5.

Alcohol and cotton oil as alternative fuels for internal

combustion engines

5.1. The fuel properties of alcohol and basic principles of engine conversion
5.2. Conversion design of a L195 diesel engine to ethanol/diesel fuel
5.3. Studies on burning gasoline/ethanol blended fuel in gasoline engines
5.4. Studies on using vegetable oil for diesel engine
5.5. Field test system for evaluating a tractor

This study was launched with the circumstances that the research on refining a alcohol from
sweet sorghum had made such enormous strides that the source of raw material for alcohol
production was expanded and the technology for alcohol production improved, moreover, the
resource of cotton oil was abundant in the northeast regions of China, which promised
increased output and reduced the price of alcohol. The goals of the study were to better
understand the fuel properties of alcohol and basic principles of conversion in order to provide
the representative cross section of converting diesel engine and gasoline engine to blended
fuel. In addition, the long period performance of diesel engine burning cotton/diesel blend oil
was carried out. Finally, a microcomputer based system for evaluating tractor performance was
presented.

5.1. The fuel properties of alcohol and basic principles of engine

conversion
5.1.1. Introduction to alcohols

The alcohols are fuels of the family of the OXYGENATES. As is known to all, the alcohol
molecule has one or more oxygen, which contributes to the combustion. The alcohols are
named accordingly to the basic molecules of hydrocarbon which derives from them: Methanol
(CH3 OH); Ethanol (C2H5OH); Propanol (C3H7OH); Butanol (C4H9OH). Theoretically, any of the
organic molecules of the alcohol family can be used as a fuel. The list is somehow more
extensive, however, only two of the alcohols are technically and economically suitable as fuels
for internal combustion engines. These alcohols are those of the simplest molecular structure,
i.e., Methanol and Ethanol.

It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss the production of the alcohols, however, it can be
said that:

A. Methanol is produced by a variety of process, the most common are as follows: Distillation of
wood; Distillation of coal; Natural gas and petroleum gas.

B. Ethanol is produced mainly from biomass transformation, or bioconversion. It can also be

produced by synthesis from petroleum or mineral coal.
Economic reasons dictate, however, the process which can produce the alcohol at the minimum
cost. Each country around the world has found the best compromise in the production of an
alternative fuel to replace petrol. Of special significance, especially for countries with large areas
of land like former USSR, USA, CHINA and BRAZIL, is the methods of production of ethanol
from bio-mass conversion. In this process, it can be said that solar energy is stored in the plants
by the photosynthesis process. Ethanol from a bio-conversion is therefore "solar energy in a
liquid state".

Ethyl alcohol, or ethanol has been used in Germany and France as early as 1894 by the then
incipient industry of internal combustion engines. Brazil has utilized ethanol as a fuel since
1925. By that time, the production of ethanol was 70 times bigger than the production and
consumption of petrol. There have been times when the push for alternatives to petrol were
more vigorous, mainly dictated by strategic and economic reasons. It is interesting to note that
in Brazil, there was an intense use of ethanol in the year 1930, 1940, 1950, 1958, and 1973.
Unfortunately, petroleum has always been considered abundant, almost limitless in availability.
It was cheap and versatile, so the industry has always been very keen in the intensive use of
this apparently miraculous fuel. All the development effort was toward the use of petrol and so
the engines were developed for this fuel.

In those countries with large territorial areas, ethanol has been the alternative fuel choice to
replace petrol. The reason is the fact that alcohol is a renewable source of energy. Currently,
ethanol is produced from sugar beets and from molasses. A typical yield is 72.5 liters of ethanol
per tonne of sugar cane. Modern crops yield 60 tonnes of sugar cane per hector of land. An
area of 1km2 of sugar cane crop can yield 6000 tonnes per year in a tropical country like Brazil.
Other crops can be used for the production of ethanol. In China, for instance, it has been
demonstrated that sweet sorghum ("Shennong No.2 sweet sorghum) can yield 267.4 liters of
ethanol per Mu. It has also been shown that 1 tonne of corn can produce nearly 300 liters of
alcohol.

5.1.2. Conversion of gasoline (OTTO-Cycle) engines to alcohol

a. Fuel properties of alcohols

The fuel properties of alcohols are shown in Table 5.1

Table 5.1. Fuel properties of alcohols

Item Isoctane Methanol Ethanol

1. Formula C8H18 CH3OH C2H5OH
2. Molecular weight 114.224 32.042 46.07
3. Carbon/Hydrogen (W) 5.25 3.0 4.0
4.% Carbon (W) 84.0 37.5 52.17
5.% Hydrogen (W) 16.0 12.5 13.4
6. % Oxygen (W) 0 50.0 34.78
7. Boiling point @ 1 atm °C 99.239 64.5 78.40
8. Freezing point @ 1 atm °C -107.378 -97.778 -80.00
9. Density @ 15.5 °C lb/gal 5.795 6.637 6.63
10. Viscosity @ 20°C/1 atm, Centipoise 0.503 0.596 1.20
11. Specific heat @ 25°C/1 atm BTU/lb 0.5 0.6 0.6
12. Heat of vaporization,® boiling point/1 atm, BTU/lb 116.69 473.0 361.0
13. Heat of vaporization, @ 25°C/1 atm, BTU/lb 132.0 503.3
14. Heat of combustion @ 25°C, BTU/lb
a). Higher heating value 20555 9776 12780
b).Lower heating value 19065 8593 11550
15. Stoichiometric, Ib air/lb fuel 15.13 6.463 9.0
16. Research octane number 100 106 105
17. Flash point temp. °C -42.778 11.112 12.778
18. Auto-ignition temp. °C 257.23 463.889 422.778
19. Flammability limits
a).Lower 1.4 6.7 4.3
b).Higher 7.6 36.0 19.0
20. Latent heat of vaporization @ 20°C, KJ/Kg 349 1177 921.36
21. Cetane number - 5 8
b. Combustion characteristics

There are some important differences in the combustion characteristics of alcohols and
hydrocarbons. Alcohols have higher flame speeds and extended flammability limits. Also,
alcohols produce a great number of product moles per mole of fuel burnt, therefore, higher
pressure are achieved.

The alcohols mix in all proportions with water due to the polar nature of OH group. Low volatility
is indicated by high boiling point and high flash point. Alcohols burn with no luminous flame and
produce almost no soot, especially methanol. The tendency to soot increases with molecular
weight. Therefore, methanol produces less soot than ethanol.

Combustion of alcohol in presence of air can be initiated by an intensive source of localized

energy, such as a flame or a spark and also, the mixture can be ignited by application of energy
by means of heat and pressure, such as happens in the compression stroke of a piston engine.
The energy of the mixture reaches a level sufficient for ignition to take place after a brief period
of delay called ignition delay, or induction time, between the sudden heating of the mixture and
the onset of ignition (formation of a flame front which propagates at high speed throughout the
whole mixture). The high latent heat of vaporization of alcohols cools the air entering the
combustion chamber of the engine, thereby increasing the air density and mass flow. This leads
to increased volumetric efficiency and reduced compression temperatures. Together with the
low level of combustion temperature, these effects also improve the thermal efficiency by 10%.

The higher flame speed, giving earlier energy release in the power stroke, results in a power
increase of 11% at normal conditions and up to 20% at the higher levels of a compression ratio
(14:1). Blending ethanol with gasoline at 0.1x%, the power rises to about 0.1%. Power
continues to rise steadily as the mixture is enriched to an equivalence ratio of about 1:4.
Because of the low proportion of carbon in alcohols, soot formation does not occur and
therefore alcohols burn with low luminosity and therefore low radiation. In conjunction with lower
flame temperature, about 10% less heat is lost to the engine coolant. The lower flame
temperature of alcohols results in much lower NOx (Nitrogen Oxides) emissions. The wider
flammability limits of alcohols permit smooth engine operation even at very lean mixtures. But
aldehyde emissions are noticeably higher. For ethanol, emissions are acetaldehydes and for
methanol, emissions are of formaldehydes. Increasing compression ratio from 9 to 14, aldehyde
emissions can be reduced by 50%, to level compared to that for gasoline. An addition of 10%
water reduces aldehyde emissions by 40% and NOx by 50%. Addition of 10% water in the
alcohol can be tolerated without loss of thermal efficiency.

The oxygen contents of alcohols depresses the heating value of the fuel in comparison with
hydrocarbon fuels. The heat of combustion per unit volume of alcohol is approximately half that
of isooctane. However, the stoichiometric fuel-air mass ratios are such big that the quantity of
energy content based on unit mass of stoichiometric mixture become comparable with that of
hydrocarbons.

Methanol is not miscible with hydrocarbons and separation ensues readily in the presence of
small quantities of water, particularly with reduction in temperature. Anhydrous ethanol, on the
other hand, is completely miscible in all proportions with gasoline, although separation may be
effected by water addition or by cooling. If water is already present, the water tolerance is higher
for ethanol than for methanol, and can be improved by the addition of higher alcohols, such as
butanol. Also benzene or Acetone can be used.

