1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Air pollution from motor vehicles and exhaustion of natural

resources has become a serious global and environmental hazard. Another
serious environmental issue is urban warming, caused by concentrated
consumption of energy in the urban areas. In India, emission from
two-wheelers is a significant contributor to air quality problems. In urban
areas in particular, two-wheelers serve as a primary transportation option both
due to their relative affordability and their ability to maneuver in heavy
traffic. Due to the phenomenal increase in the number of vehicles and the
limited use of emission control strategies, two-wheelers are considered to be a
significant source of urban air pollution in most of the Indian cities.

Idling and low power operations of internal combustion (IC) engine

contribute relatively high harmful emissions and fuel consumption in general.
Unfortunately, most of the time IC engine two-wheelers in city driving
conditions operate at idling, relatively low power levels under slow
accelerations, low speeds or light loads. This in turn leads to low thermal
efficiency and hence higher fuel consumption and emissions. Moreover, the
emission profile of two-wheelers depends on the type of engine that powers
them, i.e. 2-stroke or 4-stroke. Two-wheelers powered with extremely
polluting 2-stroke engines are a major source of pollution in larger Indian
cities. The high levels of pollutants emitted by these vehicles are mainly
 2

responsible for respiratory ailments including lung cancer, asthma, etc.

Therefore, the high fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emission (including
other regulated emissions) contribution of two-wheelers in urban areas need
more urgent attention to improve the near-term sustainability of energy and
urban air quality in the future.

Also, energy security is one of the important concerns of any

country. India’s energy use is mostly based on fossil fuels. Currently, India is
the sixth largest importer of oil in the world and in 2008, 78% of crude oil
consumed was imported, which is likely to increase to 92% by 2020
(Muralidharan et al 2009). As of 2008, Indian vehicles consume 60.7 million
metric tons of fuel per year (includes diesel, gasoline, CNG, and LPG).
Moreover, by 2040, Indian vehicle oil demand will rise rapidly, reaching
410 – 743 million metric tonnes per year. With respect to energy-related
carbon emissions, India ranks fifth in the world and its contribution to world
carbon emissions is expected to increase in the coming years. It is projected
that by 2040, Indian vehicles could emit 1.3 – 2.3 billion metric tons of CO2
and these emissions will be 7 – 12 times the 2008 emissions from Indian
vehicle fleet (Salil et al 2010).

1.1.1 Two-wheeler Market Scenario in India

Mopeds, motorcycles and scooters, collectively referred as power

two-wheelers or simply two-wheelers, are a popular means of transportation
in India. They are economical, very convenient and cater to a large group of
people including commuters, students and small businessmen. In fact, the fuel
use per passenger-kilometre of two-wheeler is comparatively less.
Nevertheless, the present fleet in the country hugely contributes to air
pollution and source of petroleum consumption. Figure 1.1 shows the segment
wise Indian automobile domestic market share in 2010-11 and it is sure that
two-wheelers occupied around 76% of the vehicle population (SIAM 2011).
 3

Passenger
Vehicles
16%
Commercial
Vehicles
4%
Three
Wheelers
4%

Two Wheelers
76%

Figure 1.1 Segment wise Indian automobile domestic market share in

2010-11

Statistics show that the two

two-wheeler
wheeler population in India has grown
very rapidly in the last decade and has multiplied by a factor of three times
during this period. Rapidly increasing vehicular population and urbanization
has further aggravated this proble
problem.
m. Figure 1.2 illustrates the two-wheelers
sales growth during the last decade and have shown an average growth rate of
11% per annum. Currently, India has the second highest two-wheeler
two density
area in the world. It is also expected that the Indian two
two-wheeler
wheeler population
will exceed China’s two-wheeler
wheeler population between 2010 and 2020, and it
will also have the largest two
two-wheeler
wheeler stock in the world (Salil et al 2010). As
a result of large concentration of two wheelers, the cities of India are
two-wheelers,
significant consumption points of petroleum fuels (mainly gasoline) and the
largest emitters of pollutants.
 4

13 11.79
12
Number of two-wheelers (million) 11
10 9.37
9 7.87
7.05 7.25 7.44
8
7 6.21
6 5.36
4.9
5 4.17
3.77
4
3
2
1
0

