Applied Ergonomics 45 (2014) 1700e1704

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Applied Ergonomics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apergo

Technical note

Whole-body vibration exposure of haul truck drivers at a surface coal

mine
Rebecca Wolfgang a, b, Robin Burgess-Limerick b, *
a
Department of Rural Health, The University of Newcastle, Tamworth 2348, Australia
b
Minerals Industry Safety and Health Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Haul truck drivers at surface mines are exposed to whole-body vibration for extended periods. Thirty-
Received 5 March 2014 two whole-body vibration measurements were gathered from haul trucks under a range of normal
Accepted 29 May 2014 operating conditions. Measurements taken from 30 of the 32 trucks fell within the health guidance
Available online 21 June 2014
caution zone defined by ISO2631-1 for an 8 h daily exposure suggesting, according to ISO2631-1, that
“caution with respect to potential health risks is indicated”. Maintained roadways were associated with
Keywords:
substantially lower vibration amplitudes. Larger trucks were associated with lower vibration levels than
Whole-body vibration
small trucks. The descriptive nature of the research, and small sample size, prevents any strong
Mining
Haul truck
conclusion regarding causal links. Further investigation of the variables associated with elevated vi-
ISO2631-1 bration levels is justified.
Relevance to industry: The operators of mining equipment such as haul trucks are exposed to whole-body
vibration amplitudes which have potential to lead to long term health effects. Systematic whole-body
vibration measurements taken at frequent intervals are required to provide an understanding of the
causes of elevated vibration levels and hence determine appropriate control measures.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and The Ergonomics Society. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ISO2631-1 (ISO, 1997, 2010) describes procedures for the

Long term exposure to high amplitude whole-body vibration
(WBV) is strongly associated with the subsequent development of
back pain (Bernard, 1997; Bovenzi and Hulshof, 1998; Sandover,
1983; Wilder and Pope, 1996). Other health effects associated
with WBV include adverse consequences for cardiovascular, res-
piratory, digestive, reproductive, endocrine and metabolic systems
(Griffin, 1990). Many operators of mobile equipment used in mines
and other industries are exposed to significant WBV for relatively
long periods (Burgess-Limerick, 2012; Eger et al., 2006; Eger et al.,
2011).
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ61 7 3346 4084, þ61 4 0171 4511 (mobile).
E-mail addresses: rebecca.wolfgang@newcastle.edu.au (R. Wolfgang),
burgesslimerick@uq.edu.au (R. Burgess-Limerick).
evaluation of WBV. Two principle methods of describing
frequency-weighted acceleration amplitude are defined: (i) the
root mean square (r.m.s.); and (ii) a fourth root measure termed
the Vibration Dose Value (VDV) which is more sensitive to high
amplitude jolts and jars. ISO2631-1 also provides guidance
regarding the evaluation of health effects, defining a “health
guidance caution zone” (HGCZ). For exposures below the HGCZ it
is suggested that no health effects have been clearly documented.
For exposures within the HGCZ “caution with respect to potential
health risks is indicated” and for acceleration exposures greater
than the HGCZ it is suggested that “health risks are likely”. For an
eight hour daily exposure, the upper and lower bounds of the
HGCZ are 0.47 m/s2 and 0.93 m/s2 r.m.s. respectively (McPhee
et al., 2009). The corresponding values for the VDV measure are
8.5 m/s1.75 and 17 m/s1.75.
Haul trucks are used extensively in the surface mining industry.
It has been suggested that haul truck drivers may be exposed to
r.
WBV amplitudes which have adverse health effects. Kumar (2004)
recorded accelerometer data during nine 15 s intervals while each

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2014.05.020
0003-6870/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and The Ergonomics Society. All rights reserved.
 R. Wolfgang, R. Burgess-Limerick / Applied Ergonomics 45 (2014) 1700e1704 1701