The high heat of vaporization and constant boiling point make cold starting very difficult with
neat alcohols. The problem is not as severe as in case of alcohols blended with gasoline.
Ethanol has a constant boiling point of 80 ° C (78.8° C). Gasoline which has a high vapor
pressure (therefore highly volatile) can be used for cold start.

c. Corrosiveness of alcohols

Dry methanol is very corrosive to some aluminum alloys, but additional water at 1% almost
completely inhibits corrosion. It must be noted that methanol with additional water at more than
2% becomes corrosive again. The same happens with less than 1% water. Nitride and
neoprene rubbers, generally satisfactory as elastomers in contact with methanol and polyacetal
plastics, are very resistant. Silicon rubber as well as vinyl can be used for gasket material.
Ethanol always contains acetic acid and is particularly corrosive to aluminum alloys. Also certain
alloys containing lead are attacked with general result of the lead being leached out, leaving a
porous surface. The Same phenomenon exists with alloys of zinc, such as ZAMAC (Al+ Zn).
The zinc is leached out as a white zinc oxide, which clogs the small orifices and jets.

Carburettors are normally made of zamac alloy. Experience has shown that if the carburettor is
protected with a coat of Nickel the corrosion problem is overcome. The process recommended
is electrolysis Nickel plating. In this process, the carburettor parts are immersed in a bath of hot
Nickel, which due to its very low viscosity, covers evenly all the surfaces without clogging the
orifices. The floats on the carburettor float-bowl are generally made of porous plastics which are
attacked by the ethanol and the end result is swelling and cracking. It is found that nylon floats
arc more durable. A float can be made with thin sheet of BRASS (0.005 inches) or 0.125mm
thickness, molded and welded with pure Tin (Sn). Alloys of Tin and Lead (Sn+ Pb) shall be
avoid as welding material. All bronze parts shall be brass or stainless steel. Steel fuel lines shall
be replaced by nylon tube (NYLON 11). Fuel filters used for gasoline are not recommended for
the many alcohols. The internal element collapses after the glue that bonds it together is
softened by the alcohol. Special filters are necessary. Also due to the higher flows, filters have
to be bigger. The filter body must be made of Nylon or Teflon.

d. Drive ability and Performance

Engine Performance and durability on alcohol depends almost entirely upon mixture
preparation. It is essential that, at low engine speed and power output, the fuel and air be
intimately mixed so that the alcohol is fully vaporized, and even more important for durability
that drops of liquid alcohol are not allowed to contact cylinder bores in any quantity, especially
while the cylinder bores have wall temperatures below 70 °C.

Substantial amount of heat additional to that required when gasoline is used as a fuel must be
used to condition the air/fuel mixture under part loaded conditions. Existing gasoline inlet
manifold and hot-spot systems cannot provide the necessary amount of heat since the demand
is 6 times greater than that for gasoline, and the extra heat must be taken either from the
cooling system of the engine, or from the exhaust gases. There are advantages and
disadvantages. Exhaust gas systems warm up more rapidly, but require relatively bulky ducts to
carry the necessary volumes of air with minimal pressure drops. Water-heated systems can
prove inadequate during warm-up at low ambient temperature, and cylinder wall wetting is then
inevitable over long periods .Whichever system is used, means must be provided to reduce the
extra heat input at high power output, since residual heat and high turbulence make high heat
input unnecessary and volumetric efficiency will be unfavorably affected if the same proportion
of heat is added at high power as at low power. High temperatures in the combustion chamber
due to too much heat being introduced can cause formation of hot-spots, such as the tips of
spark-plugs .Since alcohols .especially methanol, can be readily ignited by hot surfaces, pre-
ignition can occur. It must be emphasized here that pre-ignition and knocking in alcohol engine
is a much more dangerous condition than gasoline engines. Rapid and catastrophic failure of
the engine can occur, since the piston crown collapses in a short time after pre-ignition occurs.
Times as short as 10 to 15 seconds have been recorded. Spark-plug coolers, other than for
gasoline engines, must be used (two ranges cooler). Type recommended is BOSCHW5DC with
gaps of 0.3 mm to 0.5 mm. With correct preparation and fast warm-up, lubricating oils are not
usually a problem. Bore wear is caused by the "washing" action of liquid fuel in contact with the
cylinder liner. The wear problem is believed to be caused by formic acid attack, when methanol
is used, or acetic acid attack when ethanol is used. Highly alkaline oils have been supplied, with
Total Base Number (TBN) of around 30. However, deposits from these oils can cause even
more damage by clogging oil passages and there have been engine failures. If, however, the
mixture preparation is adequate, oils with TBN=9 can be successfully used. It has been
demonstrated that a counter-flow heat exchanger installed in an alcohol engine for the purpose
to recover heat from the exhaust, and to warm-up the inlet air, is the proper solution for the
mixture preparation in order to be adequate. Means to control the amount of heat introduced
into the engine at high loads have been devised and successfully tested. One such system
utilizes an S.U. constant-depression carburettor associated with a water-jacked elbow and an
air inlet with a split-plate which automatically divests hot air and cold air depending upon the
position of the carburettor piston.

e. Engine response to alcohol

Some properties of alcohols can be turned into advantages by designing the engine to
adequately take advantage of such properties. The mass caloric value, or the energy available
per unit of mass of the fuel in a liquid state, is the most important characteristic of a fuel. There
are some figures: Gasoline =43961 KJ/kg, Ethanol= 26795 KJ/kg, Hydrated ethanol (5% water)
=25120 KJ/kg, Hydrated methanol (5% water) =19678 KJ/kg. Another important property is the
heat of combustion, or the energy available per unit of volume of a mixture chemically correct
(stoichiometric) of a fuel and air: Gasoline=3600 KJ/kg, Ethanol=3412 KJ/kg, Methanol=3181
KJ/kg. The engine power is proportional to the heat of combustion (or the energy content of the
gases inside of the cylinder). Note, there is not much difference between various liquid fuels.

The fuel consumption is inversely proportional to the caloric value. This characteristic alone
would lead to a consumption 64% bigger than gasoline (75% for hydrated ethanol):

Ethanol (anhydrous): petrol/ethanol=43961/26795=1.64

therefore, 64% increase;

Hydrated ethanol: 43961/25120=1.75

therefore, 75% increase

Methanol: 43961/19678=2.23

therefore, 123% increase.

Other properties, however, are favorable to the increase of power and reduction of fuel
consumption. Such properties are as follows: 1).Number of molecules or products is more than
that of reactants; 2).Extended limits of flammability; 3).High octane number; 4).High latent heat
of vaporization; 5).Constant boiling temperature; 6).High density.

The increase of the number of molecules during combustion implies in a higher pressure inside
the cylinder, regardless of the effects of combustion itself. This variation is bigger for ethanol
than for gasoline, 1063 against 1055. The extended limits of flammability permit ethanol engines
to run at extremely weak mixtures, therefore limiting fuel consumption. High octane number of
ethanol and methanol permits the use of very high compression ratio, therefore increasing
thermal efficiency. High latent heat of vaporization of alcohol, 904 KJ/kg for ethanol, compared
to 418.7 KJ/kg for gasoline leads to: 1).Higher volumetric efficiency; 2).Lower compression
work; 3). Less losses of heat to the cooling system; 4).Higher heat recirculation by admission of
an air heating. For a chemically correct mixture, therefore, the combined effects of the
previously discussed characteristics are as follows:

Here, the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth are heat of combustion, number of molecules, total
efficiency, total cylinder charge, and indicated efficiency, respectively.

It can be seen that an alcohol (ethanol) engine can have 18% more power than with gasoline,
for the same displacement similarly:
On, in other words, an alcohol engine with optimized combustion, should have only a 17%
increase in fuel consumption, not 64% as the heating values of both fuels would suggest.

The overall thermal efficiency of an engine can be expressed as inversely proportional to the
specific fuel consumption and the caloric value:

h. =63200000/ (SFC* HV)

Therefore, h.=63200000/ (220* 10500) =27.35 for gasoline; and

h.=63200000/(260*6400)=38.16, for ethanol.

Note that the SFC data is obtained in actual laboratory test of an alcohol engine with optimized
combustion. The overall efficiency of an optimized ethanol engine is 38% against only 27% of a
gasoline engine of same displacement.

5.1.3. Conversion of diesel engines

When diesel engines are converted to alcohols, some properties of gasoline, diesel and alcohol
should be concerned. Table 5.2 shows the properties of the fuels .There are several methods
for converting a diesel engine to alcohol to be discussed.

