1.sumitomo Basiics of Hydraulics PDF

Chapter 2.
Hydraulic Pressure
1. Hydraulic pressure
The term “hydraulic pressure” is used to describe pressure acting within a fluid or
exerted on a solid object by a fluid. Its principal role is to act as a transfer medium for
energy. The characteristics of this type of pressure are as follows.
Characteristics
▪ A small input pressure can produce a large output pressure.
▪ Force and speed can be freely adjusted.
▪ The pressure cannot increase beyond a set level (due to the action of relief valves
and the like), thus reducing the risk of overloading.
▪ The oil used to transfer hydraulic pressure is incompressible (i.e., its volume is
practically unaffected by changes in pressure), and therefore, the energy-transfer
ratio is high.
2. Pressure
Pressure is a representation of the amount of force per unit of surface area acting on
an object, and within hermetically-sealed containers, pressure acts uniformly in all
directions.
The pressure acting on an item can be determined using the following formula.
Force (kg)
Pressure (kgf/cm2) =
Area on which force is acting (cm2)
Note that 1 kgf/cm2 is the amount of pressure produced by a weight of 1 kg resting on

an area of 1 cm2.
The corresponding SI unit is the Pascal (Pa).
1 kgf/cm2 = 98066.5 Pa (=N/m2)
3. Pressure & area of action

The force that a pressure exerts on an area changes depending on the size of that area,
and it can be determined from the following formula.
Force (kg) = Pressure (kg/cm2) x Area of action (cm2)
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When size differences exist between surfaces on which a pressure acts, therefore, the
larger the surface, the larger the force that will be produced.
In the diagram, the diameters of the left and right sides of the piston are identical;
however, rod A and rod B have different diameters. These rods are not acted on by
pressure in the left and right directions, and therefore, the size of the piston surface
on which this pressure acts is determined by subtracting the rod cross-section area
from the piston cross-section area.
As rod B has a smaller diameter than rod A, the size of the piston surface on which the
pressure acts is larger on the right. If, therefore, the piston were to be acted on by an
identical pressure on the left and right, the force produced on the right hand side of
the piston would be larger, and the piston would move towards the left.
This characteristic of pressure can also be used to produce a large force using a small
force.
When, for example, the piston on the left side of the diagram is pushed in the direction
of the blue arrow, a pressure equal to the pushing force divided by the piston’s surface
area is produced inside the oil path. In other words, if the pushing force is 10 kg and
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the surface area of the piston is 5 cm2, the pressure produced inside the oil path is 2
kgf/cm2 (10 kg ÷ 5 cm2).
This pressure is transferred to the right-side piston by the hydraulic oil, producing a
force equal to the piston’s surface area multiplied by the pressure and acting in the
direction of the red arrow. So, if the pressure inside the oil path is 2 kgf/cm2 and the
surface area of the piston is 20 cm2, the force acting on the piston is 40 kg (20 cm2 × 2
kgf/cm2).
Using differences in the sizes of surfaces on which pressure acts, therefore, we could
use a force of 10 kg to support a weight of 40 kg, as shown in the above diagram.
4. Hydraulic pumps & motors

1) Hydraulic pumps
A hydraulic pump is a device capable of discharging hydraulic oil, and a number of
different varieties exist – for example, piston pumps, gear pumps, and vane pumps.
Generally speaking, piston pumps are principally used for hydraulic excavators,
given their high level of efficiency and suitability for flow-rate control; furthermore,
gear pumps are usually used to produce pilot pressure.
In specific terms, a hydraulic pump does not produce pressure internally; instead, it
simply discharges hydraulic oil. Here, pressure is produced in the form of resistance
to flow as the discharged hydraulic oil travels through oil paths and resistance to the
load of devices operated by the oil.
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A. Piston pumps
Also known as plunger pumps, piston pumps repeatedly intake and discharge
oil as their pistons are driven in a reciprocating fashion.
Operating Principle:
When the shaft (1) rotates, the cylinder block (6) rotates together with it.
Each piston (5) is connected to a shoe (4) via a ball joint; furthermore, the
shoes (4) are held against an inclined plate (3) by a retaining plate (2), and
therefore, the pistons (5) are drawn out as they rotate around the inclined
plate (3). As a result, oil is drawn into the chamber A as the pistons move from
the top to the bottom of the following diagram. When a piston (5) reaches the
point at the bottom of the diagram, it begins to be pushed back in by the
inclined plate (3), causing the oil to be discharged as it moves towards the top
of the diagram. While this design may be relatively complicated, it is also
efficient and allows the
volume of oil discharged to be controlled by adjusting the angle of the inclined
plate (3), and thus, the stroke of the pistons.
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B. Gear pumps
Gear pumps comprise a pair of mutually-engaged gears inside a gear case.
When the gears are driven, oil is drawn into the input side of the gear case
and is then transferred to the discharge side. The space between the gear case
and the gears at the discharge side becomes smaller, producing a pressure in
the oil at this side. While this type of pump is not very efficient, it has a
simple design, and for this reason, is very robust. Furthermore, the amount of
oil discharged is directly proportional to the speed of rotation of the gears.
2) Hydraulic motors
A hydraulic motor is a type of motor driven by pressurized hydraulic oil delivered by
a hydraulic pump or another similar device. Its principle of operation is the reverse
of that of the hydraulic pump, with the cylinder block being rotated by the hydraulic
oil.
Pressurized hydraulic oil from a hydraulic pump enters the hydraulic motor’s
chamber A, where it presses on a piston 1 (3). The piston 1 (3) moves along an
inclined plate (1) as it extends, causing the cylinder block (2) to rotate. This action
causes a piston 2 (4) to also rotate along the inclined plate, and as a result, that
piston 2 (4) can discharge the hydraulic oil from its chamber B. Repeated execution
of these steps causes the motor to rotate. If the hydraulic-oil supply sequence is
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reversed, the hydraulic motor can be rotated in the opposite direction. Furthermore,
the speed of rotation of this type of motor can be controlled by increasing or reducing
the amount of hydraulic oil delivered or by adjusting the angle of the inclined plate,
and thus, the stroke of the pistons.
5. Relief valves
The role of relief valves is to protect hydraulic devices and circuits from abnormally
high pressures. Each relief valve does this by opening when the pressure inside the
corresponding oil path reaches a specific level, creating an escape path for the
hydraulic oil and lowering the pressure in the oil path. The pressure at which the
valve operates in this way is referred to as the relief pressure.
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Pressure in a circuit A acts on a cross-section area F of a poppet (1) in a direction
towards the right of the diagram; furthermore, the same pressure passes through an
oil path C to a chamber D, where it acts on a cross-section area E of the poppet (1) in a
direction towards the left of the diagram.
In a normal condition, although the poppet (1) is being pushed to the right in the
direction of opening by the pressure acting on the cross-section area F, it is also being
pushed to the left in the direction of closing by the force produced at the cross-section
area E and by the force of a spring (2). As a result, valve remains closed.
If the pressure in the circuit A were to become excessively large, the pressure acting
on the cross-section area F would become greater than the total force produced by the
spring and by the pressure at the cross-section area E; consequently, the poppet (1)
would be pushed in the direction of opening, the high-pressure hydraulic oil in the
circuit A would escape into the circuit B, and the pressure in the circuit A would drop.
When this pressure has dropped sufficiently, the total force produced by the spring
and by the pressure at the cross-section area E would again become greater than the
pressure acting on the cross-section area F, and the poppet (1) would close.
As motion of the poppet to the right causes the volume of the chamber D to become
smaller, hydraulic oil from that chamber moves into the circuit A via the oil path C. If
this escape path were not to be provided for the hydraulic oil in chamber D, it would
not be possible to open the poppet (1), even at extremely high pressures in the circuit
A.
6. Orifice
Simply discharging hydraulic oil from a hydraulic pump is not sufficient to generate
pressure. In order for useable pressure to be obtained from an oil path, it is necessary
for that path to be closed off. However, this action alone would result in excessively
high pressure being produced, leading to equipment breakage. In order, therefore, to
ensure that pressure can be transferred without breaking the corresponding
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equipment, it is necessary to reduce the cross-section area of the oil path at an
intermediate point. The term “orifice” is used to describe this point of reduced
cross-section area.
When hydraulic oil passes through an orifice, resistance to flow is generated, and this
in turn produces a difference in pressure at the front and back sides of the orifice.
Specifically, the pressure at the upstream side becomes higher than the pressure at
the downstream side. This difference in pressure changes according to the
cross-section area of the orifice and the speed of the hydraulic oil flowing through it.
Furthermore, when the hydraulic oil in the oil path is stationary, the pressures on
both sides of the orifice are identical.
7. Symbols in hydraulic circuit

Symbol Name Meaning
Hydraulic pump A device discharging hydraulic oil.
Spool A device contained within a control

valve or the like and used to change
the direction of flow of hydraulic oil
delivered from a hydraulic pump or
to stop this flow. When a pilot
pressure acts at point AA, the flow of
hydraulic oil is controlled based on
block A; when it acts at point CC,
control is based on block C.
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Hydraulic motor A device using discharged hydraulic
oil to produce rotation.
Cylinder A device using discharged hydraulic

oil to produce an extension force.
The indentations on the left and right
indicate cushioning capabilities. In
the upper diagram, no cushioning is
provided on the contraction side, but
this capability is present on the
extension side.
Remote- control A device used to switch the pilot
valve pressure generated by the pilot
pump in order to move a control
valve’s spool. When A is pushed, B
and C are connected.
Relief valve A safety device used to release
pressure in a circuit when it becomes
too high. When the pressure at A
increases to a specific level, B is
pushed towards the right, and
pressure escapes from A to C.
Check valve A device permitting the flow of

hydraulic oil in one direction only.
Here, hydraulic oil can flow from A to
B, but not from B to A.
Solenoid valve A device that opens and closes a

hydraulic circuit in response to
electrical signals. When no current is
being delivered, the hydraulic oil can
flow from A to B; however, the supply
of current causes the hydraulic oil to
flow from B to C.
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Proportional A device controlling the pressure
solenoid valve discharged based on the size of
current supplied. When no current is
being delivered, the hydraulic oil can
flow from B to C; however, the supply
of current causes the hydraulic oil to
flow from A to B.
Shuttle valve A device receiving hydraulic oil from
two different directions and
delivering it in a third. In other words,
hydraulic oil can flow from A to C or
from B to C, but from A to B or vice
versa. Also, no flow from C is
permitted.
Filter A device used to catch contaminants
in hydraulic oil.
Oil cooler A device used to lower the

temperature of the hydraulic oil.
Stop valve A device used to stop flow within a

circuit.
Connection point The entry at the top of this symbol

indicates the connection point, and
the entry at the bottom identifies the
position of that connection point on
the circuit diagram. Numbers are
used on the diagram’s outer frame to
indicate horizontal positions; letters,
to indicate vertical positions.
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Main pressure line This symbol is used to indicate the
flow of hydraulic oil discharged from
the main hydraulic pump. Black
circles indicate connections.
Pilot pressure line This symbol is used to indicate the
flow of hydraulic oil discharged from
the pilot hydraulic pump and pilot
signal lines.
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Chapter 3. Hydraulic Circuits
1. Hydraulic circuit diagrams
The purpose of a hydraulic circuit diagram is to illustrate how hydraulic oil flows
throughout a complete hydraulic machine. Various symbols are used in these
diagrams to indicate individual hydraulic devices. Furthermore, these symbols
indicate the condition in which pilot pressure is not being generated. Oil-path arrows
indicate the direction in which oil flows.
2. Operation of hydraulic circuit devices

1) Control valves
Control valves are used to distribute the pressurized hydraulic oil coming from
hydraulic pumps to cylinders, or to cut off this supply.
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A. Spools
Located inside control valves, spools are switched between different setting
positions in order to control the direction in which the pressurized hydraulic
oil coming from hydraulic pumps travels within the hydraulic system.
When no pilot pressure is acting in order to switch the spool setting, the
hydraulic oil flows back to the oil tank via the spool's central block circuit.
When a control lever is operated and pilot pressure from the remote control
valve acts on the left side of the spool, the spool is moved to the right, causing
the hydraulic oil to flow to its left block circuit.
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If the opposite occurs and the pilot pressure acts on the right side of the spool,
it is moved to the left and the hydraulic oil flows to the right block circuit.
B. Load retention valves

As the hydraulic oil’s flow pattern is switched by moving spools in an axial
direction, a gap must be provided between the control-valve body and the
spool. However, oil can leak from these gaps, and as a result, cylinders can
drop naturally under gravity. Closing off oil paths by means of a poppet, load
retention valves function to keep this leakage of hydraulic oil to the absolute
minimum.
The cylinder's hold pressure acts on the lower side of the poppet, pushing it
upward. In addition, the hold pressure also acts on the upper side of the
poppet via the load retention valve's release spool, pushing it downward. In
this condition, the pressures pushing the poppet upward and downward are
identical. However, the poppet's upper surface is larger than its lower surface,
and therefore, the downward force is greater. As a result, the poppet is firmly
pressed into its seat, reducing the leakage of hydraulic oil.
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When hydraulic oil is caused to flow due to lowering of the boom or another
similar operation, the release spool setting is switched by the pilot pressure
from the remote control valve. At the same time as the poppet's upper surface
is disconnected from the cylinder hold-pressure path, it is connected to the
tank, and therefore, the pressure being applied to this surface drops. As this
causes the downward force on the poppet to become weaker, the poppet is
pushed upwards, opening up a path for the cylinder return oil to flow back to
the tank.
When an operation such as boom elevation is carried out, the pressure acting
on the poppet's upper surface increases, causing the force pushing the poppet
downward to grow stronger. Consequently, the hydraulic oil pushes the
poppet upwards and flows past it.
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C. Regenerative circuits
In order to increase the speed of operation of cylinders, regenerative circuits
direct a portion of the return oil coming from the cylinders back to the supply
side instead of to the tank, thus ensuring that the cylinders are provided with
a greater amount of hydraulic oil than can be discharged by the hydraulic
pump alone.
When the cylinder supply pressure becomes lower than the return pressure as
a result of boom lowering or another similar operation, the regenerative
circuit inside the spool allows the return oil to flow to the supply side.
Regeneration does not take place when the supply pressure is high during
excavation and the like.
D. Negative control
The volume of hydraulic oil discharged by the hydraulic pump would normally
be greatest when no operation is being performed and in other low-load
conditions. However, if this volume of oil were to be discharged continuously
with the control lever in the neutral position, large amounts of power
generated by the engine would simply be wasted. Negative control is an
energy-saving approach implemented in such a situation in order to minimize
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the hydraulic pump’s flow rate.
Hydraulic oil discharged from the hydraulic pump in cases where no
operation is being performed is returned to the tank via the control valve’s
center bypass. As the corresponding return circuit is provided with an orifice
and negative-control release valve, a pressure is produced. This pressure is
directed to the pump regulator, switching the pump to its minimum flow rate.
Furthermore, different negative-control circuits are employed in certain other