Fiscal year

Figure 1.2 Two-wheeler domestic sales trends in India in the last decade

1.1.2 Alternative Propulsion Technologies

The growing concern over the environmental impacts and

oil-dependence has prompted the investigation of alternative propulsion
technologies for motor vehicles. A variety of alternative fuels and powertrain
technologies are currently being considered for their ability to reduce
emissions of greenhouse and regulated air pollutants and to promote energy
independence through the displacement of petroleum fuels. Alternative fuels
include petrol/gasoline, diesel, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), compressed
natural gas (CNG), methanol, ethanol, bio-diesel and vegetable oils.
Alternative powertrains include advanced internal combustion engine (IC)
vehicles, battery electric vehicles (BEVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs),
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and fuel cell electric vehicles
(FCEVs), as well as many other novel alternatives. Each of these alternative
technologies has their own potential for emission reduction and promotion of
 5

energy independence. However, considering the technical and infrastructural

limitations, the HEV and PHEV are have proved to be viable, ready-to-use
solution.

The biggest way to get huge gains in reducing petroleum

consumption is through electrification. Battery electric vehicles with zero
tail-pipe emissions are considered to be one of the most promising alternative
drivetrain option. However, because of higher cost, added weight of batteries,
reduced load capacity, limited range and lack of recharging infrastructure,
these vehicles have not been successful. The hybrid electric drivetrain system
offers the capacity to improve fuel economy by using an electric motor to
reduce the fluctuating energy requirements of the internal combustion engine.
However, they still depend largely on petroleum to charge the battery pack.
Hence, there is a need to develop a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle which
contains the potential to reduce urban emissions and overall petroleum
consumption to achieve nations’ energy security by increasing the battery
energy capacity. The additional capacity of the battery is used to propel the
vehicle without using onboard fuel energy. The plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
takes the electrification of the automobile one step further than the HEV.

The best way to improve efficiency is through elimination of idling

losses and inefficient engine operation. The engine is shut off during idling
and low-load driving conditions, during which the engine efficiency would be
low. The electric motor provides high efficiency at low load when compared
to an engine (Christine et al 2000). Figure 1.3 compares the efficiency
between the motor and that of an engine, both of which generate similar
maximum torque. While the motor shows higher efficiency in all areas, the
engine significantly loses efficiency in low-load range.
 6

Figure 1.3 Comparison of engine and motor performance efficiency

1.1.3 Need of Plug-in Hybrid Technology

The introduction of the hybrid electric vehicle to the market opened

the door for advanced technology vehicles to use electric powertrains to
reduce petroleum
um consumption by increasing fuel economy. Plug-in
Plug hybrid
technology offers the best of both electric and hybrid electric vehicles i.e., the
emission reduction benefits of electric vehicles and fuel savings of hybrid
electric vehicles. A plug-in hybrid ele
electric
ctric vehicle is a hybrid electric vehicle
with an ability to plug-in
in to grid electricity. A conventional HEV depends on
petroleum fuels, generating required electricity on
on-board.
board. A PHEV, on other
hand, has a battery pack that can be fully charged by plugg
plugging
ing into a standard
electrical outlet. In plug-in
in hybrids, the battery pack is the primary source of
power
er for relatively short distances. For longer distances, once the battery has
been depleted to a certain state
state-of-charge
charge (SOC), the vehicle would switch
overr to hybrid mode. It has the potential to displace a significant portion of
 7

transportation petroleum consumption by using electricity for portions of

trips. Depending on the configuration of the vehicle, people who drive less
than all-electric range per day would use no fuel at all. A PHEV offers most
of the environmental benefits of an electric vehicle operation without giving
up on the advantages of an IC engine based vehicle. One of the unique
advantages of plug-in hybrid vehicles is their capability to integrate the
transportation and electric power generation sectors in order to improve the
efficiency, fuel economy and reliability of both systems.