Table 5.2. Some properties of fuels

Gasoline Diesel Methanol Ethanol

1. Cetane number - 50 5 8
2. Octane number 96 - 112 107
3. Auto-ignition tempt. ° C 371 315 446 390
4. Latent heat of vaporization (KJ/Kg) 349 220 1177 914
5. Lower heating value (KJ/Kg) 4400 42600 19945 26700
a. Cetane number and cetane improving additive

For a fuel to burn in a diesel engine, it must have a high cetane number or ability to self-ignite at
high temperatures and pressures. There exists a significant difference among gasoline, diesel
and alcohol in terms of cetane number and auto ignition. A high cetane number leads to a short
ignition delay period, whereas a low cetane number results in a long ignition delay period. From
table 5.2, it can be seen that alcohols have lower cetane number than that of diesel, which is not
desired when diesel engines are converted to alcohol. Fortunately, some additives, an example
of which is nitrate glycol, can increase the cetane number of alcohols. This means that ignition
delay period will become short, which will reduce tendency to cause a diesel knock. However,
too short ignition delay period will cause a lower rate of heat release which is not wanted.

b. Alcohol-diesel emulsions
Because alcohols have limited solubility in diesel, stable emulsion must be formed that will allow
it to be injected before separation occurs. Hydroshear emulsification unit can be used to
produce emulsions of diesel-alcohol. However, the emulsion can only remain stable for 45
seconds. And, 12% alcohol (energy basis) is the maximum percentage. In addition, this kind of
method has several problems which are as follows: 1).Specific fuel consumption at low speed
increases; 2).High cost; 3).Instability. Therefore, other methods are developed.

c. Fumigation

Fumigation is a process of introducing alcohol into the diesel engine (up to 50%) by means of a
carburettor in the inlet manifold. At the same time, the diesel pump operates at a reduced flow.
In this process, diesel fuel is used for generating a pilot flame. And, alcohol is used as a
fumigated fuel. Two points should be noted in using this method. At low loads, quantity of
alcohol must be reduced to prevent misfire .On the other hand, at high loads, quantity of alcohol
must also be reduced to prevent pre-ignition.

d. Dual injection

In dual injection system, a small amount of diesel is injected as a pilot fuel for ignition source.
And a large amount of alcohol is injected as main fuel. It must be noted that the pilot fuel must
be injected prior to injection of alcohol. Some ideal results can be achieved when this method is
used. Thermal efficiency is better. At the same time, NOx emission is lower. Moreover, CO
emissions and HC emissions are the same. However, the system requires two fuel pumps, thus,
leading to a high cost. Meanwhile, alcohol needs additives for lubricity.

e. Heated surfaces

Alcohol can ignite with hot surfaces. For this reason, glow-plugs can be utilized as a source of
ignition for alcohol. In this system, specific fuel consumption depends on glow-plug positions
and temperatures. It must be noted that the temperature of glow-plugs must vary with load.
However, the glow-plug becomes inefficient at a high load. In addition, the specific fuel
consumption is higher than that of diesel.

f. Spark-ignition

When a spark plug is used, diesel engine can be converted to Otto cycle engine. In this case,
compression ratio should be reduced, from 16: 1 to 10.5: 1. There are two types about this kind
of conversion. They are as follows:

Type 1: The original fuel injection system is maintained. Alcohol needs additive for lubricity
(Nitride glycol). Besides, both distributor and sparkplug need to be installed, thus leading to a
high cost of conversion. It is critical to adjust an ideal injection and spark-time for this kind of
conversion.

Type 2: Original fuel injection is eliminated. But, a carburettor, a spark-plug and a distributor
need to be installed, which increases the cost of conversion. In this conversion, spark timing is
critical.

Both the type 1 and type 2 conversion have a lower thermal efficiency than that of diesel.
g. Neat methanol for diesel cycle

Fig.5.1 shows the basic principle of this conversion in this system, methanol is introduced to the
combustion chamber through two separated accesses. One methanol is passed through inlet
manifold over an exhaust-heated aluminum bed (h=70%) heated to 400 ° C. Another methanol
with 2% castor oil as additive is injected to the combustion chamber. In the first access, dimethyl
ether is produced from methanol. The DME reacts at a normal diesel engine compression
temperature and raises the gas temperature above ignition temperatures of methanol .It acts as
a pilot fuel; In the second access, no additive to the methanol is to be converted to DME. 2%
castor oil is added in order to improve lubricity. In this system, the thermal efficiency is better
than that of diesel. Furthermore, ignition delay period is reduced, which leads to a decrease of
rate of the pressure rising. This means that the engine has no diesel"knock" and has a
smoother combustion. At the same time, the peak pressure is 18% higher than that of diesel.
Fortunately, this can be compensated by retarding the injection timing. The problem of this
conversion is that DME conversion becomes poor at high speed and at low loads due to the
drops of exhaust gas temperature. Pilot flow (DME) which is critical depends on load and speed,
less upon temperature. At a high speed, a fuel pump runs out of the design point.

Fig. 5.1 Basic principle of this conversion.

5.2. Conversion design of a L195 diesel engine to ethanol/diesel fuel

5.2.1 Technical parameters of L195 diesel engine

L195 diesel engine, which is widely utilized as a prime mover for a variety of vehicles, including
small tractors, is a very popular engine. Table 5.3 shows the specifications of L195 engine.

5.2.2. Conversion design of L195 diesel engine

a. General design of conversion approach

Alcohol has a low cetane number, high octane number, high auto-ignition temperature, high
latent heat of vaporization and low level of heating value. Because of the above reasons, the
original diesel fuel system would be maintained when this diesel engine is converted to
ethanol/alcohol blend fuel. In this system, the diesel fuel provided a pilot-flame for the alcohol
that would be aspirated through the inlet manifold by means of a carburettor specifically
manufactured to handle ethanol. In addition, a heat exchanger is needed in order to heat the air
which flows to the carburettor. In this way, it is not necessary to change original compression
ratio. This system, also known as "Fumigation" system was chosen because the high
compression ratio of the engine would provide a good condition for the ignition of diesel even in
the presence of a cooled charge of air/ethanol. At the same time, the speed control of engine
should be modified in order to maintain a ideal proportion of diesel oil. The configuration of L195
engine after conversion is shown in Fig. 5.2.

Table 5.3. specifications of L195 engine

1. Type of engine four strokes, compression ignition

2. Displacement (cm) 815
3. Bore/Stroke(mm/mm) 95/115
4. Compression ratio 21
5. Normal speed (RPM) 2000
6. 12 hr. calibrated power (KW) 8.826
7. Specific fuel consumption (k/kwh) 257
8. Type of diesel pump BFGIAK 85
9. Type of injector ZS4S1
10. Ignition delay period (°CA) 16-20
b. The calculation and selection of carburettor

A carburettor, namely the MBB/WEBER, was bought from Brazil. It was nickel plated and
utilized in Brazil in alcohol fueled vehicles. The carburettor was installed in the converted inlet
manifold. The main jet was calibrated to a new value. The original jet size of 195 mm was
discarded and a smaller one of 150 mm was installed. The ideal main jet size can be deduced
from follow formula:

ds = (4Gf/ usVf tpf)1/2

In which,

ds-Size of main jet, mm

Gf-Optical injection amount of fuel at calibrated conditions Kg/s;
Vf t-Theoretical velocity of fuel to the main jet, m/s
us-Volume of flow coefficient
pf-Density of ethanol, Kg/m3

Fig. 5.2. The configuration of L195 engine after conversion

1. Carburettor
2. Heat exchanger
3. Diesel oil control bolt
4. Accelerator linkage
5. Cold air manifold to heat exchanger
6. Hot air carburettor manifold
7. Sxhaust manifold
8. Inlet manifold
9. Cold air by-pass manifold
10. Air filter

c. Selection of heat exchanger

Heat exchanger is a basic piece of equipment in any modern alcohol converted engine. The
high latent heat of vaporization of the alcohol causes the air-fuel charge to cool down to freezing
temperatures inside the inlet manifold, impairing combustion. To compensate for the
unacceptable drop in temperature, a heat exchanger was installed in the exhaust manifold of
the engine to recover the heat rejected and to transfer this heat into the inlet air-stream. This
causes the air/fuel charge to increase its temperature and therefore a good proportion of the
alcohol is evaporated, making combustion more likely to occur on a greater percentage of the
engine cycle.

The heat exchanger was made in New Zealand, where it had been successfully utilized in
alcohol converted engines. Details of the heat exchanger are shown in Fig. 5.3.

Fig. 5.3. Heat exchanger

The principle of the heat exchanger is very simple. From Fig.5.3, it can be seen that a series of
copper rods traverse the connection surface between cold air manifold of the heat exchanger
and exhaust manifold of the engine. In this way, the heat from exhaust air is transferred to the
copper rods. Meanwhile, the copper rods pass the heat to cold air inside the heat exchanger.

d. Conversion design of air supply system

The original air supply system was converted to a new one. The new manifold was designed, so
that two separate air inlets were provided. One, from the air filter to the inlet manifold, is used
for diesel oil. And the other, from the air filter, to the heat exchanger and from the heat
exchanger back to the manifold through the carburettor is used for alcohol. The working process
of the new air supply system is shown in Fig. 5.2.

e. Conversion design of controlling system

Control of diesel oil and alcohol quantities

In order to limit the maximum diesel flow, a modification on the speed control of the engine was
made. A longer lever was installed in the speed control shaft which controls the fuel pump rack.
Therefore, an external stop was made so that, by means of a bolt, it can be calibrated to any
amount of diesel injection, from zero to 100%. A drawing of the system is shown in Fig. 5.2

Fig. 5.4. Accelerator linkage

In order to control the amount of alcohol introduced to the combustion chamber of the engine,
the carburettor throttle was connected to the accelerator pedal, which also controls the speed-
governor of the engine, thus the diesel flow. The travel of the speed governor was limited to
about 50% and the control linkage was made so that the diesel is accelerated first and then the
alcohol. This is to avoid flame-out due to the cooling effect that the full charge of alcohol would
cause. The control linkage can be seen in Fig. 5.4.