systems with no negative-control pressure produced in the control valves.
E. Bleed off
Whenever a spool setting is switched, all of the hydraulic oil discharged by the
hydraulic pump is directed to the cylinders and the like, causing the
negative-control pressure to be cut off. However, in cases where, for example,
an actuator is performing unloaded operation, the volume of hydraulic oil
being discharged from the pump rises to its maximum level, and the
corresponding operation may become too fast. Bleed off is a procedure
whereby a portion of the hydraulic oil is directed from the center bypass to the
negative-control system even when a spool setting is switched, causing a
negative-control pressure to be generated. Consequently, the hydraulic
pump’s flow rate can be kept down in low-load situations.
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2) Travel motors
When the appropriate selection is made for a control valve, the travel motors are
operated by hydraulic oil from hydraulic pumps. When the travel lever is in the
neutral position, a counterbalance valve from the travel motor’s internal hydraulic
circuit is also in a neutral position. As the motor’s hydraulic circuit is closed off by a
check valve located inside the counterbalance valve, the motor cannot be turned by
any external forces.
When hydraulic oil flows from the control valve as a result of operation of the travel
lever, it pushes and opens the check valve from the counterbalance valve, causing
the oil path to the motor to also open, However, no hydraulic oil flows as the return
oil path's check valve remains closed at this time.
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When the pressure within the circuit is further increased by the hydraulic oil, the
force acting on the end of the counterbalance valve becomes stronger, causing the
counterbalance valve to slide and opening up the motor-drive oil path. The hydraulic
oil also applies pressure to the parking brake's release port at the same time,
releasing the brake and allowing the motor to turn.
If the travel lever is set to the high-speed position, the pilot pressure will cause the
two-speed selector spool's setting to change. Consequently, the travel drive pressure
will act on the two-speed selector piston, and as this has the effect of changing the
angle of the motor's inclined plate, high-speed travel will be achieved.
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If the excavator is driven up a hill or another similar load-increasing operation is
performed during high-speed travel, causing the pressure to rise, the travel drive
pressure acting on the opposite side of the two-speed selector spool will also rise, and
when the corresponding force becomes greater than that produced by the pilot
pressure, the two-speed selector spool is returned to the low-speed setting. As a
result of this action, the two-speed selector piston is connected to the tank and the
angle of the motor's inclined plate also returns to the low-speed setting.
3) Hydraulic pumps
Hydraulic pumps comprise a pair of main pumps and a gear pump. Depending on
the specification, further pumps may also be added. Meanwhile, each main pump
comprises a pump unit and a control section. The following description will deal
mainly with the control section’s hydraulic circuit.
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A. Negative control
When the control lever is in the neutral position, negative control pressure
from the control valve's negative control relief acts on the pumps' negative
control ports, pushing the pilot pistons. As spools are connected to the pilot
pistons, these are also moved.
As a result of the spools being moved, the controlled pressure is applied to the
large diameter sides of the servo pistons. Meanwhile, pressure produced by
the pumps is applied to the small diameter sides. When the servo pistons
move, the feedback levers connected to them also move. As a result of this
action, the circuits connected to the large diameter sides of the pistons are
closed off, stopping their motion.
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Located on the chassis, the servo pistons are connected to the pumps' inclined
plates. Movement of these pistons produces a change in the angles of the plates,
and as a result, the pumps' discharge volume are reduced.
B. Horsepower control
The following three different types of pressure act on compensator pistons.
• Self-generated pressure: Pressure generated inside the corresponding pump
and acting on its own control section.
• Other pump’s discharge pressure: Pressure discharged from opposing
pumps.
• Proportional valve control pressure: Pressure from proportional solenoid
valves.
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When the self-generated pressure or discharge pressure from another pump
increases, the compensator pistons are moved, causing them to push the
spools. The pressure controlled by the spools is then applied to the large
diameter sides of the servo pistons, consequently, the angles of the inclined
plates are changed and the corresponding flow rates are reduced. As each of
the two pumps is receiving pressure from the other, any application of load to
one will produce a reduction in the discharge volume of both.
Under work mode computer, the central computer sends a specific current to
the proportional solenoid valve. The reduced pilot pressure from the
proportional solenoid valve is applied to the compensator pistons. As the
pressure discharged by the proportional valve is inversely proportional valve
control range.
The proportional solenoid valve located close to pump 1 controls reduction of

the flow rate of hydraulic oil from that pump. When the proportional valve
receives current from the central computer, pilot pressure reduced in
proportion to that current pushes the negative control pilot piston, reducing
the flow rate from pump 1 only.
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4) Remote control valves
Remote control valves are used to control the pilot pressure employed in order to
move spools within control valves.
When the lever is in the neutral position, no discharge of the pilot pressure entering
the remote control valves takes place.
As a result of level operation, the condition of the plunger inside the remote control
valve is switched, allowing the pilot pressure to be discharged.
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5) Solenoid valves
Solenoid valves are used to control the flow of pilot pressure using current.
This example illustrates the operation of a series of five solenoid valves. When power
is being supplied to none of these valves, hydraulic oil flows through the oil paths
shown in the hydraulic circuit diagram.
As a result of the supply of power to a solenoid valve, the condition of its internal
plunger is switched, and the hydraulic oil's flow pattern changes as shown.
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6) Shuttle valves
When a shuttle valve receives pilot pressure from one of its input ports, it delivers
this pressure from the corresponding output, while preventing this pressure from
being delivered via its other output port.
Pilot pressure entering via port A is discharged via port C, furthermore, as this
pressure simultaneously pushes the ball inside the valve, it shuts off the connection
between ports B and E as it is also discharged via port D.
Pilot pressure entering via port B is discharged via port E, furthermore, as this
pressure simultaneously pushes the ball inside the valve, it shuts off the connection
between ports A and C as it is also discharged via port D.
Pilot pressure is not delivered from the port closed off by the ball. In addition, the
position of the ball is not fixed. That is to say, when hydraulic oil flows from port D,
it is not possible to control the discharge port, and therefore, this mode of use is not
employed.
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7) Relief valves
Relief valves act as safety devices, protecting hydraulic devices from the effects of
abnormally high pressures.
As long as the pressure remains below the set level, the oil path is closed off.
When the pressure of the hydraulic oil within the oil path increases to the set level
or higher, it pushes the relief valve, causing the path to be opened. As hydraulic oil
passes through the open path, the pressure again drops to below the set level,
resulting in path closure.
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Chapter 4. Hydraulic Devices
1. Hydraulic pumps
1) Overview
A device that generates oil pressure is called a hydraulic pump, which drives the
piston or gears with an engine or electric motor to discharge oil. The discharge
volume can be changed by varying the piston stroke and drive rpm. The hydraulic
pump can control the discharge volume, but cannot control the pressure because it
changes according to load resistance.
2) Main unit of hydraulic pump

For construction machinery, a piston pump is generally used as a hydraulic pump. It
is also called a plunger pump, and it repeats suction and discharge of oil by
reciprocating the piston. When the piston is pulled from the cylinder, oil is sucked
into the cylinder and when the piston is pushed in, oil is discharged. Although its
structure is complicated, it is efficient, and can change the discharge volume by
changing the piston stroke.
A. Suction and discharge operation

Explanation of operation:
As input shaft (1) is connected to cylinder block (9) by the spline, when input
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shaft (1) rotates, cylinder block (9) also rotates. Input shaft (1) is also
connected to the shaft on the P2 side via gear (8). Spring (10) inserted into
cylinder block (9) pushes spherical bushing (11) and spherical bushing (11)
pushes press plate (12). As piston (6) connected to piston shoe (4) is inserted
into cylinder block (9) and piston shoe (4) is sandwiched between shoe plate
(13) and press plate (12), when input shaft (1) rotates, piston (6) is pulled out
from cylinder block (9) by press plate (12). When input shaft (1) rotates
further, piston (6) is pushed in by shoe plate (13). When piston (6) is pulled, it
sucks oil and when it is pushed, it discharges oil. A hole is opened in the
center of piston (6) and piston shoe (4), and oil pressurized by piston (6) is
supplied to the sliding surface of piston shoe (4). The sliding surface of piston
shoe (4) has grooves, and supplied oil reduces a pressing force of piston shoe
(4) against shoe plate (13). Shoe plate (13) is secured to swash plate (14) and
swash plate (14) holds the angle of inclination with servo piston (3).
B. Control of discharge volume
Servo piston (3) moves by pressure balance that acts on both sides, and
changes the angle of inclination of swash plate (14). The stroke of servo piston
(3) is regulated by stopper (2, 7) attached to the pump casing, and stopper on
the small diameter side (2) adjusts the minimum flow rate while stopper on
the large diameter side (7) the maximum flow rate. When servo piston (3)
moves and the angle of inclination of swash plate (14) changes, the stroke
amount of piston (6) changes, causing the discharge volume to change. The
position of servo piston (3) is detected by the feedback lever of the connected
regulator. Servo piston (3) moves its position when oil pressure from the
regulator acts.
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3) P-Q chart
The P-Q chart shows the relationship between pressure generated by load of an
actuator and the discharge flow rate of a hydraulic pump. As the pressure is higher
and discharge flow rate is larger, more horsepower to drive the hydraulic pump is
required. If driving force of the hydraulic pump is higher than the maximum output
of the engine, engine slow-down or stop occurs. To prevent this, the discharge flow
rate is reduced when the pressure increases. Besides, energy saving is aimed at by
using the engine output efficiently. This chart is one example of the P-Q chart.
The pressure generated on the P1 side and that generated on the P2 side are added
up. The flow rate at the point of intersection of the total pressure and the polygonal
line in the chart is the discharge flow rate of the one-sided pump. The chart differs
depending on engine speed and the current value of the horsepower control
proportional valve. Normally these are described in the chart, and so pay attention
when using the P-Q chart.
For example, in the above P-Q chart in which engine speed is 1800 min-1 and the
current value of the proportional valve is 600 mA, when the pressure on the P1 side
is 32 Mpa and that on the P2 side is 32 Mpa, the total pressure is 64 Mpa. Therefore,
the flow rate of 85 L/min at the point of intersection of polygonal lines of 64 Mpa and
600 mA in the chart is the flow rate of the one-sided pump, and the total flow rate of
both sides is 170 L/min, twice the flow rate of one-sided pump.
As the stroke of the servo piston is regulated, its maximum flow rate is almost
constant in the low pressure zone.
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2. Swing motors
1) Rotation body
Cylinder block (4) is integral with the output shaft. There is a type in which they are
connected by spline. Piston (9) connected to piston shoe (5) is inserted into cylinder
block (4) and valve plate (3) is in contact with the suction and discharge port as a
part that separates the suction side from the discharge side.
With the pressing force of the corrugated spring (1), the bushing (2) and the valve
plate (3) are pressed against each other to prevent the oil in the passage from
leaking. When hydraulic pressure applies, the oil flows through the passage in the
valve plate (3) acts on the piston (14) to press and hold the valve plate (3) against the
cylinder block.
Piston shoe (5) is sandwiched between press plate (8) and shoe plate (7) that are
pressed by spring (6). As a hole is opened in the center of piston (9) and piston shoe
(5), oil pressurized by piston (9) is supplied to the sliding surface of piston shoe (5).
The sliding surface of piston shoe (5) has grooves, and supplied oil reduces a
pressing force of piston shoe (5) against shoe plate (7).
When hydraulic oil from the control valve is supplied to the port of cylinder block (4)
by swivel operation, piston (9) is pushed out. Piston (9) rotates cylinder block (4)
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while sliding by pushing shoe plate (7). The motor shaft rotates by other ports
repeating the same action one after another.
There is spline on the circumference of cylinder block (4) and brake liner (10),
engaged with this spline, rotates together with cylinder block (4). The internal
circumference of the housing also has spline, which is engaged with brake plate (11).
As each plate is alternately inserted, when brake piston (12) pushes brake plate (11)
with spring (13) force, friction between plates generates a brake force. When pilot
pressure is supplied to brake release port (A) from the brake release solenoid valve,
hydraulic oil pushes up brake piston (12) to release brake.
2) Relief valves
When the control lever is placed in the neutral position during swivel operation, the
control valve closes the circuit. As the swing motor is turned by inertial force of the
revolving frame, oil, which becomes high pressure by the closure of the circuit, is
discharged from relief valve (16). This relief valve pressure turns into hydraulic
brake, stopping the swivel. As the circuit is closed, the side opposite to the side
where oil was discharged by high pressure becomes negative pressure. When
negative pressure is created in the hydraulic circuit, abnormal noise and surface
exfoliation of internal parts of devices occur. Therefore, when negative pressure is
created, check valve (17) opens to suck oil in the return line, preventing the creation
of negative pressure.
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Relief valve (16) is provided with the cushion function to reduce a shock just after
the control lever is placed in the neutral position.
When the generated pressure exceeds a reaction force of the spring, poppet (1) is
pushed open and oil is discharged. At this time, the generated pressure acts on the
back of poppet (C) and back of poppet piston (D) through poppet (1). The moment the
poppet opens because of the pressure becoming high, poppet piston (2) moves to the
left. While poppet piston (2) moves to the left, oil in the back of poppet (C) flows to
the back of poppet piston (D) and the pressure of the back of poppet (C) becomes low.
Therefore, poppet (1) opens at low pressure. When poppet piston (2) stops moving,
the pressure of the back of poppet (C) is equal to generated pressure (A) and so the
pressure to push open poppet (1) becomes high. Setting pressure to be relieved to
two stages of low pressure and high pressure (set pressure) reduces a shock during
swivel stop and activation.
74
3) Reversal prevention valve
At the time of swivel stop, as previously mentioned, oil above the relief valve set
pressure is discharged and hydraulic brake becomes effective. However, under set
pressure just before stop, oil is in an accumulated condition, and after the revolving
frame stops, it is reversed in the opposite direction. This reversal occurs several
times repeatedly until the frame stops completely. The reversal prevention valve
connects the circuit on the high pressure side to the one on the low pressure side to
make the pressure of both sides equal when reversal starts, to reduce this
phenomenon.
When enclosure pressure is generated by swivel being in the neutral position, poppet
(1) moves in the left direction and shuts off port (C). When the revolving frames
stops and starts reversing, poppet (1) is pushed in the right direction. At this time,
as oil in the back of poppet (E) returns through the orifice (F, G), a time lag occurs in
the movement of poppet (1) in the right direction. While poppet (1) moves from left to
right, right and left ports (A, B) are connected via passage (D), which makes the
pressure of right and left ports equal, preventing further reversal.
Swinging
Neutral
75
Starts reversing
Reversing
Stop (same pressure)
3. Travel motors
1) Rotation body
Cylinder block (2) is connected to output shaft (8) by spline, and piston (3) connected
to piston shoe (6) is inserted into cylinder block (2). Spring (1) inserted into cylinder
76
block (2) pushes rotary bushing (4) via pin (11). Piston shoe (6) is sandwiched
between press plate (5) pressed by rotary bushing (4) and swash plate (10). A hole is
opened in the center of piston (3) and piston shoe (6), and oil pressurized by piston
(3) is supplied to the sliding surface of piston shoe (6). The sliding surface of piston
shoe (6) has grooves, and supplied oil reduces a pressing force of piston shoe (6)
against shoe plate (13).
When hydraulic oil from the control valve is supplied to the port of cylinder block (2)
where piston (3) contracts by travel operation, piston (3) is pushed out. Piston (3)
rotates cylinder block (2) while sliding by pushing swash plate (10). The motor shaft
(8) rotates by other ports repeating the same action one after another.
There is spline on the circumference of cylinder block (2) and brake disc (12),
engaged with the spline, rotates together with cylinder block (2). The internal
circumference of the housing also has spline, which is engaged with friction plate
(13). Each plate is alternately inserted one on top of the other. Brake piston (14)
pushes brake disc (12) with spring (15) and brake force is generated by friction
between plates. When travel pressure acts on brake piston chamber (A), hydraulic
oil pushes up brake piston (14) to release brake.
Swash plate (10) can change the angle with poppet (9) as the center, and the angle
changes by 2-speed piston for angle switching (7). As the angle swash plate (10)
forms with output shaft (8) is closer to a right angle, the stroke from the most
contracted condition to the most extended condition of piston (3) becomes smaller,
and an amount of oil necessary to rotate output shaft (8) one turn becomes less.
Namely, rotational speed becomes faster in the case of the same flow rate.
77
2) Counterbalance valve
Hydraulic oil (P1) pushes open check valve (3) in counterbalance valve (2) by
traveling operation, and flows to cylinder block (M1) through passage (A). However,
return oil (M2) does not flow because check valve (1) in counterbalance valve (2)
blocks the passage, and the traveling motor does not rotate. When oil is further
supplied and pressure increases, hydraulic oil passing check valve (5) and hydraulic
oil passing orifice (4) act on damper chamber (D) at the end face of the
counterbalance valve, pushing counterbalance valve (2) in the right direction.
Circuit (B) for return oil opens and the traveling motor rotates.
78
When the traveling motor is rotated by external force such as traveling on a
downhill, traveling drive pressure decreases and pressure acting on damper
chamber (D) decreases. Counterbalance valve (2) returns to the neutral position and
motor rotation is controlled. When counterbalance valve (2) returns to the neutral
position, pressure in damper chamber (D) increases and counterbalance valve (2)
moves to the right again. When counterbalance valve (2) returns to the neutral
position, it does not return rapidly because return oil from the damper chamber
passes passage (C, E) and orifice (4, 6). This can prevent runaway on a downhill by
maintaining the balanced position.
3) Relief valves
There is a passage in poppet (1) of the relief valve and it is connected to spring
chamber (C) in the back. Spring chamber (C) is connected to free piston chamber (A)
through passage (B). When the counterbalance valve returns to the neutral position
at the time of traveling stop, the circuit is closed. However, the motor is rotated by
inertial force and hydraulic brake is applied by the relief valve to stop the motor.
79
Hydraulic oil generated by the closure of the circuit passes from the passage in
poppet (1) of the relief valve to spring chamber (C) and enters free piston chamber
(A) from passage (B), moving free piston (2) in the left direction. While free piston (2)
moves, pressure in spring chamber (C) decreases, and the pressure at which poppet
(1) opens becomes low. When free piston (2) stops, pressure in spring chamber (C)
increases and the pressure to open poppet (1) increases up to the set pressure. As the
relief valve relieves on the low pressure side and high pressure side, a shock is
reduced. This operates during both stop and activation.
80
4. Control valves
1) Overview
The housing where discharged oil on the P1 side of the hydraulic pump flows and the
one where discharged oil on the P2 side flows are integrated.
2) Spool
The figure on the left below shows the longitudinal section of the control valve and
the figure on the right below shows the section viewed downward from (C) of the
figure on the left below. As spool (1) is in the neutral position when control is neutral,
oil discharged from the hydraulic pump passes through the opening between the
spool and body from center passage (A) and flows to passage (B). As passage (B) is
connected to passage (A) of the downstream spool, working oil returns to the tank.
At the same time, working oil is supplied to parallel passage (D) in parallel to the
center passage, but does not flow because parallel passage (D) is blocked by spool (1).
Passage (E) is connected to each actuator.
When pilot pressure acts on end face of spool (F) from the remote control valve, the
81
spool moves in the left direction. As a result, center passage (A) and passage (B) are
blocked by spool (1) and working oil does not flow to the downstream spool. At the
same time, parallel passage (D) is connected to passage (E) and working oil from the
hydraulic pump pushes open poppet (2) and flows to actuator circuit (E).
2) Main relief valves