of 4 haul trucks (240 ton and 320 ton) completed a hauling cycle
over smooth frozen roads. It was concluded that vibration ampli-
tudes were greatest in the vertical direction, and particular while
the trucks were driven unloaded. Vertical accelerations measured
at the seat pan while driving unloaded ranged from 0.45 m/s2 to
1.75 m/s2 r.m.s. Although the author concluded that haul trucks
“frequently generated vibrations in excess of ISO standards” (p.
509), the extremely short duration measurements make interpre-
tation of these data difficult.
In contrast, however, Eger et al. (2006) measured the WBV
amplitudes associated with a range of mining equipment
including two 150 ton surface haul trucks during several 5 min
trials. Vibration amplitudes were found to be highest in the ver-
tical directions, and the average was found to be 0.28 and 0.37 m/
s2 r.m.s. for the two trucks respectively, well below the HGCZ
defined by ISO2631-1.
More recently, Smets et al. (2010) collected one hour
duration WBV measurements from eight haul trucks of varying
capacities (30 ton to 150 ton) during normal operation at surface
mines in Northern Ontario. The vertical accelerations measured
ranged from 0.44 m/s2 to 0.82 m/s2 r.m.s., and the VDV(8)
from 8.8 m/s1.75 to 16.4 m/s1.75. Seven of the eight measurements
were found to lie within the HGCZ defined by ISO2631.1
for r.m.s. and all eight VDV(8) measurements lay within the
HGCZ.
There is limited evidence to suggest that haul trucks used in
surface mining may expose operators to levels of WBV which are
associated with risks to the operators’ health, however there is
some inconsistency in previous reports. These differences are likely
to arise from the short measurement durations associated with
some of the previous investigations, as well as variability in
equipment and sites. Further investigation of WBV exposures
associated with a larger sample of trucks is justified. The aim of the
current investigation is to examine the WBV exposures of operators
of haul trucks during a range of normal operating conditions at an
Australian surface coal mine to assess the potential health risks to
drivers.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants and haul trucks
Thirty-two WBV measurements were taken from 32 different
haul trucks at one mine site in New South Wales (Table 1). The
measurements were taken on eight separate days over a five
month period which provided natural variability in roadway
conditions. The trucks ranged in capacity from 136 tonne to 290
tonne. Of the 32 measurements, 16 were taken from 290 tonne
930E trucks, and 16 were taken in smaller 789B/785B/785C trucks
(136e181 tonne). Selection of haul trucks was a sample of con-
venience, determined through consultation with site manage-
ment, and dependent on haul truck availability at the time of
measurement.

Table 1
List of whole-body vibration measurements.

Trial Time Haul truck Haulage capacity (tonne) Material Duration Loading/unloading cycles completed Road condition

(min) (s)

1 9:50 785C 136 Waste 54 36 3 Rough

2 10:50 785C 136 Waste 43 58 3 Rough
3 11:40 785C 136 Waste 42 55 3 Rough
4 13:05 789B 181 Waste 31 57 2 Rough
5 13:45 785C 136 Waste 17 38 2 Rough
6 11:35 930E 290 Waste 19 32 2 Combination
7 12:00 930E 290 Waste 37 33 3 Combination
8 13:40 930E 290 Waste 35 23 3 Combination
9 14:25 930E 290 Waste 58 47 4 Combination
10 15:30 930E 290 Waste 43 24 3 Combination
11 9:15 789B 181 Coal 36 39 3 Maintained
12 10:05 785C 136 Waste 39 11 4 Maintained
13 11:00 785C 136 Waste 25 58 3 Maintained
14 12:35 789B 181 Waste 52 41 5 Maintained
15 9:40 785C 136 Waste 44 21 4 Combination
16 10:35 785B 136 Waste 41 27 4 Combination
17 11:40 785B 136 Waste 43 53 4 Maintained
18 13:45 785B 136 Waste 45 08 4 Maintained
19 10:20 930E 290 Waste 27 55 2 Combination
20 10:55 930E 290 Waste 39 17 4 Combination
21 11:35 930E 290 Waste 28 40 3 Combination
22 13:05 930E 290 Waste 37 36 4 Rough
23 11:25 789B 181 Waste 54 53 3 Rough
24 12:30 789B 181 Waste 32 16 3 Combination
25 14:05 789B 181 Waste 18 41 1 Maintained
26 10:20 930E 290 Waste 29 24 3 Maintained
27 11:05 930E 290 Waste 29 55 3 Combination
28 11:50 930E 290 Waste 28 50 2 Maintained
29 10:05 930E 290 Waste 49 20 4 Maintained
30 11:05 930E 290 Waste 21 45 2 Maintained
31 11:40 930E 290 Waste 29 58 3 Combination
32 13:25 930E 290 Waste 45 23 4 Maintained
1702 R. Wolfgang, R. Burgess-Limerick / Applied Ergonomics 45 (2014) 1700e1704

The haul trucks were operated by 32 different drivers who

agreed to participate by signing an informed consent form. Ethical
approval was provided by the ethics committee of the Sustainable
Minerals Institute, The University of Queensland. No personal in-
formation was collected from the operators.