Cold air control

If the amount of diesel oil injected to the combustion chamber is changed, the cold air supply
will also be altered. in order to fulfil the above aim, a control valve for the cold air was installed
on the inlet manifold. Fig. 5.5 shows the cold air control system. And its working processes are
as follows: When the engine is started, the control valve for the cold air is totally open so that
very small quantities of alcohol are admitted into the engine; After started, the cold air valve is
closed to enable the air from the filter to circulate through the heat exchanger and then through
the carburettor which will, at this stage, be fully operative.
Finally, it should be noted that the above pipes which are manufactured from steel are
connected by flanges. Fig. 5.6 shows the conversion piping system.

f. Engine tests and analyses

In order to be able to verify the effectiveness of the conversion, tests were carried out for the
determination of power and fuel consumption characteristics. Because a reference value was
needed, the engine was tested first in its original 100% diesel configuration.

Fig. 5.5 Cold air control

Test with 100% diesel fuel

The carburettor throttle was disconnected and maintained to be closed. The by-pass cold air
manifold was opened and the engine started. It was found that power, specific fuel consumption
at 2000 RPM were 8.35 KW, 245.6 g/kw h, respectively.

Tests with 180 proof alcohol/diesel blend fuel

When throttle of the carburettor was connected with the accelerator pedal again, the engine can
be started. The engine was originally installed in a small farm tractor, and the original
configuration was maintained. A tank for ethanol was installed at the back of the tractor, so that
alcohol would be fed to the carburettor by gravity. No pumps could be used since the tractor has
no battery. The engine was started by manual cranking helped by a decompression valve. The
engine was cold started with the accelerator at mid-point, with the diesel limiting bold back-off
and the inlet manifold having the passage totally open. This is necessary so that very small
quantities of alcohol are admitted into the engine. From the test results, it is known that the
engine starts well, though needs some more number of cranking rotations. After being started,
the cold-air valve is closed to enable the air from the filter to circulate through the heat
exchanger and then through the carburettor which will, at this stage, be fully operative. During
the tests, it was found that at full throttle opening, the amount of alcohol is too much, or the
mixture strength too high. Some preignition occurs which would be avoided. It is necessary to
open the cold-air by-passing manifold in order to introduce more cold air and so reduce the
amount of air that pass through the heat exchanger and carburettor. This reduces the mixture
strength at full load, which is what is needed.

Fig. 5.6 The conversion piping system.

After many experiments, it was found that, with 40%-60% cold-air by-pass manifold open, the
converted engine shows better performance. The power and specific fuel consumption at 2000
RPM are 8.502 kw, 178.3 g/kw-h (not including alcohol), respectively. The ratio of alcohol to
diesel is 2: 1. From the test results, it can be seen that the conversion has been successful. The
engine can be started well, its overall performance is ideal. In addition, the power using blended
oil is higher than that of diesel oil.

Fig.5.7: the cold-air by-pass manifold

At present, the control is manual, but a suggestion for automatic cold-air control is given for
further development. A drawing with the suggested control system using a throttle linked to the
carburettor is shown in Fig. 5.7.

Conclusion and discussion

The technique of converting LI 95 diesel engine to alcohol/diesel blended fuel is both simple and
economical. When there is no alcohol available, the engine can use diesel oil easily. Therefore,
it has a wide adaptability.

The heat exchanger can supply sufficient heat to the alcohol, thus offsetting the low inlet air
temperature due to the high latent heat of alcohol.

It is practicable to convert a compression internal engine to alcohol/diesel fuel, because the

converted engine can be started well and its power is also higher than that of diesel oil.
Unfortunately, the converted engine has not reached calibrated power (8.826kw). This is
because of following reason. At this test, although the heat exchanger supplies sufficient heat to
alcohol, an asbestos gasket between the cylinder head and the inlet manifold prevents heat
from the heated engine to be able to reach the inlet manifold. This is undesirable since the
manifold needs all the heat that is available to warm up the very cool air/alcohol charge. Later, a
copper gasket was used, the converted engine has shown a ideal performance during more
than two years field operation. No erosion of carburettor was founded.

In order to improve the performance of the converted engine, it is necessary to have a better
thermal insulation in the heated exchanger and manifold to the carburettor. Also exhaust
manifold must be thermally insulated.

In order to guarantee good supply of alcohol to the carburettor, it is necessary to locate the
alcohol tank as high as possible.
The laboratory tests are preliminary. The detail tests both in laboratory and in the field will be
done in future.

5.3. Studies on burning gasoline/ethanol blended fuel in gasoline

engines
The goals of the study were to better understand some of the properties of blended fuel, to
investigate the performance of engine in laboratories and of vehicles under road conditions, as
well as to study the effect of blended fuel on engine parts in corrosion and wearing.

5.3.1. Performance of blend fuel

A. The starting performance of blended fuel

The starting performance of gasoline depends on its forerunning point and the temperature at
which 10% distillate is released. When gasoline is mixed with alcohol, the starting performance
of the blend fuel mainly depends on the performance of alcohol vaporization. The latent heat of
alcohol is about 216 Kcal/Kg, while that of gasoline is 80 Kcal/kg.Besides, the latent heat of
alcohol also increases with the proportion of water in alcohol. This .makes alcohol absorb much
more heat than gasoline does during vaporization, thus reducing the admission temperature in
engine, and causing difficulty in starting the engine. The specific heat of alcohol is 0.65
Kcal/kg°C at 20°C, which is higher than that of gasoline (0.58 Kcal/Kg°C). It increases too with
the proportion of water in alcohol, leading to low temperature at the end of compression stroke
and making it difficult for the engine to start. In addition, the low boiling point of alcohol as well
as arise in temperature in the engine may cause an air plug, and make the engine difficult to
start. This means that the starting performance of blend fuel is poor. Therefore, it is necessary
to solve the starting problem when gasoline engine is converted to gasoline/ethanol blended
fuel.

B. The octane number of blend fuel

Alcohol has a high octane number, RON being 110, and MON 90. Its antiknock performance is
good. If alcohol contains a certain amount of water, it is favorable to improve its antiknock
performance, hence the enhancement of the compression ratio of the engine occurs when the
blended fuel is burned. Meanwhile, an alcohol blend requires no or reduced additive of
antiknock substance, which may reduce air pollution caused by lead (pb). But the effect on
increasing of the octane number of blended fuel is not the same when gasoline is mixed with
different kinds of alcohol, as is shown in Table 5.4. Data in the Table 5.4 show that the change
in octane number of blended fuel is in nonlinear correlation with the proportion of alcohol added.
A 5%-20% alcohol blend has a higher mixed octane number. This means that the effect on
raising the octane number of blend fuel is more notable. In addition, the lower the octane
number of base gasoline is, the more notable the effect on raising the octane number of
blended fuel will be.

Table 5.4. Octane number (Motor method)

Ethanol in the mixture (%) Octane (M) Mixed octane (M)

a b a b
 0 72.5 60.6 - -
5 74.8 - 118.5 -
10 76.6 - 113.5 -
15 78.5 73.4 112.5 143.00
20 80.3 76.7 111.5 141.10
25 81.4 - 108.1 -
55 - 87.4 - 109.33
60 - 87.7 - 105.77
70 - 88.6 - 100.60
80 - 89.7 - 96.98
90 - 89.9 - 93.16
100 90.0 91.6 90.0 91.60
a - Data in this column are from literature (2).
b - Data in this column are collected from laboratory.

Based on the foregoing conclusion, selecting 15%-20% of low proof alcohol blend has the
advantage of putting the alcohol's high antiknock performance into full play. Meanwhile if a low
octane gasoline is used as the base for the blend, without adding any antiknock fluid, not only
can the pollution by lead be reduced, but also the cost of fuel is decreased, thus making the use
of mixed fuel on gasoline engine more adapTable.

5.3.2. conversion methods and materials of gasoline engine

A Van with 492 QA gasoline engine was used as sample machine. The conversion methods of
the engine were designed according to the following requirements. Firstly, the conversion of the
engine should meet the needs of the blended fuel with 15%-20% alcohol of 170-180 proof.
Moreover, the conversion and operation of the engine should be convenient. And the
performance of original engine should not be changed too much. In some circumstances, the
engine may be switched over to gasoline alone. Furthermore, during operation, the ratio of
alcohol to gasoline should not fluctuate more than 5% After some possible conversion methods
were analyzed. the method using two float chambers of one carburettor was adopted. During
operation, two fuel supply systems fed alcohol and gasoline to one carburettor through two float
chambers, respectively. According to the different ways in which alcohol and gasoline were
mixed , there were approaches. In the first approach, the alcohol and gasoline were mixed
inside the main metering jet tube of the carburettor; In the second approach, the alcohol from
the alcohol float chamber was conducted to a new main metering jet tube opposite to the main
metering jet tube of gasoline. In this way, alcohol was injected through the new main discharge
nozzle. At the same time, gasoline was injected through the original main discharge nozzle.
Therefore, they were mixed inside the inlet manifold from the venturi throat to throttle of the
carburettor. Fig.5.8 shows schematic arrangement of fuel supply systems . And Fig.5.9 shows
structure of the carburettor (Type 231) used for both the first and the second approaches.