Pressure of high-pressure side passage (A) acts on spring chamber (H) through the
restriction of main poppet (1). Main poppet (1) and sleeve (2) are securely seated by
the difference between area (A) and area (C). Oil in spring chamber (F) is connected
to low-pressure side passage (B) via passage (G).
When pressure of passage (A) increases, it pushes open pilot poppet (3). Pressure in
spring chamber (H) flows to passage (B) through spring chamber (F) and passage (G),
and when pressure in spring chamber (H) decreases, main poppet (1) is pushed open,
and high pressure oil flows to passage (B).
82
When pilot pressure acts on port (D) from the pressure boost solenoid valve, plug (5)
strokes by (E) dimension, and compressive force of spring (4) increases, boosting
relief pressure.
5. Cylinders
The cylinder head is provided with slide ring (5) that holds the rod, U packing (3, 4)
that prevents internal oil from leaking outside and dust seal (1) that prevents outside
dust from entering inside.
The piston is provided with piston seal (9) that separates a chamber on the rod side
from that on the bottom side, slide ring (10) that prevents piston (8) and the cylinder
tube from directly contacting each other, and ring (11) that catches contaminants to
prevent piston seal (9) from being damaged by contaminants.
83
The cylinder is provided with cushion mechanisms (6, 7, 15, 16) to reduce a shock that
occurs at the stroke end, and when the piston approaches the stroke end, a large oil
passage is closed by cushion ring (16) and return oil passes through a narrow oil
passage. As the passage for return oil is restricted, piston speed becomes slow and a
shock at the stroke end is reduced.
84
01: Basics of Hydraulics
1
SUMITOMO (S.H.I.) CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY CO., LTD.
01: Basics of > 01: Principles
hydraulics
Principles

01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 01: What is hydraulic pressure?
hydraulics
■ What is Hydraulic Pressure?
Hydraulic pressure = Pressure the fluid exerts to itself and to other objects
The fluid is used as a media to transmit energy.
<Characteristics of the hydraulic pressure>
• You can obtain a large force with a small force.
• You can freely adjust the size of force and its speed.
• By installing a relief valve that prevents an excessive pressure, you can easily avoid overloading.
• The power generating device (pump) and the driving device (actuator) can be freely arranged 3
01‐01‐01
What is Hydraulic pressure?
The hydraulic pressure is what the fluid exerts to itself and to other objects in it, and it can be used to
transmit energy.
The characteristics are:
<Characteristics of the hydraulic pressure>
• You can obtain a large force with a small force.
• You can freely adjust the size of force and its speed.
• By installing a relief valve that prevents an excessive pressure, you can easily avoid overloading.
• The power generating device (pump) and the driving device (actuator) can be freely arranged.
3
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 01: What is hydraulic pressure?
hydraulics
■ What is Hydraulic Pressure? (Advantages and disadvantages of the oil)
Leakage due to
low viscosity
Causing rusting
Compressed
= Transmission
efficiency low
Oil Water Air

4
01‐01‐01
What is Hydraulic pressure?
Advantages and disadvantages of the oil
Hydraulic excavator use the hydraulic oil as a medium to transmit power. This is because there are
numerous advantages for using the hydraulic oil.
<Advantages>
• Hydraulic oil can prevent rusting and corrosion of the devices and it also has a lubricating effect.
• Volume change due to temperature change is small and it can be used in a wide range of temperature.
• As viscosity is high, it has a high sealing property.
• The oil used in a hydraulic system is incompressible* and the energy transmission efficiency is high.
*Incompressible = Hardly any volume change caused by pressure
<Disadvantages>
• Flammable. Precautions to prevent fire risk are required.
• Leakage and waste oil disposal may have adverse effect on the global environment.
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 02: What is pressure?
hydraulics
■ What is Pressure?
Pressure = Force that applies to an object per unit area.
Force
(kg or N)
Force (kg)
Pressure (kgf/cm2) =
Area where force is
applied (cm2)
Area where force is applied
(cm2 or m2)
For ISO, the pressure is indicated in Pa (Pascal).
Force (N)
Pressure (Pa) =
Area where force is applied (m2)
5
* 1 kgf/cm2 = 98066.5 Pa (= N/m2)
01‐01‐02
What is Pressure?
The pressure is the force that applies to an object per unit area.
The pressure that applies to an object can be obtained with the following formula.
Pressure (kgf/cm2) = Force (kg) ÷ Area where the force is applied (cm2)
When the force of 1 kg is applied per 1 cm2, the pressure is indicated as 1 kg/cm2.
For ISO, the pressure is indicated in Pa (Pascal).
Pressure (Pa) = Force (N) ÷ Area where force is applied (m2)
1 kgf/cm2 = 98066.5 Pa (= N/m2)
5
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 03: Flow rate
hydraulics
■ Flow Rate
Flow rate = The volume of fluid that passes through the cross section of the
flow per unit of time
Cross sectional area (A)
Flow velocity (V)
Flow rate (Q) = Flow velocity (V) x Cross sectional area (A)
01‐01‐03
Flow rate
The flow rate is the volume of fluid that passes through the cross section of the flow per unit of time.
Flow rate (Q) can be obtained with the following formula.
Fowl rate (Q) = Flow velocity (V) x Cross sectional area (A)
For example, when 100 Litre (L) flows per minute, the flow rate will be indicated as 100 L/min.
6
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 03: Flow rate
hydraulics
■ Flow Rate
10 cm2
5 cm2
01‐01‐03
Flow rate
In this example, a pump that can discharge oil at 100 L/min, and a cylinder is connected to it.
Assume that the capacity of the above cylinder to be 10 L. Then, 10 L ÷ 100 L/min = 0.1 min, which
means 6 seconds. It takes 6 seconds for the cylinder to expand from the shortest position to the longest
position.
Next, when the pump capacity is increased to 200 L/min, you'll get 10 L ÷ 200 L/min = 0.05 min, which
means 3 seconds. It takes 3 seconds for the cylinder to expand.
When the flow rate doubles, the cylinder speed doubles as well proportionally.
Next, when the pump capacity is 100 L/min and the area of the piston that receives the pressure is half
and its capacity is 5 L, you'll get 5 L ÷ 100 L/min = 0.05 min, which means 3 seconds. Thus, when the area
of the piston that receives the pressure decreases, the cylinder speed increases inversely.
Summary
When the pump capacity doubles, the cylinder speed doubles.
When the area of the piston that receives the pressure becomes half, cylinder speed doubles.
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 04: Pascal's law
hydraulics
■ Pascal's Law
"The pressure of unmoving fluid is transmitted
equally in all directions and it exerts at the right
angle anywhere in the vessel."
1,500 kgf
30 kgf
1 cm
50 cm
1 cm2 50 cm2
01‐01‐04
Pascal's law
Pascal's law states
"The pressure of unmoving fluid is transmitted equally in all directions and it exerts at the right angle
anywhere in the vessel."
In the left diagram, when a force is applied from above to the vessel filled with the fluid, the force is
equally transmitted to all areas including the cubic section, the cylindrical section, and the spherical
section.
Using this principle, pressure can be transmitted to a remote point via fluid. You can also obtain a large
force with a small force.
In the right diagram, when the smaller piston whose cross sectional area is 1 cm2 is pressed down with a
force of 30 kgf, a pressure of 30 kgf/cm2 is created in the fluid.
When this pressure applies to the larger piston whose cross sectional area is 50 cm2, a force of 1,500 kgf
applies to push it up. The generated force is proportional to the ratio of cross sectional areas where the
pressure applies.
The multiplying factor (ratio of areas) of the force is inversely proportional to the distance of movement.
When a small piston is pressed down for 50 cm with a force of 30 kgf, the large piston moves up for 1 cm
with a force of 1500 kgf.
30 (kgf) x 50 (cm) = 1500 (kgf) x 1 (cm) = Same amount of work
8
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 05: Units of the hydraulic pressure
hydraulics
■ Units of the Hydraulic Pressure
Force (N)
1 N = 1 kg•m/s2
Pressure: Pascal [Pa]
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Work: Joule [J]
1J = 1N•m
Power: Watt [W]
1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N•m/s
9
01‐01‐05
Units of the hydraulic pressure
When you measure physical quantities such as movement and force, a standard value is determined for
each quantity respectively, and the measurement is compared against it.
These standard values are called units or basic units.
Units commonly used in relation to the hydraulic pressure are
N (Newton) as the unit to indicate force,
Pa (Pascal) as the unit to indicate pressure,
J (Joule) as the unit to indicate work, and
W (Watt) as the unit to indicate power.
9
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 06: Bernoulli's > 01: Relationship between flow
hydraulics theorem velocity and flow rate
■ Relationship between Flow Velocity and Flow Rate
Cross section A1 "Point where the
cross sectional area is large"
Cross section A2 "Point where the
cross sectional area is small"
Flow velocity V2 "Flow
velocity is fast"
Flow velocity V1 "Flow velocity is slow"
"When a fluid flows in a pipe line, the amount of flow rate at a cross sectional point is constant at
any cross sections along the streamline."
Q = A1 x V1 = A2 x V2 = Constant
"When the flow rate is constant, the flow velocity becomes slow where the cross sectional area is
10
large while it becomes fast where the cross sectional area is small."
01‐01‐06‐01
Relationship between flow velocity and flow rate
The flow rate and the flow velocity are closely linked. "In a steady flow*, when a fluid flows in a pipe line,
the amount of flow rate at a cross sectional point is constant at any cross sections in the streamline."
This is called the "law of continuity."
Suppose the flow velocity to be V1 at the cross section A1 and V2 at the cross section A2 in the diagram.
You can obtain the formula Q = A1 x V1 = A2 x V2. From this formula, you can see "When the flow rate is
constant, the flow velocity becomes slow where the cross sectional area is large while it becomes fast
where the cross sectional area is small."
* Steady flow: The flow whose properties at a point in the system do not change over time.
10
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 06: Bernoulli's > 02: Relationship between flow
hydraulics theorem velocity and pressure
■ Relationship between Flow Velocity and Pressure
<Point where the cross sectional area is large> <Point where the cross sectional area is small>
• Flow velocity: Slow • Flow velocity: Fast
• Pressure: High • Pressure: Low
11
01‐01‐06‐02
Relationship between flow velocity and pressure
The fluid has three types of energy: "pressure energy," "kinetic energy," and "potential energy."
Bernoulli's theorem states that, in a steady flow*, the sum of these three types of energy is constant at
any cross sections in the streamline.
When you consider the relationship between the flow velocity and pressure, you can conclude that the
pressure becomes lower at the point where the flow velocity is fast while it becomes higher at the point
where the velocity is slow in the horizontal pipe line (no change in potential energy).
* Steady flow: The flow whose properties at a point in the system do not change over time.
11
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 07: Definition of an orifice and a choke
hydraulics
■ Definition of an Orifice and a Choke
<Choke> <Orifice>
"Choke = Pipe line resistance" "Orifice = Restrictor"
12
01‐01‐07
Definition of an orifice and a choke
Both the orifice and choke are categorized as a "restrictor." They create internal resistance and are used
to control the flow rate or the pressure of the fluid.
<Choke>
A choke is a long narrow pie, whose length is great compared to its diameter.
Piping and hoses that constitute a hydraulic system are chokes.
Generally, a choke is called a "pipe line resistance" rather than a "restrictor." The pipe line resistance is a
major factor of energy loss, which is a weakness of the hydraulic system.
<Orifice>
An orifice is a piece of pipe whose cross sectional area is small, whose length is small compared to the
diameter of the surrounding sections.
Generally, an orifice is called a "restrictor."
12
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 08: Pressure loss
hydraulics
■ Pressure Loss
13
01‐01‐08
Pressure loss
<External resistance>
When there is a resistance to a movement of a hydraulic device, pressure is generated.
For example, while the oil discharged from the pump tries to expand the cylinder, pressure is generated in
the hydraulic circuit if the external force stops the movement or if a load is applied.
The sliding resistance of the cylinder/piston and the piston weight are also the sources for generating
pressure.
If the pump simply discharges the fluid, there is no pressure generation. Yet, if there is a resistance in a
cylinder, pressure is generated.
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 08: Pressure loss
hydraulics
■ Pressure Loss
<Spot where the curvature <Spot where the path expands <Spot where the path narrows

is high> abruptly> abruptly>
14
01‐01‐08
Pressure loss
<Internal resistance>
The fluid in the hydraulic devices and the hydraulic circuit generates resistance when it flows.
If there is a spot in the path, where "the curvature is high," "the path expands abruptly," or "the path
narrows abruptly," a spot where the flow velocity is fast and a spot where it is slow are created.
If a vortex is generated due to the difference in velocity, energy is further used up. This internal resistance
hinders the flow of the fluid and decreases the pressure (loss).
In addition, this pressure loss converts energy into heat, raising the fluid temperature.
14
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 09: Amount of work
hydraulics
■ Amount of Work
Work: Joule [J]
1J = 1N•m
15
01‐01‐09
Amount of work
The amount of work is what an object receives when it is moved.
"J (Joule)" is used as the unit. The work is stated in the following formula: Work (J) = Force (N) x Distance
of movement (m).
For instance, the excavator lifting up sand is a work, and lifting up a load using fulcrum in the drawing to
the right is a work as well.
In both of these cases, the product of the force (N) and the distance of movement (m) is the work (J).
15
01: Basics of > 01: Principles > 10: Hydraulic leak > 01: Volumetric efficiency
hydraulics
■ Volumetric Efficiency
Actual discharge (L/min)
Volumetric efficiency (%)= ×100
Theoretical discharge (L/min)
16
01‐01‐10‐01
Volumetric efficiency
When oil is discharged from the hydraulic pump, there is always a leak from a gap between the
component parts (internal leak).
This leakage provides lubrication for the components.
The volumetric efficiency indicates the extent of the leak of a hydraulic pump.
Volumetric efficiency (%) = Actual discharge / Theoretical discharge x 100
Generally, when the pressure rises, the leakage increases, and the volumetric efficiency drops.
16
01: Basics of > 02: Specific phenomena
hydraulics
Specific Phenomena
17
01‐02
Specific phenomena
In the hydraulic device, which uses oil, various phenomena may occur due to the characteristic of
hydraulics.
These may lead to the device being damaged unless you take preventive measures such as designing the
device so that the phenomena be avoided and operating it to minimize these problems.
01: Basics of > 02: Specific phenomena > 01: Cavitation
hydraulics
■ Cavitation
Explosion and erosion
Causing bubbles
High Low High

