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ABSTRACT
T
his article introduces the reader to the fundamental elements and process
of a qualitative research design. It argues that a research design is more
than a researcher’s plan to do qualitative research. The importance of the
interrelatedness of the elements in the research undertaken is explained from an
insider perspective. As a starting point and basis to understand the development
of a qualitative research design, this article firstly provides background information
on the meaning of design in qualitative research. Following this the theoretical
approaches in qualitative research, the formulation of the research question,
research strategies, the choice of a research setting or sampling, and the different
qualitative research methodologies that could be followed to develop a conceptual
framework for the research, are discussed. Lastly, attention is given to the
importance of the research design as tool for trustworthy research.
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Article
way a qualitative research design provides the markers, parameters and tools helping the
researcher to proceed (Taylor and Bogdan, 1984).
It is therefore crucial to also see the research process as a reflexive one during which
the researcher critically analyses all decisions and actions taken during the execution of
the study. In practice, this means that the researcher must continuously reflect upon each
action taken to help him/her to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon under
study, deciding whether a particular decision is the best possible step to answer the research
question truthfully, and in view of the decision taken at that point decide what to do next.
Etherington (2007:601) emphasises the importance of reflexivity in qualitative research by
explaining that reflexivity could be regarded as: “… a tool whereby we can include our
“selves” at any stage, making transparent the values and beliefs we hold that almost certainly
influence the research process and its outcomes. Reflexive research encourages us to display
in our writing/conversations the interactions between our selves and our participants from our
first point of contact until we end those relationships, so that our work can be understood,
not only in terms of what we have discovered, but how we have discovered it”.
It is clear from the preceding argument that designing qualitative research is a flexible,
cyclic, and ongoing process that involves moving back and forth between the different
components of the design, assessing the implications of the goals set, of the theories
and research approach chosen, of the research questions, methods, and the quality
implications of the research (Maxwell, 2005).
Not only is the character of a qualitative research design fluid but it is unique to
the study. This viewpoint is in direct contrast to researchers suggesting that qualitative
researchers have a choice of design2. By placing your study within a research design means
that you situate it within a specific framework with interrelated assumptions, concepts,
values and practices that comprise the way you think reality should be viewed (ontology)
and studied (epistemology). By choosing just one design and sticking to it means that the
chosen research design has to serve as an all purpose vehicle and thus be suitable for any
type of research road. Given the rough terrain through which qualitative researchers have
to pass, this will not always be possible. For example, although following a biographical
strategy the researcher may decide to use grounded theory to analyse the data. In reality,
the focus in qualitative research should rather be on the research question and the ability
of the research design to clarify the research purpose and perspective, and not on choosing
one design and sticking with it regardless of whether it is serving its purpose or not.
It is important that the research must be designed in such a way that it opens up the
inquiry, not narrow it down. The research design, therefore, outlines the possibilities of
ongoing changes in the researcher’s ontology and epistemology and thus the assumptions
made in the study. The design must therefore be flexible enough to allow the possibility
that other conceptual frameworks could prove to be useful (Josselson, 2003).
However, not following a specific recipe does not mean that the qualitative researcher
has no plan on how to proceed in answering the research question. Therefore, to suggest
that qualitative research does not have a design, would be misleading. Furthermore it is
important to understand that the flexible nature of a qualitative research design implies
that particular decisions taken during the execution of the research, such as selecting
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question(s) the theoretical framework and the proposed research strategy. Differently
stated, the research question is informed by the theoretical concepts, models and research
strategies that can be applied to gain an understanding of the phenomena under study
while decisions about what theory and knowledge are relevant depend on the research
question. Similarly the second part of the research design forms an integrated unit
focussing on the best way to do the research (Babbie, 2007). Thus, the chosen research
setting and the methods of data gathering and analysis should enable the researcher to
answer the research questions truthfully (Maxwell, 2005).
ONTOLOGY
Research question
EPISTEMOLOGY
In the next sections of this article a more in-depth discussion of each of the components
of a qualitative research design will be provided.