Fig. 5.8 schematic arrangement of fuel supply systems

1 - Alcohol tank
2 - Alcohol filter
3 - Alcohol pump
4 - Gasoline pump
5 - Alcohol float chamber
6 - Carburettor
7 - T-tube
8 - Engine
9 - Gasoline filter
10 - Gasoline tank

Fig. 5.9 Structure of the carburettor

1 - Alcohol inlet (second approach)
2 - Carburettor
3 - Alcohol flood chamber
4 - Alcohol outlet
5 - Alcohol pipe
6 - Alcohol inlet (first approach)

After conversion, several contrast tests between the original engine and the converted engine
were carried out in order to investigate the engine characteristics, including velocity
performance and load performance, exhaust gases, zero load performance, vehicle's travelling
performance, and corrosion and wearing.

5.3.3. Test results and discussions

A. Engine bench test

The velocity and load performance of engines are shown in Fig.5.10, Fig.5.11, Fig. 5.12, and
Fig. 5.13.

a. Stability of the ratio of alcohol to gasoline

From the velocity performances of the engine, it can be seen that the absolute value of ratio of
alcohol to gasoline fluctuated from 1% to 2% under very wide speed range of the engine for
both approaches. In addition, from the load performances of engine, it can be seen that the
absolute value of the ratio of alcohol to gasoline varies at the range of 1.2%-2.5% from a small
percentage of an open throttle to the complete opening of the throttle for both float chamber
methods. Therefore, it shows that the ratio of alcohol to gasoline is basically stable at different
velocities and loads.

Fig. 5.10 The velocity performance of the engine velocity in the first approach (2400rpm)

Fig. 5.11 The engine load performance for the first approach

Fig. 5.12 The engine velocity performance for the second approach
Fig.5.13 The engine load performance for the second approach (2000rpm)
b. Power and specific fuel consumption

From the velocity performances of engine, it can be seen that the power of engine operating on
blend fuel is about the same as that of the engine running on gasoline alone. Although the
caloric value of alcohol is lower than that of gasoline, the air-fuel ratio of alcohol is lower than
that of gasoline. So the caloric values of combustible gas in the two cases are about the same.
Test showed that the engine using blended fuel, which is made by mixing gasoline with 15%-
20% 170 proof or above alcohol, can reach the original power of the engine.

From the load performances of the engine, it can be seen that the engine's specific fuel
consumption when using blended fuel is higher than that when operating on gasoline alone.
This happens because the caloric value of blended fuel is lower than that of gasoline. However,
due to the fact that blend fuel has a higher octane number, the combustion properties are
improved when blended fuel is used. Therefore, the effective efficiency of blended fuel is higher
than that of gasoline under all RPM and load conditions.
B. Start performance

Table 5.5. Vacuum levels of idle port and main discharge nozzle.

Throttle 100% open of choke 100% close of choke

open (angle) Idle port nozzle Main discharge Idle port nozzle Main discharge
11° 230 1 240 80
22.5° 215 6 225 105

Note: unit, mm H2O

In choosing the conversion methods, the start problem of the engine has already been
considered when engine is started, the throttle of the carburettor is open at a small percentage.
Table 5.5 shows the vacuum levels of idle port and main discharge nozzle for the converted
engine. The test results show that the vacuum levels of idle port is much higher than that of
main discharge nozzle during the start. Therefore, when engine is started, the fuel supply
depends on the idle port. At this time, the main discharge nozzle nearly stops supplying fuel.
This means that it is the idling system that affected the start performance of the engine.

The velocity performance of the converted engine at idle condition was tested. Fig.5.14 shows
the test results. From Fig. 5.14, it is known that the ratio of alcohol to gasoline fluctuates
between 3% and 7.5% at 800-2000 RPM. The engine burns nearly gasoline alone under 800
RPM. Above results indicate that the fuel injected from idle port is nearly gasoline alone at a low
speed starting condition. Hence, the alcohol does not have an effect on the star performance of
the engine.

Because there is no alcohol in the idling system for the second conversion approach, the
alcohol can not affect the starting performance of the engine. In fact the "Hongxing" van using
the converted engine had no start problems during more than 50000 km trip through two
winters.

Fig.5.14 The velocity performance of the converted engine at idle condition

C. Vehicle's travelling performance

The converted engine through the second approach was installed in the "Hongxing"van. The
van was tested in the Shenda Road in order to see both the acceleration of engine and fuel
consumption per unit distance at a constant speed. In addition, #70 gasoline alone was used in
the same vehicle to contrast with the burning blended fuel. The ignition-delay periods were
adjusted to a optical value in above two cases.

The data in acceleration test were shown in Table 5.6. From the Table 5.6, it can be seen that
the acceleration time of the vehicle running on blended fuel is 2.94 seconds less than that of
operating on gasoline. The acceleration of the former is 0.04 m/s2 faster than that of the latter.
The fuel consumption per unit acceleration of vehicle on the blended fuel is 174.68 g/ms2and on
gasoline is 174.83 g/m s2. The two are nearly the same.

Table 5.6. Acceleration properties

Velocity (km/h) Time (e) Acceleration (m/s2) Fuel consumption (g)

Begin End B G B G B G R (%)
26.4 29.1 0.42 0.38 71.67 63.13 16.3
27.1 31.7 0.41 0.35 69.21 66.72 17.4
30 70 29.3 30.9 0.88 0.36 70.71 67.00 18.0
29.4 30.6 0.38 0.36 73.93 63.83 16.7
24.2 28.8 0.46 0.39 72.56 62.78 16.7
Average 27.28 30.22 0.41 0.37 71.62 64.69 16.6

Note:
B: Blend fuel;
G: Gasoline;
R: Ratio of ethanol to gasoline in the blend fuel

Table 5.7 and Table 5.8 show the fuel consumption at a constant speed of the van. The data in
the Table 5.7 and Table 5.8 indicate that the average fuel consumption per 100 km of the
vehicle running on blend fuel is 0.62 kg higher than that of running on gasoline alone. The
difference is 8.16%. The reason is that the heat value of alcohol is only 2/3 of the gasoline heat
value. In addition, the heat consumption ratio of vehicle running on blend fuel is 3.3 kcal/km
higher than that of running on gasoline. The difference is only 0.45%. Moreover, the ratio of
alcohol to gasoline is ranged within 18.2% to 20% at different speeds, which shows that the
ratio is stable.

Table 5.7. Fuel consumption of blend fuel at a constant speed

Time Velocity Fuel consumption Fuel consumption rate Heat consumption ratio
(s) (km/hr) (g) (kg/100 km) (106 cal/100 km)
Alcohol Gasoline Alcohol Gasoline
1. 120.5 29.87 15.58 60.40 1.56 6.04 -
2. 121 29.75 16.81 60.94 1.68 6.09 -
3. 120.8 29.81 16.20 60.7 1.62 6.07 73.46
4. 89.2 40.35 14.8 57.7 1.48 5.77 -
5. 90.1 39.96 15.6 60.6 1.56 6.06 -
6. 99.65 40.16 15.7 59.1 1.52 5.91 71.18
7. 72.2 49.86 13.9 57.9 1.39 5.79 -
8. 71.8 50.16 15.6 58.8 1.56 5.88 -
9. 72 50 14, 8 58.4 1.48 5.84 70.2
10. 59.4 60.60 14.8 59.4 1.48 5.94 -
11. 58.9 61.12 15.2 62.2 1.52 6.22 72.84
12. 59.15 60.86 15.0 60.8 1.50 6.08 -
13. 51.5 69.90 14.4 64.2 1.44 6.42 -
14. 51.2 70.31 15.2 66.0 1.52 6.60 -
Average 51.35 70.11 14.8 65.1 1.48 6.51 77.24

Table 5.8. Fuel consumption of gasoline at a constant speed

Time Velocity Fuel Fuel consumption Heat consumption

(s) (km/hr) consumption (g) rate (kg/100 km) consumption rate
(106cal/100km)
1. 120.9 29.78 69.3 6.93 -
2. 119.6 30.1 71.2 7.12 -
3. 120.25 29.94 70.2 7.02 73.71
4. 89.6 40.18 67.6 6.76 -
5. 89.7 40.13 69.4 6.94 -
 6. 89.65 40.16 68.5 6.85 71.93
7. 72.1 49.93 66.4 6.64 -
8. 72.3 49.79 65.9 6.59 -
9. 72.2 49.86 66.2 6.62 69.51
10. 59.6 60.4 68.2 6.82 -
11. 59.1 60.91 69.1 6.91 -
12. 59.35 60.66 68.6 6.86 72.03
13. 51.2 70.31 74.8 7.48 -
14. 51.6 69.77 76.4 7.64 -
Average 51.4 70.04 75.6 7.56 79.38

D. The effect of blended fuel on corrosion and wearing down of the engine

During the operation of the engine, the metal particles from the machine elements, due to the
wearing down of the engine, entered lubricating oil at a suspension state. According to the
theory analysis, the amount of metal particles suspended in the lubricating oil is related to the
wearing down level of machine elements. Therefore, the wearing down of the engine can be
estimated by measuring the iron content in the oil residue in engine. The machine elements
which are easy to wear down are in the cylinder wall and piston ring. In our study, the wearing
down of engine operating on blended fuel was estimated by measuring the iron content in oil
residue in the engine after a car had traveled a certain mileage. The Fig. was then compared
with that in the engine burning gasoline. At the same time, the kinematic viscosity and the acid
value of oil residue in the two cases were also tested in order to determine the corrosion of
engine.