pressure pressure pressure
section section section
18
01‐02‐01
Cavitation
Air dissolves in oil very well. In the atmospheric condition, air of 5 to 10% of the volume of oil can dissolve
in the oil. This limit of dissolution is called the saturation limit. The saturation limit is proportional to the
hydraulic pressure. The higher the pressure, the more air dissolves.
When the pressure drops at a point due to the suction of the hydraulic pump or due to the shape of the
oil path, the saturation limit drops making the dissolved air create bubbles in the oil.
This phenomenon is called cavitation.
The bubbles created by the cavitation flow in the oil stream, and when they reach the high pressure
section, they are squashed.
At this time, the oil that squashes the bubbles crashes in generating locally high pressure spots, which
generate noise and shock waves.
As these shock waves erode the metal surfaces of the hydraulic devices and pipe lines, a failure may occur.
18
01: Basics of > 02: Specific phenomena > 02: Surge pressure
hydraulics
■ Surge Pressure
Shock waves
Causing
damages
Pump
Cylinder
19
01‐02‐02
Surge pressure
When you switch the direction switching valve abruptly, or when the piston stops abruptly in the cylinder,
an abnormal high pressure may occur due to the inertia of the moving components or the operation delay
of the pressure regulator valve. This high pressure is called surge pressure.
The impact caused by surge pressure is greater for the high‐pressure/large flow rate circuit. The impact
may damage the hydraulic device.
To protect the hydraulic device from surge pressure, an accumulator should be installed in the circuit.
19
01: Basics of > 02: Specific phenomena > 03: Chattering
hydraulics
■ Chattering
Pulsation
Spring
Hydraulic Vibration
pressure and noise Poppet
meter
Leaking
20
01‐02‐03
Chattering
In a relief valve, high pressure applies to the poppet to compress the spring opening the oil path.
When oil flows at high sped, the pressure around the valve seat suddenly drops and the poppet swiftly
closes. As the oil pressure still remains high, the valve immediately opens again. This repeated opening
and closing of the valve in a short period of time is called chattering, which generates vibration, pulsation,
and noise.
When this is repeated, the seat of the poppet valve is damaged degrading the sealing capability so that it
cannot maintain the required oil pressure.
20
01: Basics of > 02: Specific phenomena > 04: Hydrolock
hydraulics
■ Hydrolock
hydrolock
Body Body
Grooves on the
periphery
Spool Spool
<No grooves> <Grooves on the periphery of the spool>
Grooves on the
periphery
21
01‐02‐04
hydrolock
There is a clearance between the spool and the body for the sliding movement and lubrication. If the oil
flow becomes uneven in the clearance, the pressure distribution becomes uneven causing the spool to be
pushed against the body so that it cannot be moved. This phenomenon is called hydrolock.
To prevent hydrolocking, multiple grooves are created on the periphery of the spool. These grooves
prevent breakage of the oil film and they maintain the pressure that applies to the periphery of the spool
constant.
21
01: Basics of > 02: Specific phenomena > 05: Flow force
hydraulics
■ Flow Force
Hydraulic motor
Oil flow
Spool
Direction of the
spool going back
22
01‐02‐05
Flow force
Flowing liquid has a force to wash away an object in it. This is called flow force (fluid force). The greater
the flow, the greater the flow force.
In the circuit in the diagram, the spool tries to move in the direction to close the circuit (to the left). As
there is a large quantity of oil from the motor flowing, a large force applies to the spool to push it to the
right.
Even if the spool tries to close the circuit slowly, the flow force hinders the spool to move smoothly. Thus,
a strong force is required, and it quickly moves the spool to close the circuit.
22
01: Basics of > 02: Specific phenomena > 06: Heat shock
hydraulics
■ Heat Shock
Main path
Body
Pilot
Spool
pressure
Main path
Spool expands
Spring
Heat is generated
23
23
01‐02‐06
Heat shock
If the spool is moved without warm‐up when the temperature is low and the flow rate is large, the spool
may thermally expand locally to get stuck. This is called local heat shock.
Normally, this can be prevented by warming up the equipment.
At the moment when the main path is just opened as the spool moves due to the pilot pressure, the path
where oil flows is narrow and the temperature of oil that goes through it becomes hot.
Due to this heat, the spool locally expands (the diameter increases). The body has a large volume and it
does not expand right away.
Normally, there is a clearance between the spool and the body, but if the diameter of the expanded spool
exceeds that of the body, the spool temporarily may get stuck so that the actuator does not stop.
02: Principles and construction of
hydraulic devices

02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump
of hydraulic devices
Pump
25

External
Hydraulic pump Gear pump
contact type
Internal
contact type
Vane pump
Swash
Piston pump Axial pump plate type
Inclined shaft
Symbols type
Radial pump
Piston pump
Variable Fixed 26
capacity capacity
02‐01
Pump
Hydraulic pumps are categorized into the types in the figure.
Graphic symbols used in the hydraulic circuit diagram are shown in the figure. For a variable capacity
pump, an arrow is added. ▲ in the circle is facing outward.
Engine
Engine
Hydraulic pump
Hydraulic pump
Gear pump
Axial pump
Gear pump
27
02‐01
Pump
In general, an axial pump is used for a excavator. The oil discharged from the pump drives hydraulic
motors and cylinders.
A gear pump is also installed. The oil from this pump is used to operate control valves.
02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump > 01: Gear pump > 01: Internal contact type
■ Internal Contact Type Gear Pump
Outer rotor
External gear wheel (Internal gear wheel)
Discharge Discharge port
Suction port port
Suction
port
Internal
gear wheel
Partioning Inner rotor
plate (External gear
wheel) <Trochoid type>
<Crescent shaped partioning pate is used>
28
02‐01‐01‐01
Internal contact type gear pump
■ Construction
The internal contact type gear pump consists of a pair of an external gear wheel and an internal gear
wheel.
The external gear wheel is eccentrically located in the internal gear wheel. When the external gear wheel
is rotated by the engine, the internal gear wheel also is rotated.
The trochoid type uses a trochoidal curve for the tooth shape. The inner rotor has one tooth less than the
outer rotor. In the lower part of the drawing, the gear wheels are meshed, while in the upper part only
the tips of the teeth contact against each other to form a space.
■ Operation
As the gear wheels are eccentrically arranged, the spaces created by the two gear wheels expand and
shrink. As they expand, oil is sucked in, and as they shrink, oil is discharged.
In the type with a partioning plate, the oil sucked in as the space between the gear wheels expands is
transferred in the space between the partioning plate and the gear wheels. As the space becomes smaller
at the discharge port, oil is discharged.
■ Characteristics
• The construction is simple and they can be manufactured cheaply.
28
02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump > 01: Gear pump > 02: External contact type
■ External Contact Type Gear Pump
Casing
Driven gear
Suction port Discharge port
Drive gear
29
02‐01‐01‐02
External contact type gear pump
■ Construction
The external contact type gear pump consists of a casing and two gear wheels.
One of the gear wheels is linked to an engine or a motor. As it is rotated, the other is rotated since they
are meshed.
■ Operation
As the gear wheels rotate, oil in the space between the teeth and the casing is transported from the
suction port to the discharge port.
As this process is performed continuously, the mechanism functions as a pump.
The discharge capacity is proportional to the rotational speed of the gear wheels.
■ Characteristics
• The construction is simple and they can be manufactured cheaply.
• Not suitable for a high‐pressure or large capacity pump.
■ Types
Various types of gear are used. As this type cannot be made to be variable in capacity due to its
mechanical construction,
the external contact type gear pump is fixed in capacity.
29
02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump > 02: Vane pump
■ Vane Pump
Cam ring Cam ring
Vane
Discharge
Discharge port
port Suction
Suction port
port
Rotor
Discharge Suction
port port
Shaft Vane
Rotor
<Non‐equilibrium type vane pump> <Equilibrium type vane pump>
30
02‐01‐02
Vane pump
■ Construction
The vane pump consists of the shaft, rotor, vanes, cam ring, and housing. The shaft is linked to an engine
or a motor and is attached to the rotor.
Vanes are inserted in the grooves on the rotor and they can freely move in them. When the rotor rotates,
the vanes move outward until they contact the cam ring due to the centrifugal force.
■ Operation
Since the cam ring is attached to the housing, the areas surrounded by the rotor, vanes, and cam ring
expand and shrink as the rotor rotates.
When the spaces expand, oil flows in through the suction port. Oil flows out through the discharge port as
they shrink. As this process is performed continuously, the mechanism functions as a pump.
■ Characteristics
• The construction is relatively simple and they can be manufactured cheaply.
• The efficiency does not drop significantly if the cam ring and vanes wear out.
• Less pulsation and noise
• Not suitable for high pressure
■ Types
There are two basic types: the equilibrium type and the non‐equilibrium type.
There is also a variable capacity type, which allows adjustment of the discharge.
In the non‐equilibrium type vane pump, pressure is generated only in one side of the rotor. A strong force
that tries to bend the shaft downward applies to the shaft, a failure may occur more easily.
On the other hand, in the equilibrium type, pressure is generated on both sides of the rotor. As the force
bending the shaft is small, there is less possibility of failure.
30
02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump > 03: Piston > 01: Axial > 01: Swash plate
of hydraulic devices pump pump type
■ Swash Plate Type Axial Piston Pump Operation on the Operation on the

suction side discharge side
Piston shoe Piston
Swash plate
Shaft
Valve
Cylinder block plate
31
Suction port
Discharge port
02‐01‐03‐01‐01
Swash plate type axial piston pump
■ Construction
The swash plate type axial piston pump consists of the shaft, cylinder block, pistons, swash plate, and
valve plate.
This pump is characterized with the swash plate and the fact that the shaft, cylinder block, and pistons are
all aligned in parallel.
The shaft is linked to an engine or a motor and is attached to the cylinder block inside the pump.
Several pistons are inserted in the cylinder block, and each of them is connected to a piston shoe
individually with a ball joint.
The piston shoes are arranged so that they are pushed against the swash plate.
■ Operation
When the shaft is rotated, the cylinder block and pistons rotate together. Since the pistons' ends are
pushed against the swash plate, the pistons reciprocate in the cylinder block along the swash plate as they
rotate around the shaft.
As a piston is pulled out, oil is sucked in, and as it is pushed in, oil is discharged. With this reciprocal
movements of the pistons and the function of the valve plate attached to the pump, oil is discharged from
the pump.
By changing the angle of the swash plate, you can change the strokes of the pistons. By changing this
angle, you can change the discharge capacity even with the constant rotational speed of the pump.
■ Characteristics
• High pressure can be obtained
• Efficiency is high
• Structurally, variable capacity type can be easily achieved
• Construction is complicated with a large quantity of components; expensive
31
02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump > 03: Piston > 01: Axial > 02: Inclined shaft
of hydraulic devices pump pump type
■ Inclined Shaft Type Axial Piston Pump
Piston
Suction port
Discharge
port
Shaft
Cylinder block
Valve plate
32
02‐01‐03‐01‐02
Inclined shaft type axial piston pump
■ Construction
The inclined shaft type axial piston pump consists of the shaft, cylinder block, pistons, and valve plate.
This pump is characterized with the fact that the rotational axis of the cylinder block is angled against the
drive shaft and that the shaft, cylinder block, and pistons are all aligned in parallel.
The shaft, which is linked to an engine or a motor, is attached to the cylinder block using a ball joint.
Several pistons are inserted in the cylinder block, and each of them is connected to the shaft individually
with a ball joint.
■ Operation
When the shaft is rotated, the cylinder block and pistons rotate together. Since the pistons' ends are
connected to the shaft, the pistons reciprocate in the cylinder block as they rotate around the shaft.
As a piston is pulled out, oil is sucked in, and as it is pushed in, oil is discharged. With this reciprocal
movements of the pistons and the function of the valve plate attached to the pump, oil is discharged from
the pump.
By changing the angle between the shaft and the cylinder block, you can change the strokes of the
pistons. By changing this angle, you can change the discharge capacity even with the constant rotational
speed of the pump.
■ Characteristics
• Structurally, variable capacity type can be easily achieved
• Construction is complicated with a large quantity of components; expensive
32
02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump > 03: Piston > 02: Radial piston pump
of hydraulic devices pump
■ Radial Piston Pump
Discharge stroke
Piston
Cylinder block
Discharge stroke Suction stroke
Eccentric cam
Shaft
Suction stroke 33
Suction stroke
02‐01‐03‐02
Radial piston pump
■ Construction
The radial piston pump consists of the shaft, cylinder block, pistons, and valve mechanism.
This pump is characterized with the fact that the cylinder block and pistons form a right angle against the
shaft. There are various types and the drawing illustrates the one with eccentric cam in the center.
The shaft, which is linked to an engine or a motor, is attached to the eccentric cam.
The eccentric cam has a pentagonal shape around it, and a piston is attached onto each face of the cam.
■ Operation
As the shaft rotates, the eccentric cam rotates orbital as well, and the pistons reciprocate in the cylinder
block. With this reciprocal movements of the pistons and the function of the valve mechanism, oil is
discharged from the pump.
■ Characteristics
• Relatively simple construction among the piston pumps
33
02: Principles and construction > 01: Pump > 03: Piston > 03: Reciprocating piston pump
of hydraulic devices pump
■ Reciprocating Piston Pump
Piston
Cylinder
Discharge
port
Check valve Connecting rod
Shaft
Suction port
34
02‐01‐03‐03
Reciprocating piston pump
■ Construction
The reciprocating piston pump consists of the shaft, connecting rod, piston, cylinder, and check valve.
As an engine or a motor rotates the shaft, the piston reciprocates in the cylinder via the connecting rod.
■ Operation
As the piston reciprocates in the cylinder, the volume inside the cylinder expands and shrinks providing
the pumping function of suction and discharge.
During the suction stroke, only the check valve on the suction port opens, while during the discharge
stroke, only the check valve on the discharge port opens to discharge oil from the pump.
34
02: Principles and construction > 02: Motor
Motor
35

External contact
Hydraulic motor Gear motor
type
Internal
contact type
Vane motor
Swash
Piston motor Axial motor
plate type
Inclined shaft
Symbols type
Radial motor
Variable Fixed 36
capacity capacity
02‐02
Motor
Hydraulic motors are categorized into the types in the figure.
Graphic symbols used in the hydraulic circuit diagram are shown in the figure. For a variable capacity
pump, an arrow is added. ▲ in the circle is facing inward.
Swing motor
Swing motor Axial piston motor
Travel motor
Travel motor
Axial piston motor
37
02‐02
Motor
A excavator is equipped with the swing motor to swing the upper body and the travel motor to make the
shovel run.
In general, an axial pump is used for a excavator.
02: Principles and construction > 02: Motor > 01: Gear motor > 01: Internal contact type
■ Internal Contact Type Gear Motor
Outer rotor
(Internal gear wheel)
油圧KOmA.pdf
Left on page 24
Use the right side of the internal contact type gear pump.
Change colors.
Pressurized oil Discharge
Inner rotor
(External gear wheel)
Output shaft
38
02‐02‐01‐01
Internal contact type gear motor
■ Construction
The internal contact type gear motor consists of a pair of an external gear wheel and an internal gear
wheel.
The external gear wheel is eccentrically located in the internal gear wheel.
■ Operation
Pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump enters into the space created between the two gear wheels. The
force to expand the space starts the rotation of the motor.
As the motor rotates, the space moves. When it reaches the discharge port, the oil is discharged. As this
sequence of actions is repeated, the mechanism generates power.
38
02: Principles and construction > 02: Motor > 01: Gear motor > 02: External contact type
■ External Contact Type Gear Motor
Gear Casing
Pressurized oil Discharge
Gear
39
Output shaft
02‐02‐01‐02
External contact type gear motor
■ Construction
The external contact type gear motor consists of a casing and two gear wheels.
■ Operation
Pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump applies to the face of the teeth. It generates power to rotate the
gear wheels.
By supplying oil from the opposite port, reverse rotation is possible.
39
02: Principles and construction > 02: Motor > 02: Vane motor
■ Vane Motor
Rotor
Cam ring
Pressurized Discharge
oil
Output shaft
Spring
Vane
40
02‐02‐02
Vane motor
■ Construction
The vane motor consists of the shaft, rotor, vanes, cam ring, and housing.
The basic construction is the same as that of the vane pump, but for the motor, there are springs installed
to push the vanes against the cam ring.
This is because the centrifugal force is not available for the motor at a startup, in contrast to the case of
the pump. Thus, a mechanism to make the vanes closely contact the cam ring is necessary.
■ Operation
Pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump flows in and the vanes receive the pressure starting the rotor to
rotate.
The space created with the vanes, rotor, and cam ring moves toward the discharge port. When it reaches
the discharge port, the oil is discharged.
As this sequence of actions is repeated, the mechanism generates power.
40
02: Principles and construction > 02: Motor > 03: Piston > 01: Axial piston > 01: Swash plate
of hydraulic devices motor motor type
■ Swash Plate Type Axial Piston Motor
Operation of Piston 1 Operation of Piston 2
Pressurized Discharge
oil
Cylinder Valve plate
Chamber A block
Chamber B
Piston 1
Piston 2
Piston
shoe
Swash plate
Output shaft
41
02‐02‐03‐01‐01
Swash plate type axial piston motor
■ Construction
The swash plate type axial piston motor consists of the shaft, cylinder block, pistons, swash plate, and
valve plate.
This motor is characterized with the swash plate and the fact that the shaft, cylinder block, and pistons are
all aligned in parallel.
■ Operation
In principle, the operation of this motor is the reverse of the pump. Pressurized oil from the hydraulic
pump rotates the cylinder block to generate power.
Oil sent from the hydraulic pump enters Chamber A of the motor and tries to push out the piston 1 from
the cylinder block. Since the piston 1 is pushed out against the swash plate, this movement makes the
cylinder block rotate. At this time, the piston 2 moves against the opposite side of the swash plate,
discharging the oil in Chamber B. Repeating this cycle, the motor rotates.
In addition, by reversing the direction of the oil flow, the motor can be rotated in the opposite direction.
Furthermore, by increasing or decreasing the oil supply or by changing the angle of the swash plate to
change the piston stroke, the speed of the motor can be adjusted.
41
02: Principles and construction > 02: Motor > 03: Piston > 01: Axial piston > 02: Inclined
of hydraulic devices motor motor shaft type
■ Inclined Shaft Type Axial Piston Motor
Piston 2
Chamber B
Valve plate
Discharge
Output shaft
Pressurized oil
Piston 1
Chamber A
Cylinder block
42
02‐02‐03‐01‐02
Inclined shaft type axial piston motor
■ Construction
The inclined shaft type axial piston motor consists of the shaft, cylinder block, pistons, and valve plate.
This motor is characterized with the fact that the rotational axis of the cylinder block is angled against the
drive shaft and that the shaft, cylinder block, and pistons are all aligned in parallel.
The shaft is attached to the cylinder block using a ball joint.
■ Operation
In principle, the operation of this motor is the reverse of the pump. Pressurized oil from the hydraulic
pump rotates the cylinder block to generate power.
Oil sent from the hydraulic pump enters Chamber A of the motor and tries to push out the piston 1 from
the cylinder block. Since the piston 1 is connected to the output shaft with a ball joint, it rotates it as well
as the cylinder block. At this time, the piston 2 is pushed in with a ball joint on the opposite side of the
output shaft, discharging the oil in Chamber B. Repeating this cycle, the motor rotates.
In addition, by reversing the direction of the oil flow, the motor can be rotated in the opposite direction.
Furthermore, by increasing or decreasing the oil supply or by changing the angle of the inclined shaft to
change the piston stroke, the speed of the motor can be adjusted.
42
02: Principles and construction > 02: Motor > 03: Piston > 02: Radial piston motor
of hydraulic devices motor
■ Radial Piston Motor
Discharge
Piston
Cylinder block
Connecting rod
Discharge Pressurized oil
Eccentric cam
Output shaft
Pressurized oil Pressurized oil 43
02‐02‐03‐02
Radial piston motor
■ Construction
The radial piston motor consists of the shaft, cylinder block, pistons, connecting rods, and valve
mechanism.
This pump is characterized with the fact that the cylinder block and pistons form a right angle against the
shaft. There are various types and the drawing illustrates the one with eccentric cam in the center.
■ Operation
Pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump is distributed with the valve mechanism entering the cylinders. It
pushes the pistons making the output shaft rotate via the eccentric cam.
After being fully pushed in, the pistons return and the oil is discharged through the valve mechanism.
Repeating this cycle, the motor rotates.
43
02: Principles and construction > 03: Cylinder
Cylinder
44