2.2. Procedure

Two commercially available devices were used to measure the

WBV exposure (on different trials): a Bruel & Kjaer Human Vibra-
tion Analyser Type 447 (Brüel & Kjær Sound & Vibration Mea-
surement A/S, Nærum, Denmark); and a Svantech SV106 (Svantek
Sp., Warsaw, Poland). Both instruments provide frequency-
weighted measurements of acceleration consistent with ISO
2631-1. WBV was measured at the driver/seat interface by placing a
rubber seat pad containing an accelerometer on the vehicle seat
beneath the operator's ischial tuberosities.
Accelerometer data were collected whilst the haul trucks were
involved in normal mining production. The typical work cycle of
haul trucks is (1) loading- by a shovel or digger, (2) loaded travel, (3)
dumping (unloading) and (4) unloaded travel. The cycle is repeated
throughout the shift. The length of each work cycle varied between
11 min and 20 min and was dependent on the location of mining,
the dump zones and loading waiting time. Measurements obtained
on each individual day were taken on haul trucks travelling the
same route. The measurement durations ranged from 17 min to
58 min (mean ¼ 35 min).
The roadways were inspected for each trial and categorised as
either: (i) rough terrain typical of a new production zone or
following extensive wet weather, (ii) maintained terrain typical of a
graded surface, and (iii) a combination of rough and maintained.
These categories are consistent with those proposed by Eger et al.
(2011).
2.3. Analysis
Frequency-weighted root mean square accelerations, and
the Vibration Dose Value expressed as an 8 hour equivalent
value, were compared with the HGCZ defined by ISO2631.1.
Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was undertaken to
examine the association between roadway condition, haul
truck size and vertical WBV exposure. Unbiased estimates of
Cohen's d using the pooled within-groups standard deviation
were calculated to express the magnitude of effects (Cumming,
2012).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Health assessment
Appendix A provides details of each measurement. The vertical
axis was predominantly associated with the highest frequency-
weighted accelerations, which is consistent with previous in-
vestigations of mining haul trucks (Kumar, 2004; Eger et al., 2006;
Smets et al., 2010). The mean frequency-weighted r.m.s and
VDV(8) for vertical WBV measured from 32 surface mining haul
trucks are presented in Fig. 1. While vertical acceleration mea-
surements from 12 of the 32 trucks lay below the HGCZ for the
r.m.s measure of WBV, the measurements from only two of the 32
trucks lay below the HGCZ when expressed as VDV(8). The
remainder of the measurements fell within the HGCZ. The range of
vertical acceleration measurements [0.27 m/s2 to 0.74 m/s2 r.m.s.;
Fig. 1. Vertical acceleration amplitude expresses as r.m.s. and VDV(8) measured from
32 haul trucks at a surface coal mine.
7.9 m/s1.75 to 15.3 m/s1.75 VDV(8)] was consistent with those re-
ported by Smets et al. (2010). These values suggest, according to
ISO2631.1, that “caution with respect to potential health risks is
indicated”.
The trucks and drivers from which these measurements were
obtained were not randomly sampled from the population of
trucks on site, and consequently it cannot be concluded that the
measurements are necessarily representative of the exposures
experienced by haul truck drivers at the mine site, nor can it be
assumed that the site is representative of all surface coal mines.
Conversely, however, there is no reason to believe that the sit-
uations measured were atypical, nor that the trucks and site
conditions were unusual for the industry. Consequently, it is
reasonable to conclude that the WBV exposure of haul truck
drivers should be a cause for concern for the management of
surface mines.
Further, the HGCZ values referred to here are based on an 8 hour
daily exposure. Many mining equipment operators work 12 hour
shifts and, taking into account meal breaks and travel time at the
beginning and end of shift, operators are driving haul trucks for
approximately 10 hours a shift. The results presented here may
underestimate the health consequences of WBV exposures associ-
ated with driving mining haul trucks.
3.2. Association with roadway condition and haul truck size
A considerable range of variability was observed in the ver-
tical acceleration measurements obtained from a sample of 32
haul trucks undertaking similar tasks at a single mine observed
over a five month period. The variability is likely to arise, at least
in part, because the vibration exposures experienced by truck
drivers are a function of a number of characteristics of the situ-
ation, all of which change over time (albeit with different time
scales). These variables include: the phase of the work-cycle
(loading, driving loaded, dumping, driving unloaded); the
 R. Wolfgang, R. Burgess-Limerick / Applied Ergonomics 45 (2014) 1700e1704
Fig. 2. Box and whisker plots of r.m.s. and VDV(8) vertical accelerations measured for