The test data are shown in Table 5.9/Table 5.10 and Table 5.11. The Table 5.9, Table 5.10 and
Table 5.11 show the iron content in residue oil, kinematic viscosity and acid value, respectively.
The results indicate that the iron content in the oil residue of a car using blended fuel was lower
than that of car using gasoline. Furthermore, the kinematic viscosity and the acid value of oil
residue in the two cases were nearly the same, suggesting that alcohol had produced no more
adverse effect on diluting and acidifying the oil than gasoline did. Besides, the maximum
wearing down amounts of the engine cylinder burning blended fuels were 0.05 mm and 0.07
mm in within the diameter's direction after 25000 km and 51000 km, were travelled.
respectively. The average maximum wearing down amount of engine cylinder in the diameter's
direction was 0.014 mm which was lower than a typical wearing down amount. For example, the
average maximum wearing amount per 10000 km of 492 QA engine burning gasoline is 0.0296
mm which is measured by a vehicle maintenance factory. All above results suggest that the
blended fuel with 15%-20% alcohol of 170-180 proof has no apparent effect on corrosion and
wearing of the engine.

Table 5.9. Iron content in residue oil

Distance (km) Iron center it using blend fuel Iron content using gasoline
Blend fuel Gasoline Total (ppm) ppm/1000km Total (ppm) ppm/1000km
1. 4400 7700 58 13.18 223 28.96
2. 4400 4300 55 12.50 215 50.00
 3. 5000 4700 35 7.00 115 24.47
4. 4600 4100 122 26.52 169 41.20
5. 4600 4600 224 48.70 143 31.09
6. 4300 5300 190 44.19 129 24.34
7. 4500 - 121 26.89
8. 4700 - 125 26.60
Average 116.25 25.70 165.67 33.35

Table 5.10. Kinematic viscosity of lubricating oil

Distance (km) Kinematic viscosity of (40°C, 10-6m/s) lubricating oil

Using blend fuel Using gasoline
1. 4600 95.7 -
2. 4600 109 -
3. 4300 92.39 -
4. 4300 - 102.7
5. 4700 - 89.6
6. 4100 - 90.73
Average - 99.03 94.34

Table 5.11. Acid value of residue oil

Distance (km) Acid value (mg KOH/g)

Using blend fuel Using gasoline
1. 4600 0.50 -
2. 4600 0.69 -
3. 4300 0.51 -
4. 4300 - 0.41
5. 4700 - 0.69
6. 4100 - 0.60
Average - 0.57 0.57

E. The effect of blended fuel on the exhaust value

Generally speaking, exhaust gases of engine at idling condition can be measured as sample
gases. However, the converted engine supplies nearly no alcohol at a very low speed. Hence,
the exhaust gases were measured at 550 RPM. Both HC and CO content were measured.
When the engine burns blended fuel, the HC and CO content are 500 PPM and 6.8%,
respectively. Whereas, the engine burning gasoline alone exhaust 500 PPM HC and 6.8% CO.
The test data indicated that the exhaust value of engine operating on blend fuel are lower than
that engine using gasoline alone. Furthermore, exhaust values of the engine operating on
blended fuel can meet the regulations of China's Exhaust Standards.
5.3.4. Conclusion

Mixing gasoline with 15%-20% alcohol of 170-180 proof is a suitable choice for popularizing the
use of blended fuel in the gasoline engine in China.

Burning a mixture of lead-free low -octane gasoline and low-proof alcohol can not only make the
best use of high-octane value of alcohol but also reduce fuel cost.

No appreciable corrosion and unnatural wearing down in the main engine parts were observed.

When a gasoline engine is converted to alcohol/gasoline blended fuel, it is crucial to maintain

the stability of ratio between alcohol and gasoline during the operation of the engine.

The conversions of the two approaches are simple. It is easy to control the engine. The cost of
the conversion is low. And the engine performance is satisfactory and stable. At the same time,
the converted engine can be switched over to gasoline alone when there is no alcohol available.

5.4. Studies on using vegetable oil for diesel engine

5.4.1. Characteristics of fuel

In order to study the possibility of cotton oil being used with diesel. We experimented with a
mixture of diesel oil and cotton oil in a model 170F diesel engine for 300 hours.

During the experiment, we measured the performances of the model 170F while using pure
diesel oil, 30/70 cotton-diesel oil mixture, 50/50 cotton-diesel oil mixture and pure cotton oil.

Because of the differences in structure and composition between diesel oil and cotton oil, their
fuel characteristics differ greatly. Their differences are shown in Table 5.12

Table 5.12. Characteristics of fuel

Viscosity Heat value Specific Freezing point Flash Moisture

(cst) (kJ/kg) gravity (°C) point °C content (%)
cotton oil 76.44 39400 0.923 -3 300 1.12
#0 oil 3.0-8.0 44950 0.851 <0 > 60 -
Diesel

Table 5.12 indicates that cotton oil has a higher viscosity, lower heat value, greater specific
gravity and a higher flash point than diesel oil.

The higher viscosity of cotton oil makes for reduced injection quality, incomplete burning, severe
accumulation of carbon and dirty lubricant.

The experiment indicated that the viscosity of cotton fell sharply when temperature rose, the
viscosity-temperature characteristics of several oils is shown in Fig. 5.15.

Fig. 5.15 The viscosity-temperature characteristics of several oils

5.4.2. Model 2100 engine test

Model 2100 engine had been fueled with nutsedge tube oil, sunflower oil, cotton oil and diesel
fuel blends. With the blend, the power output was similar to that of diesel fuel. But with the
straight vegetable oil, the maximum power output dropped by seven percent, and the fuel
consumption increased by 14%-16% around the rated power. As a example, the performance
curve of model 2100 engine is shown in Fig. 5.16.

5.4.3. The model 170F diesel's performance while using cotton oil, diesel oil and mixture oils.

The experimental model was the 170F diesel engine. That's a single cylinder, horizontal, air-
cooled, four-stroke and whirl chamber type combustion chamber. Its rated speed is 2600 rpm,
and its rated power is 4 horsepower.

The experimental instruments were a model SCJ-1 hydraulic dynamometer, a model TCY-69
fuel consumption recorder and a temperature dial gauge.

Fig. 5.16. The performance of Model 2100 engine

The diesel run at a rated speed of 2600 rpm and measured the character of the diesel while
using several different oils. The load performances of fuels are shown in Fig 5.17. It can be
concluded from the experiment that maximum power differs only slightly when the engine used
different mixture oils.

5.4.4. A 300-hour-run test

The model 170F diesel ran for 300 hours in order to drive a generator of 2kw.with a lamp as
load. The fuel was 30/70 cotton-diesel oil mixture.

The experimental procedure

The model 170F diesel requires to change lubricant every 100 working hours according to its
instruction manual. Thus the experiment was divided into 3 parts, of 100 hours each.

The experiment was made by means of the cyclic load method, with 2 hours in each cycle.
The detailed running procedures are as follows:

Start for 2 minutes; low speed without load for 5 minutes; 1 kw load for 50 minutes; 2 kw load for
60 minutes; without load for 3 minutes; and then stop: a total of 2 hours. After a rest, the test
was rerun according to the same procedure for another cycle.

Fig. 5.17 The load performances of fuels

The experiment recorded the consumption of fuel. A sample of lubricant every 100 hours was
taken and analyzed for the content of iron and copper in the oil. The measurements of piston
and cylinder sleeves. the shaft neck of the crank's connection rod and crank pin bearings, and
the weight of the piston rings were carried out . The experimental results are shown in Table
5.13, 5.14, 5.15.

