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DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin
part of the ‘fit’ which exists between people’s culture-specific cognition and their native
the acquisition and implementation varies among children based on several factors:
discrimination, organization, and memory). Piaget (1964) described how children acquire
schemas through eye-hand coordination and object permanence, which, the schemas
eventually develop as part of children’s language and abstract thought. In a way, schemas
experiences. Essentially, children acquire and build their schemas around real-world
experiences, as well as read-out loud interactions including viewing and reading stories.
Christensen and Delgado (1993) believed that most children’s early language developed
will decode and filter the input stimuli from the world. Moreover, as stated by Vygotsky,
the interactions between children and adults stimulate children’s cognitive development.
Through the interactions with adults, children will comprehend the way the world works
and how to use the tools of their culture (Andrews, Leigh & Weiner, 2004). Owens
(2008) explained that during face to face conversations, facial expressions, body posture
and gestures carry 60% of information thus, the children already have begun their
language acquisition naturally by decoding and encoding the schemas parallel to their
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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin
parents’ language. “Children’s vocabulary size and use, on the other hand, is very closely
related to how much their caregivers read to them” (King & MacKey, 2007, p. 302).
will need to use the stimuli to process the experience encountering the specific object
multiple times in order to proceed the code through the executive function. When the
children have transferred the code through the executive function, the children have
developed and built schemas within their context. With the opportunities the parents
provide for their children to explore the world, the children will build their schemas
children will rely on their developed schematic knowledge while processing new
systemic knowledge. Thus the children will be able to use their previous coding to link
the established schemas to the new context. Thus, when the time comes, the children will
be able to use their coding to create connections from their prior knowledge and
experience to the semantics and language used at school, “…researchers argued that L2
learning takes place mainly through what they called a ‘creative construction hypothesis,’
according to which learners gradually and inductively reconstruct rules of the language as
they are exposed to it in the course of acquisition” (Polio & Shea, 2014, p.119). The
children acquire the literacy skills via their play experience with their parents and other
adults (Singer, Golinkoff & Hirsh-Pasek, 2007). Nowadays children are starting school
with fewer literacy skills than in the past. According to Hoffmeister (2000); Padden and
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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin
“The deaf children who made steady progress in both ASL and MCE [manually
coded English] also made steady progress in reading English; the children who
made progress only in MCE did not. In fact, controlling for whether a child’s
parents were hearing or deaf, signing skills turn out to be the best predictors of
Owens (2001) mentioned, infants with hearing loss need to have early visual experiences
that form the basis of later language acquisition, “Deaf and hard of hearing children who
[do] not receive early access to a complete language exhibit the deficit that began in
infancy” (Easterbrooks & Baker, 2002, p.54). Moreover, Cummins (2014) explained how
the children acquire language, “Language mediates the child’s relationship to his or her
world and the child’s identity is formed through linguistic interaction with other people.
Emotional and cognitive dispositions that form the child’s identity are imprinted in the
early years primarily through linguistic interaction” (Cummins, 2014, p. 1). The language
modeling Deaf and hard of hearing children receive within the environment builds their
schemas, which, promotes the children’s future language scaffolding ability. As Owens
(2001) stated the progression of developing the meaning of words and creating word
Moreover, Andrews, Leigh and Weiner (2004) mentions, more exposure and experience
will promote children’s language to be more adult-like. Children use semantic and
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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin
entities and the actions in a child’s environment” (Owens, 2008, p.43). Furthermore,
Haron (1991) explained how children try out the words that the adults have used and
make adjustments to the word meaning after receiving a feedback from others,
“…researchers observe that when children are interacting in meaningful contexts, they do
not simply imbibe or absorb the language they hear around them; rather they attend to it
selectively and use it as data to make sense of the world around them” (Haron, 1991,
p.178). Throughout my teaching experience, I have seen how each child’s language
acquisition differs from another child. However, I have seen how schemas have
usually happen before I get the chance to know the students. Typically, half of the
families shared their love and enthusiasm for their nightly bedtime reading and another
half of the families expressed their fondness for television or iPad applications rather than
reading a book. The children who have spent nights reading with their families received
opportunities to build schemas linking the context to content thus expanding their
vocabulary awareness and language scaffolding abilities. The children expressed their
keen interest in books, initiating and engaging in conversations, asking questions and
stringing together 3-4 word sentences while sharing thoughts, needs and wants. On the
other hand, for the children who have not received the opportunities to use language
while interacting with the family, did not want to participate story time, demonstrated
little interest in conversations, and used 1-2 word sentences. “Deaf individuals whose
first language exposure was delayed until age 6 or older showed low accuracy in English
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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin
who had learned English as a second language in school after appropriate exposure to a
(signed or oral) first language in the home during early childhood (Cummins, 2014, p. 6).