the two groups of haul trucks as a function of roadway conditions grouped into
“maintained” or “rough/combination”. “þ” indicates mean values. Whiskers indicate
2.5%e97.5% range of values.
roadway conditions and grade; vehicle speed; vehicle type and
size; vehicle suspension and maintenance; tyre design and
maintenance; seating design, maintenance and adjustment; and
driver behaviour. These variables also interact; for example,
Kumar (2004) noted that vibration levels were particularly high
when unloaded trucks were driven unloaded, but also that
“drivers invariably drove their trucks at a much faster speed
when returning with empty trucks”. An understanding of these
relationships, and the interactions between them, is necessary in
order to determine the likely effectiveness of potential measures
aimed at reducing vibration exposures.
The associations between truck size, roadway conditions, and
vibration amplitude were examined. Measurements taken from the
smaller 136e181 tonne trucks (N ¼ 16) were grouped and
compared with those taken from the larger 290 tonne haul trucks
(N ¼ 16). Trials taken from “rough” roadways (N ¼ 7) or roadways
with both rough and maintained sections (N ¼ 13) were grouped
for comparison with trials obtained from “maintained” roadways
(N ¼ 12). Fig. 2 illustrates the mean r.m.s. and VDV(8) vertical ac-
celerations measured for the two groups of haul trucks as a function
of roadway condition groups.
Two-way ANOVA results suggest that there were no statisti-
cally significant interactions in the association between truck size
1703
and roadway conditions for either r.m.s. or VDV(8) measures (F
[2,28] ¼ 0.677, p ¼ 0.4173; F[2,28] ¼ 2.7, p ¼ 0.086 respectively). A
statistically significant, and large, association between roadway
condition and vibration amplitude was observed for both mea-
sures (F[1,28] ¼ 9.382, p ¼ 0.0048, d ¼ 0.916, 95% CI[0.179,1.682]
and F[1,28] ¼ 27.26, p < 0.0001, d ¼ 1.71, 95% CI[0.9,2.582]
respectively). Although strictly indicating an association only, a
logical connection exists, and these data suggest that the effect of
roadway condition on vertical accelerations experienced by haul
truck drivers is potentially very large. This is consistent with
previous examinations of haul trucks and other mobile plant used
on mine sites (e.g., Kumar, 2004; Eger, et al., 2011; McPhee et al.,
2009; Village et al., 1989). It is likely that roadway maintenance
will be an effective control measure to reduce WBV exposure of
haul truck drivers.
A significant association between truck size and vibration
amplitude was observed for the r.m.s. measure (F[1,28] ¼ 5.949,
p ¼ 0.0213, d ¼ 0.593 CI[0.106,1.314]), although the association
was not significant for the VDV(8) measure (F[1,28] ¼ 4.154,
p ¼ 0.0511, d ¼ 0.379 95% CI [0.314,1.086]). These data are again
descriptive only, in that there was no random assignment. The
different models of haul truck measured also differ in ways other
than size (e.g., the smaller trucks were also older), and may have
been driven differently. Consequently, it is not possible to draw any
strong conclusions regarding truck size and vibration amplitude.
Further investigation of these and other contextual relationships is
warranted.
A range of interactions between truck size, suspension design,
and travelling speed exist which may influence WBV amplitude.
For example, the speed which a fully loaded truck is able to travel is
reduced, especially when travelling uphill, which may reduce WBV
amplitude. Other aspects of driver behaviour such as seat sus-
pension adjustment also have potential to influence WBV
amplitude.
4. Conclusion
Long term exposure to WBV is a recognised risk factor for
degenerative changes in the spine, subsequent back pain, and other
adverse health effects. The drivers of haul trucks commonly
employed on surface mines are likely to be exposed to WBV levels
within the HGCZ defined by ISO2631.1 for an eight hour daily
exposure. WBV exposure of haul truck drivers should consequently
be a cause for concern for the management of surface coal mines.
This is especially so given that 12 hour shift durations are common
in the industry, with haul truck drivers spending perhaps 10 hours a
day exposed to these WBV amplitudes. This high daily exposure
increases the risk of long term health effects, and particularly back
injury.
Maintained roadways were associated with substantially
lower WBV amplitudes. Further investigation of other variables
associated with elevated vibration levels, and interactions be-
tween these variable, is justified. Systematic WBV measurements
taken by mine sites at frequent intervals are required to
provide an understanding of the causes of elevated vibration
levels and hence determine appropriate control measures. This
may be facilitated by the availability of accelerometers within
consumer electronic products (Wolfgang and Burgess-Limerick,
2014).
1704 R. Wolfgang, R. Burgess-Limerick / Applied Ergonomics 45 (2014) 1700e1704

