proportions is the cubic polynomial
C = b0 + b1X – b1X2 + b3X3
TC = TFC + TVC
The AVC is
AVC =
TVC
=b1 −b2 X+b3 X 2
X
The MC is
MC =
∂C
=b −2 b 2 X +3 b3 X 2
∂X 1
The ATC is
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C b0
= +b −b X +b 3 X 2
X X 1 2
The TC curve is roughly S-shaped, while the ATC, the AVC and the MC are all
U-shaped; the MC curve intersects the other two curves at their minimum
points.
LONG RUN COSTS IN MODERN MICRO ECONOMIC THEORY:
The L – Shaped scale Curve.
These are distinguished into production costs and managerial costs. All costs
are variable in the long run and they give rise to a long-run cost curve which is
roughly L-shaped. The production costs fall continuously with increases in
output. At very large scales of output managerial costs may rise. But the fall in
production costs more than offsets the increase in the managerial costs, so that
the total LAC falls with increases in scale.
Production costs
Production costs fall steeply to begin with and then gradually as the scale of
production increases. The L-shape of the production cost curve is explained by
the technical economies of large-scale production. Initially these economies are
substantial, but after a certain level of output is reached all or most of these
economies are attained and the firm is said to have reached the minimum
optimal scale, given the technology of the industry. If new techniques are
invented for larger scales of output, they must be cheaper to operate. But even
with the existing known techniques some economies can always be achieved at
larger outputs:
(a) economies from further decentralization and improvement in

skills;
(b) lower repairs costs may be attained if the firm reaches a certain
size;
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(c) the firm, especially if it is multiproduct, may well undertake itself
the production of some of the materials or equipment which it needs
instead of buying them from other firms.
Managerial Costs
In the modern management science for each plant size there is a corresponding
organizational administrative set-up appropriate for the smooth operating of that
plant. There are various levels of management, each with its appropriate kind of
management technique. Each management technique is applicable to a range of
output. There are small-scale as well as large-scale organizational techniques.
The costs of different techniques of management first fall up to a certain plant
size. At very large scales of output managerial costs may rise, but very slowly.
In summary: Production costs fall smoothly at very large scales, while

managerial costs may rise only slowly at very large scales. Modern theorists
seems to accept that the fall in technical costs more than offsets the probable rise
of managerial costs, so that the LRAC curve falls smoothly or remains constant
atv very large scales of output.
We may draw the LAC implied by the modern theory of costs as follows. For
each short-run period we obtain the SRAC which includes production costs,
administration costs. Other fixed costs and an allowance for normal profit.
Assume that we have a technology with four plant sizes, with costs falling as
size increases. We said that in business practice it is customary to consider that
a plant is used normally when it operates at a level between two-thirds and
three-quarters of capacity.
Following this procedure, and assuming that the typical load factor of each plant
is two-thirds of its full capacity (limit capacity), we may draw the LAC curve by
joining the points on the SATC curves corresponding to the two-thirds of the full
capacity of each plant sizes the LAC curve will be continuous (fig.4).
SATC1
C SATC2
Cost SATC3
SATC4
2/3
2/3
LAC
2/3 24242424
2/3
Costs
Costs
Costs
0 Fig. 4 X Output
The characteristic of this LAC curve is that (a) it does not turn up at very large
scales of output; (b) it is not the envelope of the SATC curves, but rather
intersects them (at the level of output defined by the typical load factor of each
plant). If, LAC falls continuously (though smoothly at very large scales of
output), the LMC will lie below the LAC at all scales (fig. 5).
C C
LAC = LMC
LAC
LMC
0 Fig. 5 X 0 Fig. 6 x X
Minimum optimal scale
If there is a minimum optimal scale of plant (x in fig. 6) at which all possible