Theoretical framework
The theoretical framework of an empirical study refers to the system of concepts, assumptions,
expectations, beliefs and theories that informs the research and is therefore a key part of the
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Table 1: Evolving research perspectives3
Methods of
808
Report/
Perspective Ontology Epistemology Methodology data collection
writing style
and analysis
Description of
Interpretation arises day-to-day events
The lifeworld of
from the observation For example: experienced in the
research participants For example classic
of the researcher. Participant field, realist tales in
Objectivism could be discovered ethnography and
With the right Observation and an authorial, supreme
in an objective phenomenology.
methods meaning Interviewing. voice to represent
manner.
can be discovered. and interpret the
other’s story.
The researcher
Data is gathered by
The real world Knowledge provides insights
means of participant
could be discovered arises from the into the behaviour
observation,
by means of a understanding expressed and
Realism Grounded theory. human documents
systematic, interactive of symbols and the meanings and
and interviewing,
methodological meaning (symbolic interpretations that
and analysed
approach. interactionism). participants give to
systematically.
their life-worlds.
Research strategy
The research strategy applied by a researcher flows from the research approach taken. It
is the logic of the approach or the reasoning process used to link the research question(s),
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methods and evidence (Schwandt, 2007). The research design is driven by the strategy
(Punch, 2009). The main question when deciding on a strategy is weather it will enable
the researcher to answer the research question truthfully. Researchers should change
their strategies when they do not obtain sufficient data (Charmaz, 2007). In practice the
following strategies as identified by Creswell (2007) or combinations of it are mostly used
in qualitative research:
• Biography
• Ethnography
• Phenomenology
• Grounded theory
• Case study
Biography6
Biography refers to both product and process (Schwandt, 2007). This approach is based
on the assumption that the lifeworld of a person can best be understood from his or her
own account and perspective, and “…thus the focus is on individual subjective definition
and experience of life” (Schwandt, 2007:22). However, since an individual is part of a
social and cultural world, the biographic approach seeks to interrelate these worlds. Older
forms of biography include life stories and life histories mainly flowing from an objectivistic
perspective. As such, the researcher needs to do the following (Cresswell, 2007).
• Collect extensive information from and about the participant;
• Have a clear understanding of historical, contextual material; and
• Have a keen eye for determining the particular stories or angles that “work” in writing
a biography.
This strategy is used by the researcher to report on and document the participant’s
life and his or her experiences as told to the researcher (solicited documents), or
found in documents and archival material (unsolicited documents), narratives and
autobiographies.
More recently (1995-2000) authors like Carolyn Ellis and Arthur Bochner (1996) have
started to experiment with novel forms of expressing lived experience, including literary,
poetic, auto-biographical, multi-voiced, conversational, critical, visual performative, and
co-constructed representations that flow from a constructivist perspective.
Despite the different perspectives taken in biographical research these research
strategies have one common aim namely the reconstruction of the history of a life (the
unfolding of an individual’s experiences over time and in a specific culture). The methods
of data collection applied here are primarily personal interviews and personal documents
(letters, diaries, etc.) with a detailed picture of an individual’s life being the product of the
research.
Ethnography7
Ethnography originally stems from the objectivistic paradigm and is characterised by
observation (participant observation) and description of the actions of a small number
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by more local, small-scale theories fitted to specific problems and particular situations.
Action, participatory and activist-orientated research came forward.
Phenomenology8
This strategy stems from the objectivistic paradigm and aims to describe what concepts
and structures of experience give form and meaning to the person involved (Schram,
2006). The researcher utilising this approach brackets9 his/her own assumptions and
perceptions of how everyday events are experienced in order to first gain an understanding
of his/her observations. The main aim is to gain an understanding of the essence of the
experiences of the research participants (Moustakas, 1994). The product of the research
is a careful description of the conscious every day experiences and social action of the
research participants.