Appendix A. Detailed whole-body vibration measurements

Trial Frequency-weighted rms Crest factors Vibration dose values Vibration dose values for 8 h exposure
acceleration

rms x, rms y, rms z, x y z VDV x, VDV y, m/s1.75 VDV z, VDV(8)x, VDV(8)y, VDV(8)z,
m/s2 m/s2 m/s2 m/s1.75 m/s1.75 m/s1.75 m/s1.75 m/s1.75

1 0.32 0.296 0.664 4.202 3.481 8.075 4.202 3.481 8.075 10.853 8.991 14.896
2 0.29 0.251 0.611 3.48 2.891 7.333 3.48 2.891 7.593 8.837 7.341 13.301
3 0.22 0.281 0.472 10.292 14.471 10.544 2.754 3.815 5.451 5.409 7.492 15.118
4 0.28 0.265 0.585 3.663 3.454 6.585 3.663 3.454 6.585 9.326 8.794 11.976
5 0.31 0.288 0.547 3.827 3.489 6.41 3.827 3.489 6.41 9.676 8.822 11.576
6 0.31 0.252 0.466 12.662 8.862 9.577 4.34 3.095 5.688 11.367 8.108 10.642
7 0.34 0.279 0.509 10.061 9.597 8.244 3.902 2.968 5.159 11.329 8.617 10.698
8 0.24 0.206 0.402 11.611 8.862 9.577 3.063 2.566 4.724 8.16 6.836 8.987
9 0.21 0.268 0.435 8.73 10.691 11.298 2.065 2.951 4.232 4.649 6.644 9.528
10 0.30 0.245 0.462 15.739 9.883 11.395 4.539 3.128 6.127 11.042 7.609 10.645
11 0.304 0.372 0.501 28.708 26.062 32.81 7.145 7.362 10.556 12.287 12.660 15.118
12 1.966 2.235 0.519 12.848 12.574 15.122 29.469 32.412 7.425 71.042 78.137 12.786
13 1.689 1.910 0.584 6.813 7.003 16.237 18.77 21.036 7.991 47.766 53.532 14.526
14 1.246 1.362 0.433 12.128 11.776 15.905 18.12 19.398 5.49 46.393 49.663 10.041
15 0.271 0.230 0.478 10.169 7.843 12.408 2.761 2.323 5.095 8.829 7.43 11.64
16 2.671 2.923 0.742 17.34 19.57 10.931 45.846 53.456 7.754 126.363 147.34 15.266
17 0.239 0.277 0.53 9.441 11.311 10.691 2.609 3.285 5.825 5.313 6.689 11.862
18 0.296 0.348 0.606 8.964 11.535 9.705 3.396 4.212 7.12 6.349 7.875 13.312
19 0.223 0.229 0.452 12.134 12.417 5.861 2.667 2.828 5.861 5.424 5.751 11.919
20 0.297 0.288 0.498 11.389 8.433 12.564 3.597 3.159 6.095 7.199 6.322 12.198
21 0.247 0.207 0.398 22.673 19.055 22.387 3.694 2.636 5.358 7.39 5.273 10.718
22 0.221 0.217 0.493 11.258 7.328 15.442 2.337 2.035 5.412 7.286 6.345 12.051
23 0.617 0.692 0.526 41.454 42.277 18.521 18.927 21.053 7.293 50.105 55.732 13.791
24 0.271 0.233 0.503 12.699 11.475 18.005 3.35 2.857 6.065 9.003 7.677 11.641
25 0.541 0.616 0.526 11.725 11.145 13.567 7.519 8.271 7.297 17.795 19.574 12.336
26 0.190 0.271 0.424 15.592 18.381 13.028 2.538 5.002 6.112 6.48 12.771 11.146
27 0.282 0.273 0.564 9.817 8.482 10.304 3.412 3.041 6.39 6.859 6.113 12.843
28 0.241 0.236 0.384 13.092 11.967 9.397 2.884 2.854 4.198 5.825 5.764 8.480
29 0.31 0.252 0.364 13.335 13.274 22.336 4.683 3.622 5.585 8.27 6.396 9.864
30 0.227 0.221 0.27 9.068 9.047 17.378 2.701 2.556 3.648 8.854 5.539 7.906
31 0.217 0.186 0.346 12.402 12.823 15.904 3.173 2.707 4.781 5.722 4.881 8.621
32 0.312 0.309 0.609 7.843 10.74 13.772 3.569 3.954 7.998 6.746 7.474 15.118

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