From the perspective of public health, pollutants from power plants

are less threatening when compared to vehicular emissions. This is because
the latter are released in much closer proximity to individuals. Operating in
electric only mode, plug-ins have no tailpipe emissions thus providing a
potential health benefit. Indirect emissions of plug-ins are the functions of the
fuel mix, efficiency of generation, transmission and distribution of the power
systems while running on electricity. These emissions represent a much
smaller percentage of full fuel cycle emissions of the pollutants listed for a
vehicle operating on electricity than upstream emissions from a vehicle
operating on petroleum fuels. Several studies have found that when charged
from the grid, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles emit less CO 2 and other
pollutants over their entire fuel cycle than conventional vehicles and hybrid
electric vehicles. Thus, PHEVs may reduce the emissions impact of the
transportation sector in many regions where grid electricity is effectively a
cleaner source of transportation fuel than petroleum fuels. When compared to
non-plug-in hybrids, a plug-in hybrid offers 25–55% reduction in NOx,
35–65% reduction in greenhouse gases and 40–80% reduction in gasoline
consumption (Fajri and Asaei 2008). With regard to greenhouse gas
emissions, plug-ins are more advantageous than hybrids with clean power.
Indeed, one of the great advantages of plug-ins is that the electricity used to
power the vehicle may be derived from any combination of energy sources,
 8

including coal, nuclear, natural gas, oil or renewable sources such as

hydropower, solar or wind. Plug-ins greenhouse gas benefits would grow in a
future scenario in which power sector CO2 emissions are reduced from
present levels.

1.1.4 Benefits of Plug-in Hybrid Technology

The most clear-cut benefit of plug-in hybrids is their ability to

reduce petroleum consumption by providing electric power operation for a
substantial fraction of daily driving. In addition to all-electric range, ultra low
emissions during engine operations are achievable with simple engine
controls and standard catalytic converters. The overall benefits of PHEVs can
be listed as follows:

PHEVs are two or three times more fuel efficient than

conventional vehicles.

They display reduced fuel consumption and tailpipe emissions

even when compared with HEVs.

They can use any decentralized renewable energy based

power, thus reducing the dependency on fossil fuels.

They can recover energy from regenerative braking, thus

minimizing energy loss.

Unchanged fuel filling station infrastructure.

Home based battery recharging at a fraction of the cost of

petroleum equivalent.

The IC engine will serve as a backup power source when the

battery is depleted.
 9

However, there are still a lot of technology challenges to overcome.

The first and primary challenge is the higher initial cost, cost of battery
replacement, added weight and volume. In addition, recycling of used
batteries and the recycling cost on a per-vehicle basis also need to be
addressed in future. Even though, a vehicle is safe under normal conditions, a
great deal of testing is required to determine its safety in a crash or fire. Along
with power devices and controllers, there are several other components such
as capacitors, inductors, bus bars, thermal systems that form a major portion
of a power electronic unit. The packaging of all these units as one system has
significant challenge. In the case of two wheelers, packaging of battery and
it’s added weight and cost are the major issues.

1.2 REVIEW OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Electric vehicles (EVs) were invented in 1834, before ICE vehicles,

being manufactured by several companies (Chan 2007). The energy stored in
the battery is used by the power converter to drive the electric motor. This, in
turn, drives the wheels by means of a fixed or changeable gear and a power
splitting differential gear. For maximum efficiency, the vehicle’s kinetic
energy must be converted to electrical energy by the motor/generator and
stored in the battery pack via the power converter, whenever the brake pedal
is pressed and during coasting. Pure electric vehicles may adopt two (or four)
in-wheel motors in their powertrains. In this case, every motor is driven by a
dedicated power converter that must control wheel’s speed and torque.

So far, BEVs have not been as alternative as HEVs owning to

battery limitations (such as initial cost, relatively low energy and power
density and excessive weight), limited driving range, performance and
comfort. Nevertheless, once BEVs are the only zero-emission vehicle, they
must be explored as an effective tool to combat greenhouse gas emissions, air
pollution and petrol dependency.
 10

1.3 REVIEW OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Hybrid electric vehicles use two or more prime movers as sources of

power. Hybrid electric vehicles can be classified according to the powertrain
configuration and degree of hybridization. The advantages and disadvantages
of different types depend on the application, the grade of hybridization and
the implemented energy management. The different manners in which the
hybridization can occur gives rise to different architectures namely series
hybrid, parallel hybrid, series-parallel hybrid and complex hybrid (Seref
2011).

The series hybrid electric vehicle is a hybridization of energy

source. In series hybrid electric vehicle, the wheels are exclusively driven by
one or more electric traction motors. The electricity is generated by an on-
board energy source and a traction battery acts as an energy buffer. This is
similar to the operation of diesel-electric train locomotives. The series hybrid
electric vehicle is an interesting solution for driving in urban areas with
passenger cars, light duty vehicles as well as with heavy-duty vehicles like
city buses. Two examples of series configuration vehicles are the General
Motor Chevy Volt and the Ford Hyseries plug-in hybrid concepts.