In order to accomplish a description of lifeworld experiences, researchers should be
able to turn from things to their meaning. The researcher therefore turns away from him
or herself and try to understand how the world appears to others. This is mainly done by
means of naturalistic methods of study, implying that researchers must be able to distance
themselves from their own judgements and preconceptions about the nature and essence
of experiences and events in the everyday world (Schram, 2006). The researcher should
thus assume the attitude of a “disinterested” observer. Researchers using this strategy of
enquiry will mainly utilise participant observation and interviewing as methods of data
collection. Data analysis is undertaken by means of an inductive and recursive process.
Patterns, categories, or themes evolve as data collection proceeds.
A later development originating from phenomenology is Garfinkel’s ethno-
methodology. This approach draws on the resources of the phenomenological paradigm
but flows from a constructionist perspective (Schwandt, 2007:97). By following this design
the researcher tries to understand the meaning of the interactions people experience in
everyday life. A more recent form of ethno-methodology is discourse analysis.
Grounded theory10
Grounded theory originates from the interpretivistic perspective. Much has been written
about grounded theory but in a nutshell, its aim is to develop a substantive theory11 that
is grounded in data (Schram, 2006). Rather than being an actual theory itself, grounded
theory focuses on generating theory based on the study of social situations. Schwandt
(2007:131) emphasises the fact that grounded theory is “…a specific, highly developed,
rigorous set of procedures for producing formal substantive theory of social phenomena”.
A distinction is made between substantive and formal theory. A substantive theory is a
description and abstraction of what goes on in a particular kind of social setting, e.g.
hospital wards with dying patients. Analytic abstractions are used in discussing such
settings, but no claim is made that the abstractions apply to other situations. In formal
theory, abstractions and hypotheses about the relationships among these abstractions are
developed. These hypotheses should then explain phenomena in many kinds of settings.
Formal theory is concerned with a conceptual area of study, such as deviant behaviour
or organisational theory. Ideally, one should begin by developing substantive theory in a
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Case study12
According to Creswell (2007), a case study can be regarded as an exploration or in-depth
analysis of a “bounded system” (bounded by time and/or place), or a single or multiple
case, over a period of time. The case being studied may refer to a process, activity, event,
programme or individual or multiple individuals. It might even refer to a period of time
rather than a particular group of people.
Different to the other methodological frameworks the case study strategy is more of a
choice of what to study than a methodological one. This becomes clear by looking at its
ability to adapt to all the theoretical approaches and methodological frameworks such as
life history, phenomenology, grounded theory and ethnographic research. However “…
whether you consider case study as a way of conceptualizing human behaviour or merely
as a way of encapsulating it, its strategic value lies in its ability to draw attention to what
can be learned from the single case” (Schram, 2006).
The exploration and description of the case takes place through detailed, in-depth
data collection methods, involving multiple sources of information that are rich in context.
These may include interviews, documents, observations or archival records. As such,
the researcher needs access to, and the confidence of participants. The product of this
research is an in-depth description of a case or cases. The researcher situates this system
or case within its larger context, but the focus remains on either the case or an issue that
is illustrated by it (Creswell 2007).
Schram (2006) refers to three types of case study, all having different purposes:
• The intrinsic case study which is solely focused on the aim of gaining a better
understanding of the particular case.
• The instrumental case study which is used to provide insight into or elaborate on a
theory or to gain a better understanding of a social issue through studying the case.
This case study merely serves the purpose of facilitating the researcher’s gaining of
knowledge about a social issue.
• The collective case study is an instrumental case study extended to a number of cases.
The focus is on further the understanding or theorising of the researcher about a
general phenomenon or condition. Cases are chosen so that comparisons can be made
between cases and concepts and in this way theories can be extended and validated.
Research setting
This section deals with the issue where or with whom the data is located. Consequently,
the problem of what/who, or the “unit of analysis” in the study is also dealt with here. Is
it an individual, a group, a work team or an organisational unit? Or is the data archival
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by nature, located somewhere in the organisation’s information system? The source of the
data should be carefully described. It is important to note that in qualitative research the
researcher is not only sampling people but also settings, events and processes (Maxwell,
2005:87).
