ELASTIC NEUTRAL AXIS

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PLASTIC NEUTRAL AXIS

The plastic section modulus depends on the location of the plastic neutral axis (PNA). The
PNA is defined as the axis that splits the cross section such that the compression force from the
area in compression equals the tension force from the area in tension.

ELASTIC SECTION MODULUS

For general design, the elastic section modulus is used, applying up to the yield point for most
metals and other common materials. The elastic section modulus is defined as

S = I / y,

where

I = is the second moment of area (or moment of inertia)

y = is the distance from the neutral axis to any given fibre.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Section_modulus (koya yung drawing nasa link)

Plastic section modulus

The plastic section modulus is used for materials where elastic yielding is acceptable and plastic
behavior is assumed to be an acceptable limit. Designs generally strive to ultimately remain below
the plastic limit to avoid permanent deformations, often comparing the plastic capacity against
amplified forces or stresses.

The plastic section modulus depends on the location of the plastic neutral axis (PNA). The PNA is
defined as the axis that splits the cross section such that the compression force from the area in
compression equals the tension force from the area in tension. So, for sections with constant
yielding stress, the area above and below the PNA will be equal, but for composite sections, this is
not necessarily the case.

The plastic section modulus is then the sum of the areas of the cross section on each side of the
PNA (which may or may not be equal) multiplied by the distance from the local centroids of the two
areas to the PNA:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Section_modulus (koya yung drawing nasa link)

Shape factor
Shape factors are dimensionless quantities used in image analysis and microscopy that numerically
describe the shape of a particle, independent of its size. Shape factors are calculated from
measured dimensions, such as diameter, chord lengths, area, perimeter, centroid, moments, etc.
The dimensions of the particles are usually measured from two-dimensional cross-
sections or projections, as in a microscope field, but shape factors also apply to three-dimensional
objects. The particles could be the grains in a metallurgicalor ceramic microstructure, or the
microorganisms in a culture, for example. The dimensionless quantities often represent the degree
of deviation from an ideal shape, such as acircle, sphere or equilateral polyhedron.[1] Shape factors
are often normalized, that is, the value ranges from zero to one. A shape factor equal to one usually
represents an ideal case or maximum symmetry, such as a circle, sphere, square or cube.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape_factor_(image_analysis_and_microscopy) (ung aspect
ratio, circularity, elongation shape factor , compactness shape factor, waviness shape factor,)

Load Factors
􀁑 The load factors are usually amplifying
factors that are used in LRFD design
equation to increase the loads.
􀁑 The purpose of increasing the loads is
to account for the uncertainties involved
in estimating the magnitudes of dead
and/or live loads.
􀁑 Since the dead loads can be estimated
more accurately than live loads, the
factor for live load is usually higher than
that used for dead loads.
Examples:
– A load factor of 1.6 for live loads in LRFD
steel manual as compared to 1.2 for dead
loads.
– A load factor of 1.7 for live loads in ACI
Code as compared to 1.4 for dead loads.

Load Factors
􀁑 Loads and Load Combinations
1.4 (D + F) (1)
1.2 (D + F + T) + 1.6 (L + H) + 0.5 (Lr or S or R) (2)
1.2 D + 1.6 (Lr or S or R) + (0.5 L or 0.8 W) (3)
1.2 D + 1.6 W + 0.5 L + 0.5 (Lr or S or R) (4)
1.2 D + 1.0 E + 0.5 L + 0.2 S (5)
0.9 D + 1.6 W + 1.6 H (6)
0.9 D + 1.0 E + 1.6 H (7)

􀁑 Notations
U = the design (ultimate) load
D = dead load
F = fluid load
T = self straining force
L = live load
Lr = roof live load
H = lateral earth pressure load, ground water pressure.
S = snow load
R = rain load
W = wind load
E = earthquake load