02: Principles and construction > 03: Cylinder > 01: Single‐acting cylinder
■ Single‐acting Cylinder
Cylinder tube Cylinder head
Air vent
<Extension action>
Bottom end Rod end
Piston rod
Piston Spring
Pressurized oil
Air vent
<Contraction action>
Discharge 45
02‐03‐01
Single‐acting cylinder
This is an actuator that converts hydraulic pressure into a linear movement.
Pressurized oil moves the piston in the cylinder. The rod connected to the piston performs mechanical
work by being pushed out or pulled in.
■ Construction
The ports for the fluid are only on one end of the cylinder (the rod end or the bottom end). After the
piston is moved by the hydraulic pressure, it returns by the force of a spring, its own weight, or the load.
The figure illustrates the one with a spring.
■ Operation
Pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump enters the cylinder tube to act on the piston causing the rod to
extend. As the pressure drops, the piston returns by the force of a spring or a load.
45
02: Principles and construction > 03: Cylinder > 02: Double‐acting cylinder
■ Double‐acting Cylinder
Discharge
Area to be
Cylinder tube acted on: large Cylinder head
<Extension action>
Bottom end Rod end
Piston rod
Piston
Pressurized oil
Pressurized oil
<Contraction action>
Area to be acted
on: small
46
Discharge
02‐03‐02
Double‐acting cylinder
This is an actuator that converts hydraulic pressure into a linear movement.
Pressurized oil moves the piston in the cylinder. The rod connected to the piston performs mechanical
work by being pushed out or pulled in.
■ Construction
The cylinder has the fluid ports on both ends. By changing the direction of the fluid supply with the
switching valve, this can be either extended or contracted.
The cylinder illustrated in the figure is called "double‐acting single rod cylinder," in which the area to be
acted on of the piston of the bottom end is greater than that of the rod end.
Thus, the cylinder is arranged to be used in the direction in which the greater force required can be
exerted on the extension rather than contraction.
■ Operation
Pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump enters the bottom end of the cylinder tube to act on the piston
causing the rod to extend. The oil in the rod end of the cylinder tube is discharged.
In the same fashion, pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump enters the rod end of the cylinder tube to act
on the piston causing the rod to contract.
46
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve
Valve
(Hydraulic pressure control valve)
47

Hydraulic pressure control valve
Directional control valve Pressure control valve Flow control valve
Direction switching valve Relief valve Throttle valve
Shuttle valve Pressure reducing valve
Check valve Proportional valve
Safety valve
Unloading valve
Counter‐balance valve
Suction valve
48
02‐04
Valve (Hydraulic pressure control valve)
Valves that control hydraulic pressure are categorized into the types in the figure.
The directional control valve controls the direction of the flow of the oil.
The pressure control valve controls the pressure generated in the hydraulic circuit and prevents an
abnormal high pressure and negative pressure.
The flow control valve controls the flow rate in the hydraulic circuit.
Relief valve
Control valve
Control valve
Safety valve
49
02‐04
Valve (Hydraulic pressure control valve)
The largest valve in a excavator is the control valve, which distributes hydraulic oil from the hydraulic
pump to various actuators.
Combining various different types of valves allows the excavator to perform powerful and yet delicate
operation.
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 01: Directional > 01: Directional
of hydraulic devices control valve switching valve
■ Direction Switching Valve (control valve) Symbol
B
A B C
C A
D
Spool
D
Rotor
A B C
B
C A
D
D
50
<Sliding type> <Rotary type>
02‐04‐01‐01
Direction switching valve (Control valve)
■ Purpose
This is used to switch the direction of the oil.
For example, this is used to switch the rotational direction of a hydraulic motor or to switch expansion and
contraction of a hydraulic cylinder.
■ Construction
The direction switching valve consists of the body that has a complicated oil path and the spool (or rotor).
When the spool is moved by a human force, a hydraulic force, or with a electromagnetic solenoid, the
positional relationship between the body and the spool is changed, switching the oil path.
In terms of the construction, there are two types: the sliding type and the rotary type. For the sliding type,
the component that switches the oil path is called a spool, while for the rotary type, it is called a rotor.
For the sliding type, the spool moves in the direction of its axis to switch the oil path, while for the rotary
type, the rotor rotates around its center axis to switch the oil path.
■ Operation
For the sliding type in the illustration above, oil flows from the port D to the port B, but the ports A and C
are not connected.
When the spool is moved toward left (diagram below), the ports D and A become connected via the
groove on its periphery. At the same time, the port B is disconnected from the port D, and it is connected
to the port C.
In this manner, a stepped groove, an internal path of the spool, or a path of the body switches the
direction of the oil flow.
In the rotary type above, the port A is connected to the port B via a path in the rotor. It is disconnected
from other ports by the rotor.
Turning the rotor (the figure below) disconnects the ports A and B and connects the ports A and C.
In this manner, turning the rotor switches the direction of the oil flow.
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 01: Directional > 01: Directional
of hydraulic devices control valve switching valve
■ Direction Switching Valve (control valve)
51
02‐04‐01‐01
Direction switching valve (control valve)
The control valve used for a excavator has several direction switching valves put together in stages, and
each stage is connected to a cylinder or a motor individually. A single stage control a single actuator.
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 01: Directional > 02: Shuttle valve
of hydraulic devices control valve
■ Shuttle Valve Symbol
Steel ball
Inlet Inlet
Outlet
52
02‐04‐01‐02
Shuttle valve
■ Purpose
This is used to switch the actuator between the low and high pressures or to ensure the pilot pressure
continuously.
■ Construction
The shuttle valve has two inlets and one outlet with a steel ball inside it.
The steel ball can freely move left and right in the illustration.
■ Operation
When the pressure to the right is higher than that to the left, the steel ball is pushed in to the left closing
the left path.
As a result, the oil from the right can flow through the center path.
When the pressures to the right and left are reversed, the steel ball is pushed in to the right, and the oil
from the left can flow through the center path.
If the oil is forced to flow from the bottom (outlet), the movement of the steel ball is not determined
depending on the position at that time. Thus, this is not used in such a fashion.
52
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 01: Directional > 03: Check valve
of hydraulic devices control valve
■ Check Valve Symbol
Spring
Valve seat Poppet
53
02‐04‐01‐03
Check valve
■ Purpose
This is used to make the oil flow in one direction.
This may be used by itself or may be installed in another type of valve.
■ Construction
The construction of a check valve is very simple. It consists of the poppet and the spring that pushes it
against the valve seat.
■ Operation
When the hydraulic pressure of the oil flowing from left to right in the drawing becomes greater than the
spring force, the poppet is pushed open and the oil can flow to the right. If the hydraulic pressure of the
oil to the right of the poppet becomes high, it pushed the poppet against the valve seat, and the oil
cannot flow to the left.
53
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 02: Pressure control > 01: Relief valve
of hydraulic devices valve
■ Relief Valve Symbol
Pilot poppet Pilot spring
Adjusting screw
Spring
C
Main
spring
To the
tank B
Adjusting
Main screw
Poppet
Pressurized poppet
oil A
To the Valve seat
tank T
A
Pressurized oil
<Direct action type> <Equilibrium piston type> 54
02‐04‐02‐01
Relief valve
■ Purpose
The relief valve protects the pump and other hydraulic devices from excessive pressure. It is also used to
control the pressure of the hydraulic system to be constant.
■ Types
There are two types of relief valves: the direct action type and the equilibrium piston type.
The direct action type has a simple construction with the excellent follow‐up capability.
On the other hand, the equilibrium piston type has a complicated construction but can maintain the
circuit pressure more stably.
■ Construction
The relief valve consists of the poppet, spring, and adjusting screw.
The oil path that is opened/closed with the poppet valve is connected to the main pipe line and the other
is connected to the pipe line connected to the tank.
Normally, the path is closed as the poppet is pushed by the spring.
■ Operation
In the direct action type, when the pressure at the port A increases and the force greater than the spring
force applies to the poppet, the poppet is pushed open and the oil escapes to the port T lowering the
pressure in the path.
In the equilibrium piston type, the ports A and T are shut off with the main poppet. The pressure at the
port A applies to the pilot poppet via the path B and the chamber C. The main poppet is pushed up by the
pressure of the port A, but the pressure of the chamber C (same as the port A) and the spring force are
stronger and it stays closed.
When the pressure at the port A rises and pushes the poppet open, the pressure of the chamber C drops.
Then, as the force to push down the main poppet is reduced, the main poppet is pushed up letting the oil
escape through the port T reducing the pressure in the path.
The operation is the same as that of the relief valve, but for the safety valve, the direct action type valve,
which is simple in construction with the excellent follow‐up capability, is used.
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 02: Pressure control > 02: Pressure reducing
of hydraulic devices valve valve
■ Pressure Reducing Valve Symbol
To the tank Needle valve
Spring Adjusting screw
Spool
Primary
pressure
Spring
Secondary
pressure
55
02‐04‐02‐02
Pressure reducing valve
■ Purpose
The pressure reducing valve is used to create a pressure lower than the main path pressure.
■ Construction
The pressure reducing valve consists of the spool, needle valve, spring, and adjusting screw.
As the spool is pushed down by the spring force, the path from the primary line to the secondary line is
open.
■ Operation
Since the channel from the primary line to the secondary line is narrow, the pressure in the secondary line
becomes lower than that in the primary line.
This pressure in the secondary line applies not only to the secondary line itself but also to the needle valve
located at the top, flowing through the spool from the bottom of the spool.
When the pressure in the secondary line becomes higher than the setup value, the needle valve opens
letting the oil above the spool flow to the tank, lowering the pressure above the spool.
As a result, the spool is pushed up making the channel from the primary line to the secondary line
narrower, reducing the pressure in the secondary line.
Repeating this cycle, the pressure in the secondary line is kept constant.
55
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 02: Pressure control > 03: Proportional valve
■ Proportional Valve Symbol
Spool
Coil Spring
Movable iron core Port P Port T

Yoke
56
02‐04‐02‐03
Proportional valve
■ Purpose
This is used to adjust the flow and pressure of a oil that requires finer control or remote control.
■ Construction
The proportional valve consists of the solenoid section, which contains the coil, yoke, and movable iron
core, the spool, and the spring.
The proportional valve is also called the proportional electromagnetic valve. This is characterized by the
fact that the opening and closing of the valve are electrically controlled.
Unless the coil is energized, the spool is pushed to the left in the drawing by the spring force, and the
ports P and T are connected.
■ Operation
When the coil is energized, the magnetic force is generated to push out the movable iron core.
As the movable iron core is attached to the spool, the spool is pushed to the right making the channel
between the ports A and T narrow or fully closed.
The travel of the spool is proportional to the current which goes through the coil. And hence, the opening
of the channel can be variably and freely adjusted.
The pressure is adjusted with the contraction of the spring in the pressure reducing valve and relief valve,
but combining this function, the pressure can be adjusted electrically in this type of the valve.
56
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 02: Pressure control > 04: Safety valve
■ Safety Valve Symbol
Poppet
Abnormal
high pressure
Spring Adjusting screw
<Direct action type safety valve>
To the tank
57
02‐04‐02‐04
Safety valve
■ Purpose
The safety valve is used to prevent a breakage in a pipe line and a damage of a hydraulic device due to an
abnormal high pressure in the circuit.
■ Construction
The safety valve consists of the poppet, spring, and adjusting screw.
The oil path that is opened/closed with the poppet valve is connected to the main pipe line and the other
is connected to the pipe line connected to the tank.
Normally, the path to the tank is closed as the poppet is pushed by the spring.
■ Operation
When the pressure in the hydraulic circuit rises and the pressure greater than the spring force applies to
the poppet, the oil path is opened to release oil to the tank.
The basic construction is the same as that of the relief valve, but for the safety valve, the direct action
type valve, which is simple in construction with the excellent follow‐up capability, is used.
57
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 02: Pressure control > 05: Unloading valve
■ Unloading Valve Symbol
Pilot pressure
Spring
From
the
pump
Spool
Spring
chamber
To the tank To the tank
<When the actuator is working> <When the actuator is stopped>
58
02‐04‐02‐05
Unloading valve
■ Purpose
The unloading valve lowers the pressure in the oil path to reduce energy consumption when the actuator
is stopped.
■ Construction
The construction of the unloading valve is basically the same as that of the relief valve. It consists of the
spool and spring.
In the one illustrated in the drawing, the pilot pressure is connected to the spring chamber.
■ Operation
When the actuator is working with the hydraulic pressure from the pump, the pilot pressure applies to the
spring chamber. The pressure and the spring force are combined to push the spool to the right.
In this state, the paths from the pump and to the tank are closed, and the hydraulic oil from the pump all
goes to the actuator.
When the actuator is stopped, the pilot pressure to the spring chamber is lost. The hydraulic oil from the
pump pushes the spool to the left in spite of the spring force.
Then the oil path to the tank is opened and the oil from the tank all goes back to the tank, eliminating the
load.
58
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 02: Pressure control > 06: Counter‐balance
of hydraulic devices valve valve
■ Counter‐balance Valve Symbol
Adjusting screw
Spring
From the To the
direction Check direction
switching valve switching
valve valve
To the From the
actuator actuator
Spool
<Flow in the forward direction> <Flow in the reverse direction> 59
02‐04‐02‐06
Counter‐balance valve
■ Purpose
The counter‐balance valve is used to create a back pressure so that the actuator does not run faster than
the controlled speed.
■ Construction
There are various types of the counter‐balance valves. The one illustrated is a basic one that consists of
the spool, check valve, spring, and adjusting screw. The paths from the pump (switching valve) and to the
actuator are shut off with the spool and the check valve.
■ Operation
When the oil flows from the pump (switching valve) to the actuator (forward direction), the spool is
pushed downward by the spring, and the path from the pump to the actuator is closed.
However, as the oil from the pump can push open the check valve, it flows to the actuator through the
check valve.
On the other hand, when the oil returns from the actuator to the tank (switching valve) (reverse
direction), it cannot go through the check valve as the flow closes the check valve.
Then, the return oil from the actuator, whose pressure rises as it is enclosed, flows underneath the spool
pushing it up.
Then, finally, the path to the tank is opened letting the return oil go back to the tank.
In this fashion, this creates a resistance (back pressure) only for the return oil from the actuator.
59
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 02: Pressure control > 07: Suction valve
■ Suction Valve Symbol
Suction valve closed Suction valve opened
Up Up
Down Down
Hydraulic Cylinder Hydraulic