Selecting a research setting will to a large extent be influenced by the researcher’s
theoretical approach, strategy of enquiry and research question. A crucial step when
preparing for collecting data about a particularly social reality is to identify and
decide which boundaries/parameters will be used for data collection and the method
of data analysis envisaged – that is, decide how the sample is going to be framed
and developed.
Different to quantitative sampling which is concerned with representativeness,
qualitative research requires that the data to be collected must be rich in description of
people and places (Patton, 1990:169). As a general guideline for sampling, qualitative
researchers will therefore typically seek out groups and settings where the process to be
studied is most likely to occur (Marshal and Rossman, 1995).
For these reasons the qualitative researcher will use purposive sampling methods
by identifying access points (settings where research participants could be more easily
reached) and selecting especially informative ones. Purposeful sampling is thus a “strategy
in which particular settings, persons, or events are deliberately selected for the important
information they can provide that cannot be gotten as well from other choices” (Bickman
and Rog, 2009:235). The goal of purposive sampling is to sample cases or participants
in such a way that the sample is relevant to understand the phenomenon being studied
and answering the research question as truthfully as possible. Following the typology of
qualitative sampling developed by Patton (1990) the following categories of purposeful
selection are mostly used by qualitative researchers (Punch, 2009):
Snowball or chain reference sampling
Information-rich participants, settings and events are identified by research informants/
members of the same group or subculture.
Theoretical Sampling
According to Glaser and Strauss (1967) theoretical sampling is the process of data
collection for generating theory. Bryman (1988) stresses the fact that qualitative sampling
follows a theoretical rather than a statistical logic. In this regard, Mason (1996: 93-94)
states: “Theoretical sampling means selecting groups or categories to study on the basis of
the relevance to your research questions, your theoretical position...and…the explanation
or account which you are developing”.
Additional events, activities participants and incidents are therefore specifically
chosen to further the development and testing of emerging theoretical constructs.
New cases are continuously analysed and compared to the older ones until theoretical
saturation is reached (Schwandt, 2007). This means that the specific category is well
developed in terms of its properties and no new or relevant data is emerging for the
further development of the category.
Methodology
This is a theory of how inquiry should proceed (Schwandt, 2007:193). Commitment
to a particular methodological frame of reference will influence and inform the study
in very specific ways (Schram, 2006). Therefore there should be a synthesis between
one’s theoretical framework, research strategy, and methodology and the methods
one chooses to gather and analyse data. For example, if you are a constructionist who
believes that reality can only be known by those who experience it personally and that
social reality should be constructed through a process of self-conscious action, you will
conduct interviews in a different manner and analyse them differently than someone who
believes that the real world could be discovered by means of a systematic, interactive
methodological approach making use of symbols to discover meaning.
According to Mason (1996), the key tasks researchers need to perform during the
research design stage as it relates to methodology are not only to decide upon appropriate
methods and data sources, but also to reach an understanding of the methodological
implications of their choices. Particularly important here is establishing the links between
research questions and research methods. A researcher needs to be clear about how
and why a particular method and data source will assist him or her to address research
questions rather than assuming that a particular method will be emphatically enough to
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provide the researcher with the information needed. In addition, the researcher has to
specify what he/she regards as constituting knowledge or evidence relevant to his/her
research questions (Mason, 1996).
Qualitative researchers rely on the following primary methods to gather information:
(i) participant observation of the setting under study/ research participants’ activities,
(ii) interviewing, (iii) using documents (solicited and/or unsolicited and visual), and
(iv) auto-ethnography. You need to indicate and motivate which of these method(s)
you plan to utilise. These methods are all methods in their own right (Marshall and
Rossman, 1995).