The parallel hybrid electric vehicle is a hybridization of drive

system. In a parallel hybrid electric vehicle, there are two parallel paths to
power the wheels of the vehicle: an engine path and an electrical path. The
transmission couples the motor/generator and the engine, allowing either or
both, to power the wheels. This parallel hybrid electric vehicle is more
suitable for the family or higher class vehicle segment while mainly driving
on highway and long distances. Honda Insight and Civic hybrids are the
examples of parallel hybrid electric vehicles.
 11

A series-parallel hybrid electric vehicle blends the features of both

series and parallel hybrid topologies. Variations on this configuration can be
very complex or simple, depending on the number of motors/generators and
their usage. Like parallel HEVs, the hybridization degree is adjusted as a
trade-off of performance, cruising speed, fuel economy, driveability, and
comfort. These configurations can be classified as split-parallel hybrids, or
power-split hybrids (such as the Toyota Prius and Ford Escape Hybrids).

In a complex hybrid electric vehicle, two bidirectional power

converters are utilized, one for the main electric motor and another one for the
auxiliary electric motor. Unlike in the case of series-parallel HEVs, both these
motors can propel the wheels concomitantly. The number of possible
operation modes for the complex HEVs is half a dozen or greater. Component
sizing (electric motors/generators, ICE, gears, battery, power converters, etc.)
is a very complex task.

Table 1.1 gives an overall comparison of conventional IC engine

vehicle, electric vehicle, hybrid electric vehicle and plug-in hybrid electric
vehicle.

1.4 ELECTRIC MOTORS

Several types of electric motors can be considered for plug-in hybrid

electric two-wheeler. Direct current (DC) series motors are easy to operate
and control. However, they have a low power to weight ratio. DC motors need
commutator and brushes to feed current into armature, thus making them
heavier, less reliable and undesirable for maintenance-free operation and
speed. Its lower cost and the elimination of a sophisticated inverter offset the
increased weight of the motor.
 1

Table 1.1 Comparison of ICE vehicle, electric vehicle, hybrid electric vehicle and plug-in hybrid electric vehicle

Type of Vehicle ICE Vehicle EV HEV PHEV

Electric motor drives Electric motor drives Electric motor drives
Propulsion IC engine
Down sized IC engine Down sized IC engine
IC engine IC engine
Battery/ultracapacitor
Energy System IC engine (Large battery based on Battery / Battery / ultracapacitor
range) ultracapacitor (Small (Moderate battery based on
battery ) AER)
Electric grid charging Petroleum fuel and Electric grid charging facility
Energy source facility fuel stations
Petroleum fuel and
and Petroleum fuel and fuel stations
fuel stations Regenerative braking Regenerative braking
infrastructure
energy energy. Regenerative braking energy.

Conventionally Zero tailpipe emission capability

Zero tail pipe emissions in electric mode
available with good Low emissions
Advantages infrastructure Independence on fossil
Higher efficiency Less dependence on fossil fuel
fuel
Low initial cost Efficient than HEV
Limitations of battery
Higher tailpipe Dependent on fossil Complex architecture
emissions Short range fuels
Disadvantages Charging infrastructure
Lower efficiency Charging infrastructure Complex architecture facilities
facilities
 13

Alternate current (AC) induction motors have been widely accepted

as commutatorless motors because of their low cost, high reliability and
maintenance-free
free operation. The induction motors have certain
certa inherent
disadvantages such as speed which is not easily controlled, low lagging power
factors when lightly loaded with starting current, usually three to seven times
full-loaded
loaded current (Cho et al 2000). Furthermore, there are drive alternatives,
as illustrated
lustrated in Figure 1.4, that better satisfy specific demands such as high
torque and power density, high efficiency over a wide torque and speed range,
and wide constant- power
er operating capacity (Gulhane et al 2006).

Figure 1.4 Electric motors for EVs and HEVs

Permanent magnet brushless DC motor is a very promising

technology that has been in wide use with electric drive vehicles. Brushless
DC motors can operate in a wide variety of environmental conditions while
still providing the linear speed
speed-torquee characteristics found in brushed motors.
This improvement is largely due to the absence of electrical and friction
losses due to brushes. Due to the absence of rotor copper loss, permanent
magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) are more efficient and easier tto cool. A
permanent magnet synchronous motor, which uses PM material to generate a
magnetic field has the higher efficiency (95%) compared with induction
 14

motor or DC motor. The major shortcoming of PM motors is the cost due to

the high energy magnets (Ishikawa 1999).