Cylinder
pump pump
Tank Tank
60
<Cylinder moving up> <Cylinder moving down>
60
02‐04‐02‐07
Suction valve
■ Purpose
This prevents a negative pressure from being generated in the circuit when the actuator moves exceeding
a limit because of an external force.
■ Construction
The construction of the suction valve is basically the same as that of the check valve. It consists of the
poppet and the spring that pushes it against the valve seat.
■ Operation
The oil going upward in the illustration can push the poppet open to flow upward, while the downward
flow pushes the poppet against the valve seat to shut it off.
In the illustration, for example, the hydraulic cylinder is supposed to contract because of the oil from the
pump. But the external force which applies to the cylinder is so great that it contracts by itself.
If this happens, a negative pressure would be created in the path between the pump and the hydraulic
cylinder, causing an adverse effect on the circuit.
To prevent this, a suction valve is installed in the circuit. When a negative pressure starts to be created, oil
from the tank is sucked into the circuit to eliminate the potential problem.
02: Principles and construction > 04: Valve > 03: Flow control > 01: Throttle valve
■ Throttle Valve Symbol
Adjusting screw
Needle valve
Inlet Outlet
61
02‐04‐03‐01
Throttle valve
■ Purpose
The throttle valve is used to prevent spilling when a pipe line is to be replaced by fully closing it as well as
to adjust the flow of the oil.
■ Construction and operation
There are various types of the throttle valves. The one illustrated is of the most simple construction
consisting of the adjusting screw and the needle valve.
By making the path from the inlet narrow or fully closed with the needle valve, the flow of the oil is
controlled.
61
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices
Auxiliary devices
62

02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 01: Accumulator
■ Accumulator
Delivery valve
Nitrogen Piston
Delivery valve
O‐ring
Diaphragm
Pressurized oil
Nitrogen Nitrogen
<Piston type>
Pressurized Delivery valve
oil
Bladder
Nitrogen
Poppet valve
Oil inlet/outlet Oil inlet/outlet
<Diaphragm type>
Oil <Bladder type>
63
02‐05‐01
Accumulator
■ Roles
The accumulator is used to store pressure and to absorb impacts.
Storing pressure allows you to obtain large power by releasing the stored oil when a large quantity of flow
is temporarily required or to respond to the change in the amount of oil due to a leakage in the circuit.
As it also absorbs the fluctuation of the hydraulic pressure, it absorbs the pulsation generated by the
pump, reducing noise. When a surge pressure occurs, it absorbs it to protect the devices.
■ Construction
In terms of the construction, the accumulators are categorized into three types: the diaphragm type, the
bladder type, and the piston type.
<Diaphragm type>
Generally, this is used for small capacity pressure storage and to absorb pulsation. It is considered to have
an excellent responsiveness to the change in pressure.
The pressure vessel is charged with nitrogen. A rubber diaphragm is used to separate the nitrogen from
the oil.
<Bladder type>
This type is used for a relatively large capacity. It has an excellent responsiveness just like the diaphragm
type.
In the pressure vessel is housed a bladder, which is similar to a rubber balloon, to separate the nitrogen
from the oil.
<Piston type>
Its responsiveness is inferior to the other types, but it has a higher reliability as there is no rubber part
that gets broken which makes it impossible to be used.
A metal piston is used to separate the nitrogen from the oil in the pressure vessel. To prevent leakage,
multiple O‐rings are installed.
■ Operation
When the pressurized oil is connected, the nitrogen chamber is compressed to a higher pressure, storing
the energy.
When the pressure of the circuit becomes lower, the energy of the charged gas pushes out oil,
compensating the drop in pressure.
* Rubber parts such as diaphragms are not completely gas tight. Nitrogen goes through them gradually. In
an extended period of time, nitrogen gas may be gone.
63
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 02: Oil cooler
■ Oil Cooler
High
temperature
oil
Wind from the fan
<Liquid cooling system> Cooled down oil
Coolant inlet
<Air cooling system>
Cooled
down oil
High
temperature Coolant outlet
oil
64
02‐05‐02
Oil cooler
■ Roles
When a hydraulic device is operated, the oil temperature gradually rises. When it becomes too hot, the
leakage amount may increase or the lubrication may become faulty.
When the oil is left in a high temperature for a long period of time, oxidization of the oil advances,
shortening the service life of oil.
Thus, it is necessary to remove heat from the oil via an oil cooler to maintain the oil temperature in a
certain range.
■ Construction
<Liquid cooling system>
The one in the left illustration is a liquid cooling type oil cooler. The high temperature oil flows through
the center pipe. The coolant around it cools down the oil. The liquid cooling type oil cooler is common as
the engine oil cooler.
<Air cooling system>
The one in the right illustration is an air cooling type oil cooler. This is of the same construction as the
radiator. Oil is cooled down while it flows through the oil path in the cooler with the wind blown by the
fan.
The air cooling type oil cooler is common as the hydraulic oil cooler for a excavator.
64
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 02: Oil cooler
■ Oil Cooler
Oil inlet Oil inlet
Wind from the fan
Wind from the fan
<Plate fin type> <Corrugated fin type>
65
02‐05‐02
Oil cooler
■ Construction
In the air cooling type oil cooler, the hydraulic oil flows through the oil cooler tubes. Fins made of copper
or steel whose heat conductivity is high are attached around the tubing to obtain high radiation efficiency.
When the fin has a plate shape, the cooler is called the plate fin type, while when it has a corrugated
shape, it is called the corrugated fin type.
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 03: Hoses
■ Hoses
Reinforcement layers
Inner rubber layer
Intermediate Outer rubber layer
rubber layer
66
02‐05‐03
Hoses
■ Roles
The hoses are used as movable pipes.
Nylon hoses are used for non‐high pressure areas. In the high pressure areas, the hydraulic hoses which
can withstand the high pressure are used.
■ Construction
The hydraulic hoses have multiple layers, and depending on the purposes and pressures, the material and
the thickness of a layer vary.
The drawing shows a sample of a common hydraulic hose.
• Inner rubber layer
This is made of artificial oil resistant rubber to prevent leakage of oil flowing through the hose.
• Reinforcement layer
This is made of hard steel wires or nylon fibers weaved into meshes. This has pressure‐proof capacity to
prevent expansion and breakage due to the internal pressure of the hose.
• Intermediate rubber layer
This is made of artificial wear‐proof rubber. This is positioned between the reinforcement layers to
prevent them from contacting each other becoming worn out.
• Outer rubber layer
This is made of artificial wear‐proof, weather‐resistant rubber. It protects the reinforcement layers from
physical or chemical damages.
66
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 03: Hoses
■ Hoses
Band Hose
Fittings
67
02‐05‐03
Hoses
■ Joints
Fittings (Joints) for connecting the hose are attached on both ends of the hose so that the hose can be
easily installed or detached.
A fitting is inserted in the hose and a band is crimped on it to securely fasten it.
The end of the fitting is not structurally strong. Connect the hose so that no twisting, pulling, or bending
occurs in that region.
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 04: Swivel joint
■ Swivel Joint
Oil path Oil path
Spindle
Body
Body
O‐ring
Oil
paths
68
68
02‐05‐04
Swivel joint
■ Roles
The swivel joint is also called the rotary joint. It connects the hydraulic circuits in the upper swing body
and in the lower body of a excavator.
These joints allow the upper swing body to swing with no limit on the rotational angle.
The spindle is inserted in the cylindrical body, supported with O‐rings and seals, making 360 degree free
rotation possible.
Multiple oil paths are created in the spindle parallel to its axis and they are connected to the paths on the
side at different distances from one end.
The body has grooves inside it corresponding to the oil paths on the side of the spindle. The ports
connected to these respective grooves are created on the outside of the body. A seal is installed between
the grooves to prevent leakage.
When the spindle turns inside the body with a swing of the upper swing body, each oil path remains
securely connected.
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 05: Joint
■ Joint
<Screw (tapered screw) type> <ORS type>
Thread seal tape O‐ring
O‐ring
Tapered
<Flared type>
<Flanged type> 69
02‐05‐05
Joint
There are several types of joints to connect hydraulic hoses depending on the pressure.
<Screw (tapered screw) type>
This joint is for low pressure, which uses a tapered screw whose diameter is smaller at the tip. To ensure a
good seal at the thread, thread seal tape is wrapped around the male thread before installation.
<Flared type>
This joint is for high pressure. The mating surfaces are tapered to provide a good seal by pressing against
strongly to each other.
<ORS type>
This is similar to the screw type, but the screw section has a normal thread. This has a groove for an O‐ring
at the end, and the O‐ring provides a good seal.
<Flanged type>
The mating surfaces of the joints are flanged. They are secured with multiple sets of bolts and nuts
arranged in the circumference. One flange has a groove for an O‐ring, which provides a good seal of the
joint.
69
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 06: Tank
■ Tank Symbol
Return filter
Air breather
Hydraulic oil tank
From actuators
and valves
<Location of the hydraulic oil tank>
Suction strainer
70
To the hydraulic pump
02‐05‐06
Tank
■ Roles
The tank is a place to store the hydraulic oil as its name suggests, but it also has other roles:
• Diffuses heat in the hydraulic oil generated in the system.
• Precipitates dirt and rust.
The tank generally has two filters installed.
One is the suction strainer that prevents the pump from sucking up dirt in the tank.
The other is the return filter that entraps contaminants in the oil returned from the actuators.
The tank has the air breather on its top panel to maintain the pressure of the tank constant. This pressure
is slighter higher than the atmospheric pressure to make it easier for the pump to suck the oil.
70
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 07: Seal > 01: O‐ring
■ O‐ring
O‐ring
<Before installation>
<When installed>
71
02‐05‐07‐01
O‐ring
■ Roles
There is always a minute clearance between the mating surfaces of the hydraulic devices and pipe lines.
An O‐ring is used to seal off these clearances to prevent oil leakage.
■ Types
An O‐ring is a seal in the shape of torus with a round cross section. It can be use either for a static
application or a dynamic application, and various materials such as rubber and Teflon are used.
A type suitable for the conditions should be selected to prevent breakage, swelling, and brittle cracking.
71
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 07: Seal > 01: O‐ring
■ O‐ring
Generation of repulsive force
As deformation increases, repulsive force increases as well
High pressure
72
02‐05‐07‐01
O‐ring
■ Principles of sealing
When the O‐ring installed in the groove is squeezed, the repulsive force is generated to provide seal.
When pressure applies to the O‐ring, the O‐ring is deformed further. This makes the repulsive force
stronger resulting in a better seal.
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 07: Seal > 02: Oil seal
■ Oil Seal
Metal ring Spring
Rotating/Sliding shaft
Low High
pressure pressure
side side
73
02‐05‐07‐02
Oil seal
■ Roles
This is used to prevent leakage on the rotating shaft such as the motor output shaft and on the sliding
shaft such as the cylinder rod.
■ Construction
The oil seal is generally made of rubber or plastics, and it touches the shaft with no clearance. The seal has
a direction for installation as it uses the pressure in the high pressure side to increase its sealing capacity.
73
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 07: Seal > 03: U‐packing
■ U‐packing
U‐packing Backup ring
74
02‐05‐07‐03
U‐packing
■ Roles
The U‐packing is a radial shaft seal with U‐shaped cross section. It is commonly used on a shaft that moves
in the axial direction, such as a hydraulic rod and a piston.
This has a good seal performance with less sliding resistance. By selecting an appropriate material, this can
be used under various conditions.
However, it may be deformed under high pressure, and a backup ring should be used with it under such
circumstances.
74
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 07: Seal > 04: Backup ring
■ Backup Ring
Backup ring
75
<Endless> <Spiral> <Bias‐cut>
02‐05‐07‐04
Backup ring
■ Roles
This is installed on the low pressure side of an O‐ring or a U‐packing, to prevent the seal from being
deformed and pushed out through the clearance due to the pressure.
■ Materials
Depending on the applications, the materials for the backup rings include:
• Teflon (fluoroplastic)
Currently the most common material
• Nylon (polyamide resin)
This has stronger pressure resistance than Teflon, but its thermal resistance is inferior to Teflon.
• Light metal
This has stronger pressure resistance than Teflon, but it may damage the O‐ring or the seal.
• Hard rubber
• Leather
Currently not commonly used.
■ Shapes
There are three shapes of the backup rings:
• Endless
• Spiral
• Bias‐cut
The effectiveness decreases in this order, but the endless type cannot be used in some cases, and the
other types, the spiral and bias‐cut, are provided.
75
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 08: Filter > 01: Return filter
■ Return Filter Symbol
Return filter
Filter element
Hydraulic oil tank
Enlarged image of the filter element surface Suction strainer
76
02‐05‐08‐01
Return filter
■ Roles
The return filter catches dirt and particles when hydraulic oil discharged by the hydraulic pump activates
the actuators and returns to the tank.
■ Construction
The one in the illustration is installed in the return filter chamber inside the hydraulic oil tank. There is
another type that is installed outside the tank.
The filter has fine porosity with a large size (filtering area).
The filter element that entraps contaminants is made of paper or plastic fibers.
As the filter entraps contaminants in the hydraulic oil that may have adverse effect on the actuators, it
may eventually become clogged with the entrapped contaminants. As the filter is designed to be suitable
for construction machinery, non‐genuine filters may be inferior in its filtering performance resulting in a
failure of an actuator.
The filter should be replaced at specified intervals with a genuine filter.
76
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 08: Filter > 02: Suction strainer
■ Suction Strainer Symbol
Guide holder Return filter
Center bolt
Hydraulic oil tank
Filter element
Suction strainer
77
O‐ring
02‐05‐08‐02
Suction strainer
■ Roles
The suction strainer is installed on the suction side of the hydraulic pump in the hydraulic oil tank. It
catches relatively large particles so that they be not sent to the pump.
■ Construction
The one in the illustration has a rod extending upward from the strainer unit, which allows maintenance
of the filter irrespective to the level of oil in the tank.
77
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 08: Filter > 03: In‐line filter
■ In‐line Filter
Oil inlet Oil outlet
Filter element
78
02‐05‐08‐03
In‐line filter
■ Purpose
Due to the issue of suction resistance of the hydraulic pump, the filtering accuracy of the suction strainer
cannot be made high.
(A negative pressure may be generated by the hydraulic pump if it is set too high, causing cavitation in
the system.)
Thus, a much finer in‐line filter is installed on the discharge side of the hydraulic pump to catch any
contaminants in the oil.
■ Construction
The illustration shows the basic construction. This is installed in the middle of the pipe line.
As the filter element, notched wire, metal mesh, sintered metal, or paper is used. Depending on the
circumstances, a suitable material and mesh size should be selected.
The filter element can be replaced with the filter unit left installed in the pipe line.
When the filtering accuracy is high, the filter tends to be easily clogged. Hence, some filters have a gauge
indicating the difference in pressure between the inlet and outlet, and some have a bypass valve which
opens a bypass path when they become clogged.
78
02: Principles and construction > 05: Auxiliary devices > 09: Hydraulic oil
■ Hydraulic Oil
Mineral hydraulic oil Aqueous hydraulic oil Synthetic hydraulic oil
Wear‐ Water‐ Aqueous‐ Phosphate Fatty acid