Another related exercise researchers need to consider is how the researcher envisages
sorting, organising, indexing and analysing his/her collected data. There are various ways
of making sense of soft data. While it is not the aim of this article to discuss these, it is
important to realise the logical connection between one’s research questions and one’s
selection, data collection and data analysis decisions In this regard. Maxwell (2005:102-
103) emphasises the importance of assessing the compatibility of the research questions
and methods of data gathering and analysis.
CONCLUSION
esigning qualitative research is a unique process. The product of this process
is a conceptual framework that is used as a research tool not only to guide the
researcher in his/her research process but to also to manage the research process
and to do the internal audit14 The writing up of audit trail, natural history or research story
has become increasingly important since the notion of developing criteria of soundness
to meet the approval of all qualitative researchers has today to a large extent been
discarded, or as Schwandt (2007) states, qualitative researchers have gone beyond it.
This does however, not mean that qualitative research has become unscientific and that
anything now goes. In fact doing an audit trail should ensure that the research product is
developed and produced in the tensional field of (theoretical, conceptual, practical and
methodological) creativity and (methodological) rigour in studying phenomena. Therefore,
quality should be located in the tensional field between being rigorous and being flexible
(Flick, 2007).
Since a clear and universal solution to the quality question, or criteria for good
qualitative research has to date not been attainable, researchers started to increasingly
apply strategies to promote quality in the research process. Thus the notion of management
of the research process and transparency with specific reference to the auditing trail and
reflexivity has become an important strategy to ensure quality research.
Continuous reflection on a researcher’s ontology, epistemology, theoretical framework
research questions, methodology, quality of the study and ethical considerations
represents a refinement process whereby the different elements of the research design
are integrated with each other to form the researcher’s conceptual framework for the
study. This framework could be used as a research tool intended to order the researcher’s
thinking, decision making and actions taken during the entire research process. The
NOTES
1 According to Mouton (2002) knowledge is regarded as truthful when there is enough evidence to believe that it is an
accurate representation or explanation of a phenomenon.
2 For example Tesch (1990) identifies 28 different approaches; Miller and Crabtree (1992) identify 18 types, using a dif-
ferent system of classification, while many other authors merely assess a single tradition (Strauss and Corbin, 1990;
Moustakas, 1994 and Stake, 2000). Creswell (2007) identifies five traditions of inquiry, selecting those which, according
to him, represent different disciplines, have detailed procedures and, most important, have proved to be popular and
frequently used.
3 An expansion of Schurink’s table (1998).
4 See Schwandt (2007: 256-258).
5 See Schwandt (2007: 314-317) for further explanation.
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6 For more information, see Andrews, Sclater, Suire and Tamboukou (2004), Cortazzi (2002), and Plummer (2001).
7 For further information on ethnography see Agar (1996), Atkinson, Coffey and Delamont (2003), Atkinson and
Hammersley (1994), Wolcott (1999), and Zou and Trueba (2002).
8 For further information on phenomenology see Benner (1994), Cohen and Omery (1994), Giorgi (1997), Holstein and
Gubrium (1994), Seidman (1998), and Van Maanen (1997).
9 Bracketing refers to the means by which researchers try not to allow their assumptions, understanding and constructions
to shape their data collection process (Aheren, 2007:130).
10 For further information and clarification, see Bogdan and Biklen (2003), Morse, Noerager Stern, Corbin, Bowers,
Charmaz and Clarke, (2009), Clarke (2003), Glaser (1978, 1992), Piantanida, Tananis and Grubs (2004), and Strauss
and Corbin (1998).
11 See Schwandt (2007) for an explanation of substantive theory.
12 For more information see Starke (2000) and Yin (1994).
13 “Intellectual puzzles can and do take a variety of forms connected to the ontological and epistemological positions
encapsulated in the research, and grounded within the specific context of their research problem. It is also the case that
different theoretical and intellectual traditions in the social sciences are preoccupied with different kinds of intellectual
puzzle, and consequently different kinds of social explanation” (Mason 1996:15).
14 That is, a systematically maintained documentation process of the researcher’s continuous critical analysis of all deci-
sions and actions taken during the entire research process (Flick 2007).
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