scale economies are reaped, beyond that scale the LAC remains constant. In this
case the LMC lies below the LAC until the minimum optimal scale is reached,
and coincides with the LAC beyond the U-shaped costs of traditional theory.
DYNAMIC CHANGES IN COSTS – THE LEARNING CURVE
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Costs
It is believed that a large firm may have long-run average cost than a small
firm: increasing returns to scale in production. So it is convincing to conclude
that firms which enjoy lower average cost over time are growing firms with
increasing returns to scale. But this need not be true. In some firms, long-run
cost may decline over time because workers and managers absorb new
technological information as they become more experienced at their jobs.
As management and labor gain experience with production, the firm’s marginal
and average costs of producing a given level of output fall for four reasons:
1. Workers often take longer to accomplish a given task the first few
times they do it. As they become more adept, their speed increases.
2. Managers learn to schedule the production process more
effectively, from the flow of materials to the organization of the
manufacturing itself.
3. Engineers who are initially cautious in their product designs may
gain enough experience to be able to allow for tolerances in design that
save cost without increasing defects. Better and more specialized tools
and plant organization may also lower cost.
4. Suppliers of materials may learn how to process materials
required more effectively and may pass on some of this advantage in the
form of lower materials cost.
As a consequence, a firm “learns” over time as cumulative output increases.

Managers can use this learning process to help plan production and forecast
future costs. Fg. 1 illustrates this process in the form of a learning curve – a
curve that describes the relationship between a firm’s cumulative output and the
amount of inputs needed to produce each unit of output.
Hours of labor / machine Lot
8
26262626
The Learning Curve (Fig. 1): 10A firm’s
20 production
30 40 50cost may fall over time as managers
and workers become more experienced
Cumulative Numberand more effective
of Machine at using the available plant and
Lots Produced
equipment. The learning curve shows the extent to which hours of labor needed per unit
of output fall as the cumulative output increases.
Costs
Costs
Costs
Graphing the Learning Curve
Fig.1 shows a learning curve for the production of machine tools. The horizontal
axis measures the cumulative number of lots of machine tools (groups of
approximately 40) that the firm has produced. The vertical axis shows the
number of hours of labor needed produce each lot. Labor input per unit of
output directly affects the production cost because the fewer the hours of labor
needed the lower the marginal and average cost of production.
The learning curve in fig.1 is based on the relationship L = A + BN-β
Where N is the cumulative units of output produced and L the labor input per
unit of output. A, B, and β are constants, with A and B positive, and β between
0 and 1. When N is equal to 1, L is equal to A + B, so that A + B measures the
labor input required to produce the first unit of output. When β equals 0, labor
input per unit of output remains the same as the cumulative level of output
increases; there is no learning. When β is positive and N gets larger and larger,
L becomes arbitrarily close to A. A, therefore represents the minimum labor
input per unit of output after all learning has taken place.
The larger is β, the more important is the learning effect. With β equals to 0.5,
for example, the labor input per unit of output falls proportionally to the square
root of the cumulative output. This degree of learning can substantially reduce
the firm’s production costs as the firm becomes more experienced.
In this machine tool example, the value of β is 0.31. for this particular learning
curve, every doubling in cumulative output causes the input requirement (less
the minimum attainable input requirement) to fall by about 20% (because (L -
N) = BN-31, we can check that 0.8 (L – A) is approximately equal to B(2N) -31).
As fig.1 shows, the learning curve drops sharply as the cumulative number of
lots increases to about 20. Beyond an output of 20 lots, the cost savings are
relatively small.
Learning versus Economies of Scale
27272727
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Costs
Once the firm has produced 20 or more machine lots, the entire effect of the
learning curve would be complete, and we could use the usual analysis of cost.
If, the production process were relatively new, relatively high cost at low levels
of output (and relatively low cost at higher levels) would indicate learning
effects, not economies of scale. With learning, the cost of production for a
mature firm is relatively low regardless of the scale of the firm’s operation. If a
firm that produces machine tools in the lots knows that it enjoys economies of
scale, it should produce its machine in very large lots to take advantage of the
lower cost associated with size. If there is a learning curve, the firm can lower
its cost by scheduling the production of many lots regardless of the individual
lot size.
Fig. 2 shows this phenomenon. AC1 represents the long-run average cost of
production of a firm that enjoys economies of scale in production. Thus the
change in production from A to B along AC 1 leads to lower cost due to
economies of scale. However, the move from A on AC1 to C on AC2 leads to
lower cost due to learning, which shifts the average cost curve downward.
Cost (Birrs /
unit of output)
A Economies of Scale
AC1
Learning C
AC2
Output
Economies of Scale versus Learning Fig. 2 : A firm’s average cost of
production can decline over time because of growth of sales when
increasing returns are present ( a move from A to B on curve AC 1), or it
can decline because there is a learning curve ( a move from A on curve
AC1 to c on curve AC2.
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The learning curve is crucial for a firm that wants to predict the cost of
producing a new product. For example, a firm producing machine tools knows
that its labor requirement A is equal to zero, and b is approximately equal to
0.32. Table 1 calculates the total labor requirement for producing 80 machines.
Because there is a learning curve, the per-unit labor requirement falls with
increased production. As a result, the total labor requirement for producing
more and more output increases in smaller and smaller increments. Therefore, a
firm looking only at the high initial labor requirement will obtain an overtly
pessimistic view of the business. Suppose the firm plans to be in business for a
long time, reducing 10 units per year. Suppose the total labor requirement for
the first year of production, the firm’s cost will be high as it learns the business.
But once the learning effect has taken place, production costs will fall. After 8
years, the labor required to produce 10 units will be only 5.1, and per-unit cost
will be roughly half what it was in the first year of production. Thus the
learning curve can be important for a firm deciding whether it is profitable to
enter an industry.
Cumulative Per-unit labor Total Labor