Table 5.13. The Experimental Result

Fuel consumption (kg) Weightless of rings (g) Meta1 content (ppm)

Cotton oil Diesel 1st ring 2nd ring 3rd ring 4th ring oil ring Fe Cu
1st 100hr 20.68 48.26 0.1409 0.0403 0.0249 0.0430 0.0240 29.93 10.24
2nd 100hr 3.40 54.60 0.1024 0.0266 0.0219 0.0242 0.0240 619.9 12.2
3rd 100hr 23.98 55.95 0.6344 0.3324 0.2563 0.1238 0.2170 778.8 32.2
Table 5.14. The Measurement of dimensions

Shaft neck of crank's connection rod Connection pin bearings

pre-test A-A 41.99 41.985 42.03 42.035
B-B 41.99 41.985 42.04 42.04
The first times A-A 41.985 41.985 42.035 42.03
B-B 41.985 41.985 42.03 42.03
The second times A-A 41.975 41.98 42.04 42.035
B-B 41.98 41.98 42.04 42.04
The third times A-A 41.975 41.975 42.045 42.045
B-B 41.98 41.975 42.04 42.05

Analysis of the experimental result

During 300 hour running, the model 170F diesel was in normal working condition with 30/70
cotton-diesel oil mixture, except for the wear on the radial bush of the valve, caused by a light fit
When changing the lubricant, it was discovered that the lubricant degraded, its color turned
dark, and its viscosity increased. There was more accumulated carbon at the combustion
chamber, piston crown and injector, but the accumulated carbon was loose and can be removed
easily. No cementation took place . So it does not affect the normal running.

Table 5.15. The Measurement of Piston and Cylinder Sleeves

Piston Cylinder sleeves

Pre-test A-A 69.87 69.87 70.01 70.00 70.01
B-B 69.88 69.88 70.00 70.005 70.015
The first times A-A 69.87 69.865 70.05 70.01 70.005
B-B 69.87 69.86 70.01 70.005 70.015
The second times A-A 69.85 69.87 70.055 70.015 70.05
B-B 69.87 69.865 70.02 70.00 70.015
The third times A-A 69.86 69.85 70.16 70.025 70.015
B-B 69.865 69.865 70.10 70.01 70.02

The experimental result shows that the wear down is normal except in the 3rd 100-hour. When
disassembled and checked after the 3rd 100-hour running, slight longitudinal gutters were found
on the surface of cylinder sleeves and at the piston skirt as well. The analysis shows that the
cause does not involve the cotton oil.

The wear down of cylinder sleeves was uneven. The bear on the I-I position was big and
became smaller gradually below that position. The biggest ellipsoid was also at that position.
The wear condition accords with the wear down rule.

There was slightly wear on the piston skirt, the shaft neck of the crank's connection rod and
crank pin bearings, and rings, except the first piston ring. These also accord with the normal
wear rule.
The content of iron and copper in the lubricant was measured by means of the ash test. The
abnormal content of the 3rd 100-hour is in accordance with previous results.

Conclusion

A diesel engine can be fueled with the mixture of 70% diesel oil and 30% cotton oil.

The model 170F diesel engine can directly use the mixture without changing its structure.

As mentioned above, it can be said that the use of 70% diesel oil and 30% cotton oil has no
obvious effect on the life of a diesel engine and the parts are in the normal wear condition.

Because of the high viscosity of cotton oil, it is difficult to start engines below 10 °C. So an
additional diesel tank could be used for starting the engine.

5.5. Field test system for evaluating a tractor

Alcohol, as a kind of alternative fuel, can be used for tractors. In the interest of assessing the
properties of alcohol when it substitutes for other fuels, like diesel oil, a test system may be
used to evaluate a tractor when it uses alcohol or diesel oil as its fuel. When the test is
conducted, either a uniform load or an actual load may be provided in accordance with the
intended use of the tractor.

5.5.1 Introduction

Presently, tests for evaluating tractor performance are mostly conducted on a concrete test
track which can provide controllable uniform conditions and comparable results. Farm tractors,
however, always run in the field, which is quite different from a concrete track. With the
development of tractor technology, especially in recent years, such improvements as 4-wheel
drive, power shift transmission and radial tires have found broad applications. When tested on a
track, these tractors do not fully demonstrate their merits. When operated in the field, tractors
armed with these improvements demonstrate that the productivity and fuel efficiency are
remarkably raised. Therefore, tractor performance tests should be conducted in the field. This
paper introduces a loading vehicle that was equipped with a magnetic particle brake (MPB) as
the loading device, a TP801 single board microcomputer (SBM) and other devices. The loading
vehicle could duplicate an actual load cycle that was obtained in the field and measure
parameters of the tested tractor. When tractor performance tests are conducted with MPB and
duplication techniques, tractors can be tested in the field without drawing any implement. A new
system, which can collect phase shift signals as well as analog signals and impulse signals
while it can duplicate two sets of load cycles simultaneously, is also presented in the paper.

5.5.2 SBM based test system

The test system that utilizes MPB as its loading device to simulate load cycle obtained in the
field is composed mainly of the following parts.

The loading device is the executive unit to simulate a load cycle. In comparison with eddy
current dynamometer and/or electric DC dynamometer, MPB is low in cost, simple in structure
(as shown in Fig 5.18) and is more suitable for a mobile test system. When the synchronous
drive of the loading vehicle PTO shaft is engaged, the rotation of drive-wheels would make the
rotor shaft of MPB rotate proportionally. When excitation current is led into the stator coil of
MPB, magnetic flux is generated. This makes magnetic particles magnetize, appear in chain
and contact with the surfaces of rotor and stator. The binding forces and frictional forces
between magnetic particles and rotor & stator cause the rotor to generate brake torque when
rotating. The bigger the excitation current, the larger the brake torque that is produced by MPB,
and the heavier the drawbar load which is exerted on the tested tractor by the loading vehicle.

Fig 5.18 Construction of the MPB

A microcomputer system (as shown in Fig 5.19), which contains a SBM, an analog to digital
converter (ADC0809), a digital to analog converter (DAC0832), transducers and amplification
circuits for signals, plays a dominating role in the process through which the loading vehicle
duplicates a load cycle and measures parameters of the tested tractor. The SBM, on the basis
of prescribed time or test pass, outputs data to the MPB (through the DAC0832) that was
obtained from in-field test and stored in the memory. The MPB produces brake torque to the
loading vehicle which in turn supplies a corresponding drawbar load to the tested tractor. While
the loading vehicle is duplicating a load cycle, SBM measures such parameters of the tested
tractor as drawbar pull, true ground speed, tractive power, slip, fuel consumption, etc. The
maximum, minimum and average values of the above parameters can be printed out finally. The
curve of drawbar pull can also be plotted out.

The loading vehicle was refitted from a Zetor-6911 two-wheeled tractor. The MPB is mounted
on a special frame at the rear axle housing of the loading vehicle (as shown in Fig 5.20) and is
connected to the PTO shaft through a universal joint drive shaft. The SBM and other devices
are placed in the cab of the vehicle for the purpose of easy operation and observation. The
cooling system contains a water tank, a pump, etc. to remove the heat produced by the MPB.
The power source of batteries supplies 12V, 24V, 36V DC for the SBM, MPB and other devices.

Fig 5.19 Block diagram of microcomputer system

Fig 5.20 Loading vehicle with the MPB

5.5.3 Research on characteristics of MPB

The MPB employed in the system was produced by Haian Electrical Machinery Factory, Jiangsu
province, China. It has a rated current of 0.6 A (current products of this factory have rated
currents up to 3 A for more accurate control). Test results for the MPB are as follows:

A. Characteristic of torque-excitation current

The relationship between brake torque M and excitation current I is shown in Fig 5.21, when
speed of rotation of the MPB is kept steady. In a whole range of current, the curve appears in
two linear regions. The regressive equation is

-15.703+ 458.206I (0.05<I<0.3)

M = -|
- 30.317+ 314.297I (0.30<I<.55)

where M is brake torque in NM and I is excitation current in A.

Fig 5.21 Relationship between torque and excitation current

B. Characteristic of torque-slip speed

Tests show that the effect of I to M is highly remarkable, and that the effect of interaction
between I and n is far less than that of n to M. The relationship between torque and speed is
shown in Fig 5.22. The regressive equation is

M = -7.122+ 0.015n+ 401.911I

where M is brake torque in MM, I is excitation current in A and n is speed of rotation in r/min.
On the whole, torque has linear relationship with excitation current and speed. Brake torque
increases 1.5 MM with every lift of 100 r/min of speed.

C. Transient characteristic of torque

Transient time refers to the period when torque reaches to 80% of the expected value after
excitation current has been changed. Test results are given in Table 5.16 and transient curve is
shown in Fig 5.23.

Fig.5.22 Relationship between torque and speed

Fig 5.23 Transient characteristic of torque

According to updated test data from the manufacturing factory, the non-response time for torque
is 25 ms, ascendant time (to 63% of the expected value) about 250 ms and descendant time (to
37% of the expected value) about 375 ms.

D. Magnetic hysteresis characteristic of torque

When excitation current is increased to 0.54 A and then gradually decreased to zero from 0.54
A, torque is measured 3 seconds after the variation of current, as shown in Fig 5.24. The torque
difference due to magnetic hysteresis reduces with time extension. Torque difference nearly
disappears after the current has been changed for 7 seconds.

Table 5.16 Transient time of torque

current variation (A) ascendant time (s) descendant time (s)

0-0.54 0.92 1.60
0-0.36 0.98 0.9
0-0.18 1.10 0.89

Fig 5.24 Magnetic hysteresis characteristic of torque

The MPB, as the loading device for tractor test, possesses following characteristics:

a. There exists a favorable linear relationship between brake torque and excitation current, and
thus it is easy to adjust torque.

b. Large brake power can be obtained with little excitation power.

c. Because torque is nearly irrelevant to speed, it is conveniently controlled.

d. The MPB is simple in structure and carries a low price tag.