Switched reluctance motors (SRMs) have high speed operation

capability with a wide constant power region. These motors have a high
starting torque and a high torque-inertia ratio (Hussain and Islam 1999). The
low production cost of these motors (even lower than that for induction
motors), together with some other important characteristics (e.g., wide speed
range), make them a serious candidate for driving electric drive vehicles.
Nevertheless, they are plagued with (acoustic) noise and high fluctuation in
torque, which might be compensated for with a more complex (and
expensive) controller.

Hub motors are an interesting development which could offer

benefits for electric/hybrid vehicles. The rotor consists of permanent magnets,
whereas pulse width modulated (PWM) current is used to supply current to
the stator, and in essence the system is more or less DC brushless motor.
Since there is no final gearing stage, the hub motors runs at relatively low
speed almost equal to the actual rotation of wheel. The benefit is about a 10%
increase in efficiency due to lack of transmission.

1.5 POWER ELECTRONICS DRIVER TOPOLOGIES

Power converters are highly specialized circuits constructed with

high power electronic switches and analog and digital control circuitry, to
convert one unregulated DC (direct current) voltage level to either a regulated
and different DC voltage level or a regulated AC (alternate current) voltage
level. The former are called DC-DC converters, whereas the latter are named
DC-AC converters (often called frequency inverters). In buck converters, the
output voltage level is lesser than the input voltage level, whereas boost
converters supply an elevated output voltage level relative to their inputs.
 15

Converters
rters are used a) to charge the ba
battery
ttery pack from the grid voltage (in
PHEV), b) to recharge the battery pack from the fuel tank (ICE and generator
involved), c) to save energy into the battery pack (or ultracapacitor) during
regenerative braking and coasting.

As illustrated in Figure 1.
1.5,
5, classical power converter topologies,
which are adequate to electric drive vehicles, include the (transformer)
isolated and non-isolated
isolated types and a family of bidirectional converters. Key
characteristics of power converters for electric drive vehicles are their high
efficiency (typically higher than 90%), high reliability, electromagnetic
compatibility, and miniaturization (Bellur and Kazimierczuk, 2007).
High-voltage,
tage, high-power,
power, high temperature, fast switching and very low
on-resistance
resistance semiconductor switches are of paramount importance in
converters for EVs/HEVs. These modern switches are metal-semiconductor
metal
oxide field-effect
effect transistors (MOSFETs) and insulated-gate
insulated bipolar
transistors (IGBT).

Figure 1.5 Power converter

converterss for EVs and HEVs
 16

1.6 BATTERY TYPES

Lead-acid batteries have been in use for over a century now,

because of their high power density, reliability and ability to satisfy widely
varying loads. Lead-acid batteries energy densities are far too poor to act as
storage batteries. Storing enough energy for decent range requires a massive
battery bank. Sealed (sometimes called VRLA, valve-regulated lead-acid)
batteries possess the electrolyte in a gel rather than liquid form and valves that
release gas only when pressure is too high.

In addition to traditional batteries like lead-acid, nickel

metal-hydride and nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd), there are advanced technologies
like lithium-polymer and lithium-ion. Nickel metal-hydride is currently the
advanced technology of choice for electric/hybrid vehicles. Ni-Cd batteries
offer fairly high power density for peak power applications, up to 300 to
660 W/kg possible, but may fall out of favour due to the toxicity of the
cadmium they contain.

Li-ion batteries, like those currently used in notebook computers,

transfer Li+ ions from the anode to cathode through an electrolyte, with
“insertion compounds” accepting the cations without any significant structural
change. The more recent Li-polymer batteries use a metallic lithium anode,
polymer electrolyte, a cathode and a current collector in a flat sandwich.
Although, the predicted energy densities are in the order of 200 Wh/kg, and
the system is theoretically cheap in terms of manufacturing, there are certain
drawbacks. The high cost of lithium batteries has limited its use in
electric/hybrid vehicles.