Output (N) requirement for each 10 Requirement
units of output (L)*
10 1.00 10.0
20 0.80 18.0 (10.0+8.0)
30 0.70 25.0 (18.0+7.0)
40 0.64 31.4 (25.0+6.4)
50 0.60 37.4 (31.4+6.0)
60 0.56 43.0 (37.4+5.6)
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70 0.53 48.3 (43.0+5.3)
80 0.51 53.4 (48.3+5.1)
Predicting the Labor Requirements of Producing
30303030
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31313131

Theory of Costs

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Theory of Costs

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Micro Economics I 4.

Economic theory distinguishes between short-run and long-run costs. Short-run

and the short-run cost function as

Where C = Total Cost, X = Output, T = Technology, P f = Prices of factors, K =

Graphically, costs are shown on two-dimensional diagrams. Such curves imply

The factor technology is itself a multidimensional factor, determined by the

The Traditional Theory

The fixed costs include:

The variable costs include:

The ATC is obtained by dividing the TC by the corresponding level of output:

The relationship between ATC and AVC

The relationship between MC and ATC

The AC at each level of output is found by dividing TC by X. Thus the AC at

and the AC at the level Xn+1 is

The Modern Theory of Short-run Costs

The Average Fixed Cost

(a) the salaries and other expenses of administrative staff

The businessman will want to be able to meet sensational and cyclical

Finally, there will be some reserve capacity on the organizational and

The Average variable cost

As in the traditional theory, the average variable cost of modern

The innovation of modern microeconomics in this field is the theoretical

The Average Total Cost

Mathematically the cost-output relation may be written in the form

the range of reserve capacity (fig. 20).

The AFC is a rectangular hyperbola

The AVC is a straight line parallel to the output axis

Long-run costs of the Traditional Theory: The Envelope Curve

Assume, as a first approximation, that the available technology to the first at a

0 X1 X|1 X||1 X2 X|2 X3 X

Since to the left of a, LMC>SMC, and to the right of a, LMC<SMC, it follows

SACM = SMCM = LAC = LMC

C = b0 + b1X – b1X2 + b3X3

(a) economies from further decentralization and improvement in

In summary: Production costs fall smoothly at very large scales, while

If there is a minimum optimal scale of plant (x in fig. 6) at which all possible

As a consequence, a firm “learns” over time as cumulative output increases.

The learning curve in fig.1 is based on the relationship L = A + BN-β

Learning versus Economies of Scale

Cumulative Per-unit labor Total Labor

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