It is rather fascinating seeing how family interaction and the environment out of the
“…we [educators] must look at each specific learning experience from the point
of view of the spontaneous operations which [are] present at the outset and the
operational level which has been achieved after the learning experience” (Piaget, 1964,
comprehension includes visual and verbal organizers, prior background knowledge, story
schemata, recall, and listening. Unlike hearing children, Deaf and hard of hearing
children are not accustomed to using English as a social language out of the classroom,
“As a case in point, a learner of English who has never resided in the target-language
culture will most likely experience problems in processing English systemic data if these
are presented through such unfamiliar contexts as, say, Halloween or English pubs”
(Alptekin, 1993, p. 137). Thus, deaf and hard of hearing children have not received as
outside of the classroom as the hearing children, “Because they do not overhear
conversation and have limited early literacy experiences in English, deaf children
Morgan, DiGello, Wiles, & Rivers, 2004, p.87). In addition, Andrews, Leigh, and Weiner
(2004) explained that without a bridging strategy, Deaf and hard of hearing children
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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin
could get lost translating from ASL to English, as there is so much structure happening in
speech, writing and signing. A fully evolved bilingual environment is where fluency is
occurring in both languages: ASL and English. “It was found that, while some L1
strategies were transferred to the L2 writing processes, the learners struggled in utilizing
all strategies that could have helped them in their writing process in the L2” (Polio &
Shea, 2014, p.128). The knowledge and understanding of first language (L1) impacts the
process of acquiring a second language (L2); when bilingual children are proficient in
second language, hence the ability of linguistic interference. “Lado (1957) also stressed
the importance of the native language, considering it a major cause of lack of success in
L2 learning” (Polio & Shea, 2014, p.118). As explained by Polio and Shea (2014), Mu
and Carrington’s (2007) research demonstrated the strategies children acquired including
produced more vocabulary that would be considered less common, diverging away from
the [most frequent words] list, than the [English as Second Language] group and the low-
ASL group” (Singleton, Morgan, DiGello, Wiles, & Rivers, 2004, p.96). Freeman and
Freeman (2009) emphasized on the importance of integrating students’ context within the
instruction and lesson plans to promote students’ ability to transfer their L1 schemas and
strategies to L2. In addition, Alptekin (1993) pointed out the significance of integrating
students’ schemas to expand their pragmatics knowledge and ability. “Much as we may
try to mediate our lessons with hands-on activities, objects, and illustrations, we are often
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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin
several steps removed from real-life experience” (p.91). Cummins (1980) explained the
knowledge acquisition in their first language in order to promote the students’ second
language development. “Quite simply, children can be enriched by knowing more than
one language as long as they are additive rather than subtractive bilinguals” (Lessow-
Hurley, 2013, p.48). Unfortunately, as Lessow-Hurley (2013) pointed out the cognitive
demands from the classroom are focusing on written and verbal explanations rather than
method. “Deaf students with normal intellectual abilities are seldom provided with early
may explain the reason why these children often do not reach their potential in English
language usage…” (Christensen & Delgado, 1993, p.18). What the educators can do is
spark deaf and hard of hearing children’s interest in reading and writing in parallel with
their prior context. “When [students] are ready, their natural curiosity—and the fact that
they have come to recognize that the written word holds lots of information and fun—
gets them interested in reading” (Mahshie, 1995, p.3). Numerous studies have shown
when literacy materials are incorporated within play settings, the children’s interest was
sparked and the children were motivated to engage in the literacy acts. “[Student]
identified with the experiences, the characters, and the theme of the book because it was
so much like [the student]’s own story” (Freeman & Freeman, 2009, p. 163). In addition,
Himmel (2015) pointed out the research unveiled, when the students are able to use
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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin
English in meaningful context, the students demonstrated the best ability to acquire the
Since there are a variety of theories and method, Gardner’s 8 intelligences will be
used as a tool to recognize students’ strength, style and preference for learning in order to
promote the children’s language acquisition and learning strategies. As an educator, when
I am able to recognize my students’ strengths and learning style thus I will ensure their
interests are intergraded in the instructions to promote their interest in sight words and
reading. According to Eurydice, Patrick, and Crystal (2010), I will use the bridge method
to link the new context to students’ their foundation of previous knowledge. “However,
after students discussed (sometimes using their native language) the topic among
themselves, and created a list of ways that caring for the Earth applies in their own
personal experiences in their native language, they then used their English to explain it to
me” (Eurydice, Patrick, & Crystal, 2010, p. 431). By allowing students to use their
familiar schematic knowledge, they will be able to process the information by using
either top-down or bottom-up strategies. Since I worked with three-year olds, I often
acquisition.
“…ensuring that students read and understand the often nuanced differences
among a wide range of text types, helping students make sense of information and
ideas across multiple texts, and teaching vocabulary in every subject area in a way
that helps students understand the specialized nature of discipline- specific words”
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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin
language objectives aligning the lesson plan. Including considering and determining
which key vocabulary, concept words and other academic words should be focused on
during specific lesson plans. Himmel (2015) shared several tips and recommendations to
grammar/ language structures, students’ expected tasks, and to explore language learning
strategies. Moreover, Singleton, Morgan, DiGello, Wiles, & Rivers (2004) recommended
on developing Most Frequent Words (MFW) list in English as one of the pedagogical
approach to promote Deaf and hard of hearing students’ second language acquisition.