Lead-acid batteries have low energy density (typically around

30-50 Wh/kg) whereas nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) batteries have an
energy density of about 50-70 Wh/kg. Although Ni-MH batteries have
 17

considerable energy density than lead acid batteries, their charging efficiency
is lesser. Lithium-ion batteries have energy density as high as 120-140 Wh/kg
(Wong et al 2006). While most electric, battery-operated automobiles still use
lead-acid batteries, the more sophisticated automobiles use Ni-MH batteries.
Some believe lithium-ion batteries will dominate the market (Burke 2007),
whereas others point out that nickel-metal hydride batteries are the best option
(Wu et al 2011).

Research on batteries is likely to boost their energy and power

densities, while significantly decreasing their production cost. In a nutshell,
these are the main barriers for mass diffusion of BEVs, PHEVs and
conventional HEVs. Though today’s technology is appropriate to electric
drive vehicles, from a technical viewpoint (driving range and vehicle
performance), cost is still quite high for consumers. As to the most promising
technology for batteries, there seems to be no consensus among researchers.

1.7 MOTIVATION

This research is motivated by the promise that plug-in hybrid electric

vehicles offer an economical and technically feasibly option for future
transportation systems. Even though plug-in hybrid technology has been known
for a number of years, there is no unique solution to this control problem,
especially in the case of two-wheelers. A major reason for this is that the
control system by itself is unique pertaining to the architecture of the vehicle
for which the control strategy has been designed. Another reason is that the
complex characteristics of the different components which are being used in
the vehicle pose some restrictions to developing a good control strategy.
Taking these factors in account, there is a need for arriving at a solution to the
control strategy problem that would suit the urban driving conditions.
Arriving at a more generalized solution for two - wheelers is the need of the
hour. The current study is aimed at achieving this objective.
 18

The most significant technical barrier in deploying commercially

viable plug-in hybrid electric two-wheeler is that of the energy storage system
and its requirements. In addition, the fuel/energy consumption depends
greatly on the driving cycle over which the vehicle operates. However, even
more important is the all-electric range. Hence, it is important to evaluate the
total energy requirements and initial cost of the battery pack for daily average
travel needs of plug-in hybrid electric two-wheelers in India.

Yet another serious environmental issue is that of climate change

caused by greenhouse gas emissions and urban warming caused by
concentrated consumption of energy in the urban areas. Assessment of annual
saving of gasoline and reduction of CO 2 emission is also very important.

1.8 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS

As seen in the previous paragraph, Chapter 1 presented a brief

background of the problem and the motivation of the present study in context.

In Chapter 2, a survey of relevant publications that focus on

modeling, sizing of powertrain system, developments in control system, status
of electric propulsion and energy storage devices, influence of driving cycle
and economic and emission analysis has been presented. This chapter also
discusses the important patents in the area of hybrid electric vehicles.

In Chapter 3, the objectives of the present study are stated. The

methodology adopted for this work has also been also presented in the
chapter.

In Chapter 4, a mathematical vehicle model used to simulate

vehicle energy and power requirements with given driving cycle is discussed.
 19

This chapter also estimates the daily average travel distance in city followed
by selection of powertrain components for the development of prototype.

In Chapter 5, the formulation of control strategy of plug-in hybrid

electric two-wheeler suitable for Indian city driving conditions has been
discussed. This chapter also presents the development of control system and
conversion of base vehicle into plug-in hybrid electric two-wheeler is in
detail.

In Chapter 6, the testing of powertrain components is explained in

detail and their performance characteristics are compared with IDC simulation
results for the better suitability. This chapter also discusses the road test
results of converted plug-in hybrid electric two-wheeler as per IDC and actual
city road followed by validation of simulation code.

In Chapter 7, the estimation of battery energy requirements and its

mass for the desired all-electric range with respect to driving cycle for
lead-acid, Ni-MH and Li-ion type of batteries has been presented. A
comparison between the Indian driving cycle, European driving cycle and
actual driving pattern revealed the influence of these factors.

In Chapter 8, the economic and cost benefit analysis of plug-in

hybrid electric two-wheeler has been presented for different type of batteries
with respect to driving cycles. The assessment of annual gasoline saving and
reduction of CO2 emissions for the span of next 10 years from 2011-21 by
two-wheeler segment by deploying electric or plug-in hybrid technology has
been presented.

In Chapter 9, the conclusion of the work are presented and in light

of the results obtained, recommendations for further development of the work
are made.