5.5.4 Tests for duplicating in-field load cycle

A. Collecting sample load cycle in the field.

Utilizing the loading vehicle, a group of load cycles were gathered when a small four-wheeled
tractor was plowing in the field, drawing a single-furrow plow. A set of load cycles, (8 in Fig
5.25), was selected to be the sample load cycle. After being processed, data of the sample load
cycle was stored in the memory of the SBM.

Fig 5.25 Duplicating in-field load cycle

B. Simulating and duplicating in-field load cycle with MPB

To evaluate the simulating property of the MPB, tests of duplicating load cycle were conducted
when the loading vehicle was stationary. The SBM was timed to output data of the sample load
cycle through the DAC0832, offer excitation current for MPB and measure brake torque on the
PTO shaft of the loading vehicle. Test results are shown in Fig 5.25. Curves 1 to 3 were
duplicated with loading intervals of 360 ms, 240 ms and 180 ms respectively. Curves 4 and 5
were obtained with intervals of 240 ms while the sample load cycle was reduced by 1/4 and 1/2
respectively.

To improve the response property of the MPB, a feedback control program was employed.
According to measured torque value, output data was varied at prescribed intervals to speed up
the MPB to achieve the desired brake torque value. For feedback control, a table was
established in the memory. The programming flowchart is given in Fig 5.26.

C. Tests for duplicating in-field load cycle with the loading vehicle

Tests for duplicating load cycle were conducted in the field with the loading vehicle being drawn
by the small four-wheeled tractor. The SBM offered excitation current for the MPB in
accordance with test pass and measured drawbar load exerted on the tested tractor by the
loading vehicle. Test results are shown in Fig 5.25 (6 and 7).

Fig 5.26 Flowchart of feedback control

D. Results and analysis

The MPB can authentically duplicate the in-field load cycle of implements. Therefore, it is
feasible to use the MPB as the loading device for duplicating implement load cycles. There is
some difference in test results obtained with the loading vehicle. The reason is that the rolling
resistance of the loading vehicle reaches up to 27% of the average value of the sample load
cycle. The random variation of the rolling resistance due to the surface conditions of ground
directly influenced the simulated drawbar load value. It is supposed to choose a loading vehicle
lighter in weight and a MPB larger in brake power. When duplicating a load cycle, the SBM
measures parameters such as drawbar pull, drawbar power, ground speed etc. and plots the
curve of drawbar pull.

5.5.5 An improved monitor and measurement system

A low-cost versatile monitor and measurement system for tractor and other vehicles (such as
rice transplanter) testing was developed utilizing a MCS-51 single chip microcomputer (SCM).
Including two DAC0832 chips and current amplifying circuits, the system could simulate two
sets of load cycles separately or simultaneously. The system can collect three kinds of signals
generated by transducers: analog signals, impulse signals and phase shift signals, while the
above-mentioned system could only gather analog and impulse signals. With employment of the
SCM, the system is chipper, more compact and flexible in application.

A. System components

The system consists of an SCB-31-5 (II) control board, a commonly-used keyboard & display
board, a data acquisition board, a current amplifying board and an electric source board. The
SCB-31-5 (II) control board includes on board an 8031 SCM, a 8Kx8bit 2764 EPROM chip, a
8Kx8bit 6264 RAM chip, an ADC0809 A/D converter, a DAC0832 D/A converter, and an 8155
programmable interface chip. The commonly-used keyboard & display board is composed
mainly of an 8279 interface chip, an 8-LED digital display and 20 keys. The electric source
board supplies + 5VDC. + 12VDC and -12VDC for chips and amplifying circuits.

B. Control board

The 8031, which contains an 8-bit microprocessor, 128 bytes RAM, four 8-bit parallel I/O
interface ports, one full duplex serial interface port and two 16-bit timers (counters), is the core
part in the SCB-31-5 (II) control board. An assembly language program stored in the 2764
EPROM (address 0000-FFFFH) controls the operation of the system. The ADC0809 (chip select
address 6800H) converts analog signals coming from transducers into digital signals that are,
then, collected by the 8031. An ADC0809 can accept up to 8 signals. The control board
contains one DAC0832 (chip select address 6000H) that converts digital signal output from the
8031 into an analog current signal. After amplified, the current is used to control an MPB for
simulating a load cycle. The other DAC0832 (address 2000H) and corresponding interface
circuit were built onto the current amplifying board to monitor another MPB for duplicating a
second load cycle. Data gathered during test procedure is stored in the 6264 RAM (address
4000-5FFFH) for on-the-spot output. The 8155 chip has 256x8bit RAM (address 7800-78FFH),
one 8-bit control port (address 7900H), two 8-bit ports (address 7900H and 7902H), one 6-bit
port (address 7903H), and a 14-bit programmable timer/counter (address 7904H and 7905H).

C. Commonly-used keyboard & display board

The 8279 keyboard/display interface chip is employed on this board and is directly connected to
the 8031. Without occupying time of CPU, it can automatically complete display and scan. On
board there are 8 light-emitting diodes and 20 keys. Fig.5.27 shows that the control board and
the commonly-used keyboard & display board were used in a test.

D. Data acquisition board

a. Analog signals

Some transducers, like the BLR force sensor, give out analog signals (voltage or current) to
reflect the value of measured parameters. Analog signals generally should be magnified to meet
the needs of the A/D converter before they are converted into digital signals, which then can be
accepted by the CPU. The amplifying circuit is shown in Fig 5.28. Vin is the analog signal from
transducers, Vout is the output signal. If feedback resistance Rfw is adjusted, the magnification
factor can be changed. When R1=1.5K ,R2=1.5K , Rf =4K , and Rfw=4.7K , the
relationship between Vout and Vin is shown in Table 5.17.

Fig 5.27 Control board and commonly-used keyboard & display board

Table 5.17 Test data of amplifying circuit

Vin (mV) 0 2.5 5 10 15 20 25 30

Vout (V) 0 0.19 0.36 0.70 1.06 1.43 1.80 2.15
Vin (mV) 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Vout (V) 2.50 2.85 3.23 3.59 3.95 4.30 4.65 5.00
b. Impulse signals

Most transducers for measuring parameters such as speed and rotating speed send out impulse
signals in a given time. After having been reformed with a flip-flop circuit, these signals can be
counted by a microcomputer, and the corresponding parameters can be calculated. With the
inner counters of 8031 and 8155, the system can accept up to 4 parameters.

Fig 5.28 Amplifying circuit

Fig 5.29 Diagram for measuring phase shift signals

c. Phase shift signals

Some transducers output two sine waves. As the measured parameter changes, the phase
angle of the two sine waves varies proportionally. The CJQ rotational distance & rotational
speed transducer manufactured by Haian Electrical Machinery Factory, Jiangsu province,
China, is made on the magneto conversion principle. With the increase of the torque exerted on
its shaft, the phase difference enlarges proportionally. The circuit for surveying the phase
difference is shown in Fig 5.29. Fig 5.30 depicts the procedure of signal conversion. Two
comparison measurers are used in Fig 5.29 to generate square waves SA and SB from sine
waves output by the transducer. Then, the square waves are reformed. When they pass through
the AND. NOT gate (Fig 5.29), Sc (Fig 5.30) is obtained. The time duration t that represents the
phase angle is relevant to the torque exerted on the transducer. The SCM counts the time
duration t with its timer and then calculates the torque value being measured.

Fig 5.30 Signal conversion

A static surveying test for CJQ-20 transducer was conducted with the system (as shown in Fig
5.27 and Fig 5.31). The linear regressive equation is

N = 2.6174M - 16.1162

where N is the torque being measured in NM and M is the value for t counted by the 8031 SCM.
Here, M was adjusted to be 6 when no torque was exerted on the transducer (i.e. N=0).

Fig 5.31 Static measurement test for CJQ-20 transducer

Fig 5.32 Current amplifying board

e. Current amplifying board

This board (shown in Fig 5.32) includes two current amplifying circuits. Because there exists
only one DAC0832 (address 6000H) on the control board, which can output one analog signal
U1, another DAC0832 (address 2000H) and the relevant interface circuit were designed, which
could output another analog signal U2 (the left side of Fig 5.33). After U1 and U2 are magnified
respectively by current amplifying circuits (the right side of Fig 5.33), the excitation current
signals (0-2A) for two magnetic particle brakes are obtained.

In Fig 5.33, transistor T1 forms the middle stage, T2 and T3, connected in parallel mode, make up
the output stage and supply the excitation current together for the MPB. The emitter resistance
Rwe and feedback resistance RF are utilized to restrain the current fluctuation. Radiators should
be used for T1 and T2 to maintain normal temperature.

Fig 5.33 Amplifying circuit for excitation current of the MPB

Conclusions

The MPB is feasible to be employed as the loading device for tractor performance test.

A versatile and inexpensive SCM-based system was developed to duplicate load cycles and
measure parameters of a tested tractor.

A feedback control program was used to improve the linear property and hysteresis of the MPB.

The transfer function of the MPB is required.

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