“Consequently, the world in which a child is born greatly influences how the brain forms
and functions—that is, environment is central in shaping the brain” (Easterbrooks &
Baker, 2002, p.41). Rockets, moon, space, and aliens have shaped my students’ minds
thus I have provided opportunities for the students to explore the space and airspace
concept by reading nonfiction and fiction literatures. The students were able to use their
previous schemas they acquired from the readings and to apply the knowledge during
hands-on activities. The hands-on activities included following written instructions with
picture cues promoting students to create their own paper airplane or space slime. The
words, and sharing their vivid imagination through story-telling in related to the content.
After a month of student-led space investigation, it was time for the class to gain a real
life experience aligning our thematic study. Off we went to National Air and Space
Museum in Washington, D.C., as soon as the students went into the building, their eyes
were filled with a wonder. The students turned into pilots and astronauts with a desire to
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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin
fly away in one of the aircrafts. Despite the lemon vehicles, the students were able to
drive and land a plane virtually. The students even touched a moon rock! In a merely
two-hour field trip, the students have linked the previous context from the instructions
and built the context around the decoded schemas by identifying the sight words and
signing out the vocabularies. Moreover, after the space concept has passed, the students
shifted their interest from aliens to monsters. Some of the students have shared their fear
of a monster sitting inside their closet or under their bed, waiting. Hence it was a
by Mercer Mayer, which gradually led to “Go Away Big Green Monster!” by Ed
Emberley. The students could regulate their feelings as soon as they were able to relate
their experience with the character from the books. Progressively, the students acquired
schemas from the book, which they were able to use while expressing their needs, wants,
feelings and thoughts. Moreover, Stahl, Hynd, Britton, and McNish (1996) discovered,
“Similarly, literary summaries need to do more than capture plot elements; they need to
include characters’ emotional responses and motivations. Research reveals that students
tend not to understand these nuances unless they’re explicitly taught” (Shanahan &
language and to use the language as a tool; “…the literature of the last two decades
suggests that students who are in greater need of quality instruction are often offered
vocabulary-controlled material, which limits the amount of engaging content they are
exposed to” (Eurydice, Patrick, & Crystal, 2010, p. 430). On the other hand, King and
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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin
MacKey (2007) pointed out, as the acquisition of a first language has interwoven in
everyday life thus second language acquisition should occur in a setting where the
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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin
References:
Alptekin, C. (1993). Target-language culture in EFL materials. ELT Journal, 47(2), 136-
143. doi:10.1093/elt/47.2.136
Andrews, J., Leigh, I., & Weiner, M. (2004). Deaf people: Evolving perspectives from
psychology, education, and sociology. Boston: Pearson.
Easterbrooks, S. & Baker, S. (2002). Language learning in children who are deaf and
hard of hearing: Multiple pathways. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Eurydice B., B., Patrick C., M., & Crystal, C. (2010). Supporting content learning for
English learners. The Reading Teacher, (5), 430. doi:10.1598/RT.63.5.9
Freeman, Y. & Freeman, D. (2009). Academic language for English language learners
and struggling readers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Retrieved
from
https://bb.mcdaniel.edu/bbcswebdav/courses/2018GSP_ASL_535_OL/Module%2
002/Readings%20Teaching%20Academic%20Language%20and%20SubjectArea
%20Content%20%28Freeman%20%26%20Freeman%2C%202009%29/Freeman
%20%26%20Freeman%202009%20Chapter%207.pdf
Himmel, J. (2015, December 01). Language objectives: The key to effective content
area instruction for English learners. Retrieved July 9, 2018, from
http://www.colorincolorado.org/article/language-objectives-key-effective-content-
area-instruction-english-learners
King, K. & MacKey, A. (2007). The bilingual edge: Why, when, and how to teach your
child a second language. New York: HarperCollins.
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Theory/ Application Paper Rachel Steingieser
DED 527: ESL Instruction in Content Areas McDaniel College: Dr. K. Martin
Owens, R. (2001). Language development: An introduction (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
Polio, C., & Shea, M. C. (2014). An investigation into current measures of linguistic
accuracy in second language writing research. Journal of Second Language
Writing, 26, 10-27. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2014.09.003
Shanahan, C., & Shanahan, T. (2014). Does disciplinary literacy have a place in
elementary school?. Reading Teacher, 67(8), 636-639.
Singleton, J. L., Morgan, D., DiGello, E., Wiles, J., & Rivers, R. (2004). Vocabulary use
by low, moderate, and high asl-proficient writers compared to hearing esl and
monolingual speakers. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 9(1), 86-103.
doi:10.1093/deafed/enh011
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