Universal High VI glycol solubilized
hydraulic resistant hydraulic ester ester
hydraulic hydraulic hydraulic hydraulic hydraulic
oil oil oil oil
oil oil oil
Viscosity index
Low‐temperature
performance
Wear resistance
Oxidation stability
Hydrolysis stability
Rust resistance /
Decay resistance
Compatibility with
seals
Compatibility with
paints
Fire resistance
Waste oil disposal /
Drainage treatment
79
02‐05‐09
Hydraulic oil
■ Roles
The hydraulic oil is pressurized by the pump and it transmits power to the actuators while lubricating the
sliding components.
■ Required properties
The following properties are required of the hydraulic oil.
• Has an appropriate level of viscosity, which does not significantly change by temperature,
• Has oility at low temperature,
• Is hard to be transformed even when used at high temperature,
• Has an excellent oxidation stability,
• Is not corrosive to metals,
• Has an excellent rust resistance,
• Does not erode rubber and paint,
• Has an excellent antifoaming performance, and
• Is hard to burn.
■ Types
There are numerous types of hydraulic oils, but they can be categorized into three major groups:
• Mineral hydraulic oil
• Aqueous hydraulic oil
• Synthetic hydraulic oil
The table summarizes characteristics of each type.
Generally, in the excavator, a mineral hydraulic oil is used.
79
03: Basic Hydraulic
Circuits
80
80
03: Basic Hydraulic Circuits > 01: Basic control > 01: Cylinder circuit
■ Cylinder Circuit
Cylinder
<Flow control valve>
Variable throttle
valve Controls the operational speed of
an actuator.
<Direction switching valve>
Control valve
Controls the operational direction
of an actuator.
Relief valve
<Pressure control valve>
Restricts the maximum pressure
of the system.
Pump Electric motor
81
Tank
03‐01‐01
Cylinder circuit
The drawing illustrates a basic circuit for a double‐acting cylinder.
An electric motor drives the hydraulic pump and the oil is sucked up from the tank to be delivered to the
circuit.
Hydraulic oil performs "work" by going to the cylinder and coming back. During this process, it receives
three types of controls (adjustments).
■ Maximum pressure of the system is restricted
The maximum oil pressure created by the pump is controlled with the pressure control valve (relief valve).
This process prevents the circuit and the hydraulic devices from an abnormal high pressure.
■ Control of direction
The control of direction means the control of the direction in which the actuator is operated.
The direction switching valve (control valve) switches the direction of work by switching the direction of
the flow of the oil to extend or contact the cylinder.
■ Control of flow rate
The control of flow rate means the control of the speed at which the actuator is operated.
The oil controlled by the direction switching valve enters in one end of the cylinder. Then, the oil in the
other end of the piston is pushed out. In the return path of this oil is installed a flow control valve (variable
throttling valve in this case) which adjusts the velocity of the return flow to control the speed of the
movement of the piston.
81
03: Basic Hydraulic Circuits > 01: Basic control > 02: Motor circuit
■ Motor Circuit
Hydraulic motor
Brake mechanism
<Pressure adjusting valve>
Counter‐ Counter‐
balance valve balance valve Adjusts the operational speed of
an actuator.
<Direction switching valve>
Control valve Controls the operational direction
of an actuator.
<Pressure control valve>
Relief valve Restricts the maximum pressure
of the system.
Hydraulic pump Engine
82
Tank
03‐01‐02
Motor circuit
The drawing illustrates a basic circuit for a hydraulic motor.
An engine drives the hydraulic pump and the oil is sucked up from the tank to be delivered to the circuit.
Hydraulic oil performs "work" by going to the motor and coming back. During this process, it receives
three types of controls (adjustments).
■ Maximum pressure of the system is restricted
The maximum oil pressure created by the pump is controlled with the pressure control valve (relief valve).
This process prevents the circuit and the hydraulic devices from an abnormal high pressure.
■ Control of direction
The control of direction means the control of the direction in which the actuator is operated.
The direction switching valve (control valve) switches the direction of work by switching the direction of
the flow of the oil so that the rotational direction of the motor is switched.
■ Adjusting the pressure
The oil controlled by the direction switching valve enters in one port of the motor. Then, oil is discharged
from the other port of the motor. In the return path of this oil is installed a pressure adjusting valve
(counter‐balance valve in this case) which generates back pressure to prevent excursion of the motor due
to an external force.
82
03: Basic Hydraulic Circuits > 01: Basic control > 03: Series circuit
■ Series Circuit
Tank Tank
Control valve B Control valve B
Cylinder B Cylinder B
Tank Tank
Control valve A Control valve A
Cylinder A Cylinder A
From the pump From the pump
<Only Control valve A is operated> <Both Control valves A and B are operated>
83
03‐01‐03
Series circuit
The series circuit has two actuator circuits connected in series.
When the upstream actuator is operated, its return oil operates the downstream actuator.
■ Characteristics
When the two actuators are operated simultaneously, the full amount of discharged oil flows into both
actuators, and hence the efficiency is good.
However, in the cylinder circuit in the illustration, when the upstream cylinder (cylinder A) comes to the
end of the stroke, no oil is delivered to the downstream cylinder (cylinder B) any more.
■ Operation
<Only Control valve A (or B) is operated>
When the control valve A (B) is operated, the pressurized oil goes into the left side of the cylinder A (B)
and the oil on the right side is pushed out. It returns to the tank through the control valve A (B).
<Both Control valves A and B are operated>
Going through the control valve A, the pressurized oil goes into the left side of the cylinder A and the oil
on the right side is pushed out to go into the control valve B.
Having entered into the control valve B, the oil goes into the left side of the cylinder B and the oil on the
right side is pushed out to return to the tank.
83
03: Basic Hydraulic Circuits > 01: Basic control > 04: Parallel circuit
■ Parallel Circuit
Tank Tank
Control valve B Control valve B
Tank Tank
Tank Tank
<Only Control valve A is operated> <Both Control valves A and B are operated>
84
03‐01‐04
Parallel circuit
The parallel circuit has two actuator circuits connected in parallel.
■ Characteristics
As the actuator circuits are independent from each other, they can be independently operated
individually.
However, when both are operated simultaneously, the total flow from the pump is distributed between
the two actuators according to their loads. Thus, the actuator with a lighter load moves faster.
In addition, if the difference in the loads is too great, the actuator of the larger load may not move.
■ Operation
<Only Control valve A (or B) is operated>
When the control valve A (B) is operated, the pressurized oil goes into the left side of the cylinder A (B)
and the oil on the right side is pushed out. It returns to the tank through the control valve A (B).
Pressurized oil from the pump is also supplied to the control valve B even when the control valve A is
operated. Thus, oil goes into both cylinders and the oil which is pushed out returns to the tank through
the respective pipe lines.
84
03: Basic Hydraulic Circuits > 01: Basic control > 05: Tandem circuit
■ Tandem Circuit
Tank Tank
Control valve B
Control valve B
Tank Tank
Tank Tank
Path downstream open Path downstream closed
<Only Control valve B is operated> <Both Control valves A and B are operated>
85
03‐01‐05
Tandem circuit
The tandem circuit is also called the priority circuit. When the upstream actuator is operated, no oil is
delivered to the downstream actuator.
■ Characteristics
The upstream actuator has priority over the other actuator, but each of them can be operated
individually.
However, when both are operated simultaneously, the path from upstream to downstream is closed and
the downstream cylinder B does not operate.
■ Operation
<Only Control valve B (A) is operated>
When the control valve B (A) is operated, the pressurized oil goes into the left side of the cylinder B (A)
and the oil on the right side is pushed out. It returns to the tank through the control valve B (A).
Pressurized oil from the pump is not supplied to the control valve B when the control valve A is operated.
Thus, oil goes only into the cylinder A and the oil which is pushed out returns to the tank through the
control valve A, only operating the cylinder A.
85
04: Actual hydraulic
circuits
86
04
Actual hydraulic circuits
This section describes how to read the diagrams of the actual hydraulic circuits used for excavator.
86
04: Actual hydraulic > 01: Symbols
circuits
■ Symbols
Electric motor Solenoid valve In‐line filter Outlet
Connection
Engine Relief valve Oil cooler
symbol
Fixed capacity
Check valve Swivel joint Accumulator
hydraulic motor
Variable
capacity Shuttle valve Rotary joint Pressure switch
hydraulic motor
Variable
capacity Stop valve Open type tank Pressure gauge
hydraulic pump
Electromagnetic
Fixed capacity proportional Pressurizing
pressure reducing Cylinder
hydraulic pump tank
valve
Main
Pressure source Spool
pressurized line
Remote control Pilot pressurized
Suction filter
valve line
87
04‐01
Symbols
The symbols used in the hydraulic circuit diagram are established in "JIS ( Japanese Industrial Standard )"
based on "ISO," which is the international standard.
The table shows the major symbols.
87
04: Actual hydraulic > 02: Circuits > 01: Main line
circuits
■ Main Line
Hydraulic
motor
Main line
(drawn in a solid line)
Control valve
Relief valve
Tank Remote
control
valve
Engine
Main pump
Pilot pump 88
Tank
04‐02‐01
Main line
The line that starts at the hydraulic pump and goes to the actuator through valves such as the control
valve is called the "main line."
JIS states that this should be marked in a solid line in the circuit diagram.
This is in red in the illustration.
88
04: Actual hydraulic > 02: Circuits > 02: Pilot line
circuits
■ Pilot Line
Hydraulic
motor
Pilot line
(drawn in a short dash line whose
width is one‐fifth of the length of a
short dash)
Control valve
Relief valve
Tank Remote
control
valve
Engine
Main pump
Pilot pump 89
Tank
04‐02‐02
Pilot line
The signal line that activates a spool is called the "pilot line."
JIS states that this should be marked in a short dash line whose width is one‐fifth of the length of a short
dash in the circuit diagram.
This is in green in the illustration.
89
04: Actual hydraulic > 02: Circuits > 03: Return line
circuits
■ Return Line
Hydraulic
motor
Return line
Control valve (drawn in a solid line)
Relief valve
Tank Remote
control
valve
Engine
Main pump
Pilot pump 90
Tank
04‐02‐03
Return line
The line that goes back from the actuator to the tank is called the "return line."
Both this line and the "drain line" are called low pressure lines.
JIS states that this should be marked in a solid line in the circuit diagram.
This is in blue in the illustration.
90
04: Actual hydraulic > 02: Circuits > 04: Drain line
circuits
■ Drain Line
Hydraulic
motor
Drain line
(drawn in a long dash line whose
Control valve width is one‐tenth of the length of a
long dash)
Relief valve
Tank Remote
control
valve
Engine
Main pump
Pilot pump 91
Tank
04‐02‐04
Drain line
Hydraulic devices always have internal leak because of their construction. The "drain line" returns this
leaked oil back to the tank.
Both this line and the "return line" are called low pressure lines.
JIS states that this should be marked in a long dash line whose width is one‐tenth of the length of a long
dash in the circuit diagram.
This is in orange in the illustration.
91
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 01: Control valve
circuits
Control valve
92
04‐03‐01
Control valve
This section describes the oil flow in the control valves in the hydraulic circuit diagram.
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 01: Control valve > 01: Spool
circuits
■ Spool
Neutral position To the tank
(not operated)
From the pump
Moved to the right
To the cylinder
From the cylinder
From the remote
control valve
(Pilot pressure)
To the tank
From the pump
Moved to the left
From the cylinder
To the cylinder
From the remote
control valve
(Pilot pressure) To the tank
93
From the pump
04‐03‐01‐01
Spool
The spool switches the oil path by moving inside the control valve in the axial direction.
The arrows in the spool indicate the direction of the oil flow.
Note that the actual spool does not have three different blocks (left, center, and right). The blocks are
used to indicate the oil flow for convenience.
■ Neutral position
When the pilot pressure, which switches the spool, is not applied, the oil goes through the center block
circuit of the spool and returns to the tank.
■ Moved to the right
When the control lever is moved, the pilot pressure from the remote control valve starts to apply to the
right side of the spool. Then, the spool moves to the right and lets the oil go through the left‐side block of
the spool.
■ Moved to the left
On the other hand, when the pilot pressure applies to the right side, the spool moves to the left and lets
the oil go through the right‐side block of the spool. As the connected paths differ from those connected
when the spool moves to the right, the cylinder moves in the opposite direction.
93
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 01: Control valve > 02: Load hold valve
circuits
■ Load Hold Valve
When holding the load Release spool
Poppet
Cylinder
Poppet
close
When the boom is getting lowered
Release spool
To the tank Poppet
Cylinder
Pilot pressure
Poppet To the tank
open
Moved to the right
Release spool
Poppet
Cylinder
Poppet From the
open pump 94
Pilot pressure
04‐03‐01‐02
Load hold valve
As the spool can move axially in the body to switch the oil flow, there is always a clearance between the
spool and the body. Because oil leaks through this clearance, the cylinder gets lowered as time passes.
The load hold valve stops this leakage by shutting off the path before the poppet to prevent the
spontaneous lowering of the cylinder.
■ When holding the load
The hold pressure of the cylinder applies to both the bottom face of the poppet and the top face of the
poppet through the release spool. Therefore, the pressures on the top and bottom faces are the same,
but as the top area is greater than the bottom area, the poppet is pushed down to seal off the path.
■ When the boom is getting lowered
In order to let oil return from a cylinder by opening the poppet when you want to lower the boom, the
pilot pressure from the remote control valve moves the release spool.
The return oil from the cylinder does not apply to the top face of the poppet any more, and the poppet is
pushed up letting the return oil from the cylinder go back to the tank.
■ When the boom is getting raised
When you want to raise the boom, the poppet should be opened as well, but since the high pressure from
the pump applies to the bottom face of the poppet, the poppet is pushed up to open the path to the
cylinder.
94
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 01: Control valve > 03: Regeneration circuit
circuits
■ Regeneration Circuit
When the boom is getting lowered
Check valve opened
To the tank Cylinder
From the pump
When the boom is getting lowered to dig
Check valve closed
To the tank Cylinder
From the pump
95
04‐03‐01‐03
Regeneration circuit
In this circuit, in order to increase the operational speed of the cylinder and to prevent cavitation, part of
the return oil from the cylinder is sent back to the supply line without being returned to the tank, and the
amount greater than supplied by the pump is provided to the cylinder.
■ Oil flow
As the supply pressure to the cylinder becomes lower than the return pressure from the cylinder when,
for instance, the boom is getting lowered, the check valve in the spool opens and the return oil is sent to
the supply line (Upper diagram).
However, as the supply pressure to the cylinder is high when, for instance, lowering the boom for digging,
the check valve does not open and the regeneration is not performed (Lower diagram).
95
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 01: Control valve > 04: Negative control
circuits
■ Negative Control
Without the negative
control circuit
To the tank
(Full amount of the maximum flow)
From the pump (maximum flow)
With the negative Pump regulator Pump regulator

control circuit
Negative control relief valve Negative control
relief valve
To the tank To the
tank
Orifice Orifice (minimum flow)
From the pump (maximum flow) From the pump (minimum flow) 96
04‐03‐01‐04
Negative control
When the generated pressure is low, for instance, as the remote control valve is not operated, the
hydraulic pump discharges the maximum flow.
As this would waste the engine power, the discharged amount of the hydraulic pump is switched to the
minimum in the negative control.
There is a system in which no negative control pressure is generated in the control valve by combining
another negative control circuit.
■ Oil flow
When the remote control valve is not operated, the discharged oil from the pump goes into the return
path to the tank through the center bypass of the control valve.
As there is an orifice in the return path, pressure is generated here (The pressure is controlled with the
negative control relief valve).
Sending this pressure to the negative control section of the pump regulator switches the pump flow to
minimum.
96
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 01: Control valve > 05: Bleed‐off
circuits
■ Bleed‐off
Without the bleed‐off circuit
To the cylinder
(Maximum flow at no‐load operation)
From the pump
With the bleed‐off circuit
Pump regulator Pump regulator
To the To the
cylinder cylinder
(Less flow at
Orifice Orifice no‐load
operation)
From the pump From the pump 97
04‐03‐01‐05
Bleed‐off
Normally, when the spool is switched, the full amount of the flow from the pump goes to the actuator,
and the negative control pressure is eliminated.
However, when the actuator is moved with no load, the maximum flow of the pump makes the actuator
move too fast.
The bleed‐off circuit lets part of the oil go to the negative control system through the center bypass when
the spool is switched, generating the negative control pressure to reduce the pump discharge when the
load is small.
97
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 02: Travel motor
circuits
Travel motor
98
04‐03‐02
Travel motor
This section describes the oil flow in the travel motor.
circuits
■ Travel Motor: 1/2
Start travelling
Check valve closed Parking brake release port released
To the control
valve
From the From the
control valve control valve
Counter‐balance valve Counter‐balance valve
Motor stopped Motor started
99
04‐03‐02
Travel motor: 1/2
The travel motor is driven with the pressurized oil from the hydraulic pump when the control valve is
switched.
When the travel lever is at the neutral position, the counter‐balance valve is at the neutral position too,
and the circuit in the travel motor is closed with the check valve. Therefore, the motor cannot be forced
to run by the external force.
■ Start travelling
When the travel lever is operated and the pressurized oil comes from the control valve, the check valve in
the counter‐balance valve is opened to open the path to the motor.
However, as the check valve of the return line is closed, oil does not flow and the motor does not run (left
illustration).
When the pressurized oil further comes in increasing the pressure of the circuit, the pressure applying to
the end of the counter‐balance valve (bottom face in the illustration) rises sliding the counter‐balance
valve and opening the motor drive circuit.
At the same time, the pressure also applies to the parking brake release port. The brake is released and
the motor starts to run (right illustration).
99
circuits
■ Travel Motor: 2/2
High speed travel High speed to Low speed
Dual‐speed switching spool: Dual‐speed switching spool:
High speed position Low speed position
Pilot pressure Dual‐speed switching piston: Pilot pressure Dual‐speed switching piston:

High speed position Low speed position
To the control To the control
valve valve
From the From the
control valve control valve
To the tank
Motor running at Motor running at
High speed Low speed
100
04‐03‐02
Travel motor: 2/2
■ High speed travel
When the speed switch is turned to High speed position, the pilot pressure applies to the end of the dual‐
speed switching spool (Upper face in the illustration) to switch the spool to the High speed position. Then,
the driving pressure applies to the dual‐speed switching piston, to shift the angle of the swash plate of the
motor to the high speed position. As a result, the motor shifts from low speed to high speed.
■ High speed to Low speed
When the pressure rises, for instance, because of a hill, while traveling at high speed, the driving pressure
that applies to the end of the dual‐speed switching spool (lower face in the illustration) becomes greater
than the force from the pilot pressure to switch the dual‐speed switching spool to low speed. Then, as the
line from the dual‐speed switching piston to the tank gets connected, the swash plate angle of the motor
returns to the low speed position. As a result, the motor shifts from high speed to low speed.
100
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 03: Hydraulic pump
circuits
Pump
101
04‐03‐03
Hydraulic pump
This section describes the oil flow in the hydraulic pump.
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 03: Hydraulic pump > 01: Negative control
circuits
■ Negative Control: 1/3
Negative control pressure from the control Negative control pressure from the control
valve negative control relief operation valve negative control relief operation
Spool Spool
Pilot piston
Pilot piston
Pump 1 Pump 2
102
04‐03‐03‐01
Negative control: 1/3
When the control lever is not operated, the pump would run at the maximum flow wasting the energy of
the system.
To save energy, the pump discharge is made to be minimum when nothing is operated, by sending a signal
to the pump.
■ Oil flow ‐ 1
When the control lever is at the neutral position, the negative control pressure from the control valve
negative control relief valve applies to the negative control port of the pump pushing the pilot piston.
Since the spool is attached to the pilot piston, the spool moves too.
102
circuits
Spool Spool
Servo piston Servo piston
103
04‐03‐03‐01
■ Oil flow ‐ 2
When the spool moves, the controlled pressure applies to the large diameter end of the servo piston. The
pump discharge pressure applies to the small diameter end. When the servo piston moves, the feedback
lever, which is linked to the servo piston, also moves and the line to the large end of the servo piston gets
closed stopping the servo piston.
103
circuits
Servo piston Pump 1 Pump 2 Servo piston
104
04‐03‐03‐01
■ Oil flow ‐ 3
The servo piston is linked to the swash plate of the pump. The angle of the swash plate changes in
accordance with the movement of the servo piston reducing the pump discharge.
104
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 03: Hydraulic pump > 02: Power control
circuits
■ Power Control
Basic operation Control pressure of the Control pressure of the
electromagnetic electromagnetic
proportional valve proportional valve
Other pump discharge Other pump discharge
pressure pressure
Own discharge Own discharge
pressure pressure
Compensation Compensation To the large end of the servo piston

Spool
piston piston
Operation of the electromagnetic proportional valve
Electromagnetic proportional valve
(1) Current to the electromagnetic proportional valve: small (1) Current to the electromagnetic proportional valve: large
↓ ↓
(2) Pressure that applies to the end of the compensation piston: high (2) Pressure that applies to the end of the compensation piston: low
↓ ↓
(3) Pump discharge flow: less (3) Pump discharge flow: more 105
04‐03‐03‐02
Power control
If the engine that drives the hydraulic pump is big, you could get large power, but it would be heavy and
consume a lot of fuel. The excavator is equipped with an engine minimum for the specification, and its
power should be used efficiently. The power control function provides this feature on the pump side.
In order to use the engine power efficiently without causing the engine to fail, the discharge flow rate is
reduced when the pump discharge pressure rises, while it is increased when the pressure becomes low.
■ Basic operation
When the discharge pressure of a pump rises, the compensation piston moves to push the spool. The
pressure controlled with the spool applies to the large end of the servo piston making the servo piston
move in the direction of the small end. The swash plate linked to it changes its angle to reduce the flow.
The two pumps are controlled not only with their own discharge pressure but also with the pressure of
the other pump. When only one of the pumps has load (when the pressure of only one pump rises), the
discharge flow of both pumps reduces at the same rate.
■ Operation of the electromagnetic proportional valve
The control system based on the discharge pressures of the pumps in the system maintains the engine
power constant at a high level. For a light work and slow work, for which fuel consumption becomes more
critical, the engine power is controlled further more to keep it low.
When the light work mode is selected with the controller, the specified current goes to the
electromagnetic proportional valve. The pilot pressure reduced at the electromagnetic proportional valve
applies to the compensation piston. When the current is small, the discharge pressure of the proportional
valve becomes high, while the current is large, the pressure becomes low. Therefore, when the current is
0 mA, the discharge flow of the pump becomes minimum (within the range of the proportional valve
control).
105
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 04: Small hydraulic devices
circuits
Remote control valve Solenoid valve
106
04‐03‐04
Small hydraulic devices
This section describes the oil flow in the remote control valve, solenoid valve, shuttle valve, and relief
valve.
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 04: Small hydraulic devices > 01: Remote control
circuits valve
■ Remote Control Valve
Lever at Neutral position
Pilot pressure
Plunger
Lever operated Pilot
pressure
Lever
operated
Plunger
107
To the control valve
04‐03‐04‐01
Remote control valve
The remote control valve controls the pilot pressure to activate the spool in the control valve.
■ Lever at Neutral position
When the lever is at the neutral position, the pilot pressure in the remote control valve is not discharged.
■ Lever operated
The lever switches the plunger in the remote control valve to discharge the pilot pressure to the control
valve.
107
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 04: Small hydraulic devices > 02: Solenoid valve
circuits
■ Solenoid Valve
No power supplied Power supplied
Power
supply
Pilot Pilot
pressure pressure
108
04‐03‐04‐02
Solenoid valve
The solenoid valve electrically controls the flow of the pilot pressure.
■ No power supplied
The sample illustrates a five stack solenoid valve.
When power is not supplied to the solenoid, oil lines are open.
■ Power supplied
When power is supplied to the solenoid, the plunger in the valve is switched changing the oil flows.
108
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 04: Small hydraulic devices > 03: Shuttle valve
circuits
■ Shuttle Valve
To open the line from the port A
Port A
Pilot pressure Port C
Ball
Port D
Port B Port E
To open the line from the port B
Port A Port C
Port D
Ball
Pilot pressure Port E
Port B
109
04‐03‐04‐03
Shuttle valve
The shuttle valve lets the pilot pressure entering from a different port go through one identical port but
does not let it go through the other port.
Nothing is discharged from the port closed with the ball. As the position of the ball is not fixed, the flow
cannot be controlled if it comes in from the port D. Thus, the port D cannot be used as an inlet.
■ To open the line from the port A
The pilot pressure entering through the port A is discharged from the port C. At the same time, it pushes
the ball in the valve to close the lines to the ports B and E, but oil is discharged through the port D.
■ To open the line from the port B
The pilot pressure entering through the port B is discharged from the port E. At the same time, it pushes
the ball in the valve to close the lines to the ports A and C, but oil is discharged through the port D.
109
04: Actual hydraulic > 03: Oil flow > 04: Small hydraulic devices > 04: Relief valve
circuits
■ Relief Valve
Below the setup pressure
Spring
To the tank
Above the setup pressure
To the
tank
110
04‐03‐04‐04
Relief valve
The relief valve is a safety device to protect the hydraulic devices from an abnormal high pressure.
■ Below the setup pressure
When the pressure in the circuit is below the setup pressure, the spring force that applies to the top of
the relief valve is stronger than the force that applies to the bottom of the relief valve, and the line is
closed.
■ Above the setup pressure
When the pressure in the circuit becomes above the setup pressure, the force from the pressurized oil
becomes stronger than the spring force, pushing the relief valve to open the line. As oil goes through the
opened line, the pressure in the circuit drops. When it becomes below the setup pressure, the line is
closed.
110
Hydraulic Equipment
1
I. Hydraulic Pump ................................................................................................................... 3
1. Structure and operation of the main unit ........................................................................ 3
2. Regulator ........................................................................................................................ 5
3. P-Q diagram................................................................................................................... 11
4. Cavitation ...................................................................................................................... 13
5. Volume efficiency .......................................................................................................... 13
II. Control Valve .................................................................................................................... 15
1. Structure of the main unit .............................................................................................. 15
2. Spool ............................................................................................................................. 16
3. Flow force ..................................................................................................................... 18
4. Heat shock .................................................................................................................... 19
5. Main relief valve ............................................................................................................ 19
6. Over load relief valve .................................................................................................... 21
7. Load hold valve ............................................................................................................. 23
8. Negative control relief ................................................................................................... 25
III. Swing motor..................................................................................................................... 27
1. Structure and operation of the main unit ...................................................................... 27
2. Relief valve ................................................................................................................... 28
3. Reversal prevention valve ............................................................................................ 29
4. Rotational speed ........................................................................................................... 30
IV. Travel motor..................................................................................................................... 32
1. Structure and operation of the main unit of the motor .................................................. 32
2. Counter balance valve .................................................................................................. 34
3. Relief valve ................................................................................................................... 35
4. Speed switching ............................................................................................................ 37
5. Travel reduction gear .................................................................................................... 41
V. Cylinder ............................................................................................................................ 43
1. Structure of the main unit .............................................................................................. 43
2. Cushioning function ...................................................................................................... 45
3. Cylinder thrust ............................................................................................................... 46
VI. Small hydraulic devices .................................................................................................. 47
1. Remote control valve .................................................................................................... 47
2. Cushion valve ............................................................................................................... 49
3. Solenoid valve............................................................................................................... 52
2
I. Hydraulic Pump
1. Structure and operation of the main unit
1) Structure
The shaft (01) and the cylinder block (11) are connected with the spline. The piston
(06) is inserted in the cylinder block (11) and it is connected to the piston shoe (04)
with a ball joint. The piston (06) and the piston shoe (04) have a hole at their center,
and the holes are connected to the groove (pocket) on the sliding surface of the shoe
(04).
The holder plate (14) pushes the piston shoe (04) against the shoe plate (15) via the
spherical bush (13) with the force of a spring (12).
The valve plate (10) separates the suction side and the discharge side of the cylinder
block (11), and it is secured onto the body with a pin. On both sides of the opening
are notches to reduce cavitation and noise.
The tilting pin (05) attached to the servo piston (03) supports the swash plate (16)
and maintains the swash plate angle. The self-pump discharge pressure applies to
the small diameter side of the servo piston (03), and the pressure controlled with the
regulator applies to the large diameter side. To restrict the stroke of the servo piston
(03), there are stopper bolts (02 & 07) on both sides.
01: Shaft 07: Maximum flow stopper 13: Spherical bush
02: Minimum flow stopper 08: Gear 14: Holder plate
03: Servo piston 09: Bearing 15: Shoe plate
04: Piston shoe 10: Valve plate 16: Swash plate
05: Tilting pin 11: Cylinder block 17: Bearing
06: Piston 12: Cylinder spring
3
2) Operation
A. Suction and discharge
When the shaft (01) turns by engine power, the cylinder block (11) turns as well.
The piston (06), which is in the upper part of the figure, goes down along the
rotation of the cylinder block (11). The piston (06) moves while being pulled from
the cylinder block (11) with the holder plate (14). Oil is sucked into the cylinder
block (11) at this time. When the shaft further rotates, the piston (06) moves
upward. At this time, the shoe plate (15) pushes the piston (06) into the cylinder
block (11) and the oil is discharged. This means that the oil between the position at
which the piston is pulled out most and the position at which the piston is pushed in
most (stroke) is to be discharged.
When oil is discharged, it is supplied to the groove (pocket) on the sliding surface
of the piston shoe (04) through the hole on the piston (06) and the hole on the
piston shoe (04). The oil provides lubrication for the shoe plate(15), and it also
reduces the surface pressure (pushing force) between the piston shoe (04) and the
shoe plate (15) with hydraulic pressure.
4
B. Flow control
To change the discharge flow while running at a constant speed, the piston stroke
should be changed. Since the servo piston (03) holds the swash plate, the swash
plate (16) angle is changed if the servo piston (03) is moved. When the angle is
changed, the piston stroke changes, and the discharge flow changes as well.
Pressure applies to both sides of the servo piston (03) and the balanced pressure
moves the piston. The controlled pressure from the regulator applies to the large
diameter side to control the position of the servo piston.
2. Regulator
The regulator is a device which controls flow by moving the servo piston according to
the pressure generated from the load with the operation of hydraulic motors and
cylinders. The regulator conducts the negative control, which reduces the pump load
when the operation levers are in neutral (non-operation), and the horsepower control,
which changes the discharge flow according to the generated hydraulic pressure.
5
01: Pin 13: Spring
02: Spool 14: Sleeve
03: Pin 15: Compensation rod
04: Pin 16: Pin
05: Fulcrum plug 17: Lever 1
06: Lever 2 18: Pin
07: Feedback lever 19: Compensation piston
08: Pilot piston 20: Pin
09: Pin 21: Spring
10: Pin 22: Spring seat
11: Servo piston 23: Spring

12: Spring seat
6
1) Negative control
A. Structure
The feedback lever (07) is connected to the servo piston (11) on the pump main
unit via the pin (10). The pin (01) is connected to the feedback lever (07) and is
inserted in the pin hole on the lever (06). In addition, the feedback lever (07) is
connected to the spool (02) with a pin (03). The pin (09) is connected to the lever
(06) and is secured to the boss (05) with a pin (04). The pilot piston (08) has been
machined to have a stepped section. The pin (09), which is secured to the lever
(06), is inserted into that stepped section.
7
B. Operation
The pump discharge pressure directly applies to the small diameter side of the
servo piston (11), and the pressure (controlled pressure) controlled with the spool
(02) applies to the large diameter side.
When the negative control pressure applies to the end surface of the pilot piston
(08), the piston moves to the right to the point where the reactive force of the spring
(13) balances. The lever (06) rotates counter-clockwise (to the right in the figure)
with the pin (04) as its center, as the pin (09) inserted in the stepped section of the
pilot piston (08) moves. Since the pin (01) inserted in the hole on the lever (06) is
pushed to the right, the feedback lever (07) rotates clockwise with the pin (10) as
its center. Thus, the spool (02) connected to the feedback lever (07) is pulled (to
the right).
8
When the spool moves to the right, the control pressure increases and the servo
piston (11) moves toward the small diameter side. The discharge flow decreases
as the swash plate angle changes. When the servo piston (11) moves to the right,
the feedback lever (07) rotates counter-clockwise with the pin (01) as its center.
The spool (02) connected to the feedback lever (07) is pushed in (to the left). The
control pressure is shut off, and the movement of the servo piston (11) is stopped.
2) Horsepower control
A. Structure
The feedback lever (07) is connected to the servo piston (11) on the pump main
unit via the pin (10). The pin (01) is connected to the feedback lever (07) and is
inserted in the pin hole on the lever (17). In addition, the feedback lever (07) is
connected to the spool (02) with a pin (03).
The pin (16) is connected to the lever (17) and is secured to the body with a pin
(18).
The compensation rod (15) has been machined to have a stepped section. The pin
(16), which is secured to the lever (17), is inserted into that stepped section.
The compensation piston (19) has been machined to have a stepped section. The
self generated pressure applies to the cross sections of the large and intermediate
diameters through the body path, and the another pump generated pressure
applies to the cross sections of the intermediate and small diameters. Both cross
sections have the same area. The horsepower control proportional valve discharge
pressure (secondary pressure) applies to the left end of the pin (20).
9
B. Operation
When load applies and the pressure on one side or on both sides increases the
compensation piston (19) is pushed to the right. The compensation piston (19)
pushes the compensation rod (15), and moves to the point where the reactive
force of the spring (23) balances.
The lever (17) rotates counter-clockwise (to the right in the figure) with the pin (18)
as its center, as the pin (16) inserted in the stepped section of the compensation
rod (15) moves. Since the pin (01) inserted in the hole on the lever (17) is pushed
to the right, the feedback lever (07) rotates clockwise with the pin (10) as its center.
Thus, the spool (02) connected to the feedback lever (07) is pulled (to the right).
When the spool (02) moves to the right, the control pressure increases and the
servo piston (11) moves toward the small diameter side.
10
The discharge flow decreases as the swash plate angle changes. When the servo
piston (11) moves to the right, the feedback lever (07) rotates counter-clockwise
with the pin (01) as its center. The spool (02) connected to the feedback lever (07)
is pushed in (to the left). The control pressure is shut off, and the movement of the
servo piston (11) is stopped.
When the current is low for the horsepower control proportional valve, the
secondary pressure (discharge pressure) will be higher, while the secondary
pressure will be lower when the current is high. The secondary pressure applies to
the left side of the pin (20). When the current is low (the secondary pressure high),
the pin (20) pushes the compensation piston (19) and the flow will decrease in the
same fashion.
3. P-Q diagram
The P-Q diagram indicates the relationship between the pressure generated with the
load such as an actuator (pump and cylinder) and the hydraulic pump discharge flow.
The higher the pressure or the greater the flow, the more engine horsepower required
to drive the hydraulic pump. When the hydraulic pump drive force exceeds the engine
output, an engine stall will occur. To prevent this from happening, the discharge flow will
be decreased when the pressure rises.
11
The figure shows a sample of the P-Q diagram.
In this diagram, the horizontal axis indicates the pressure and the vertical axis indicates
the flow. For some other hydraulic pump manufactures, these two axes may be
switched. The number of polygonal lines may differ depending on the representing
conditions. The diagram may also vary according to the engine speed and horsepower
control proportional valve current.
The flow at the point at which the total pressure (simple addition) of the P1 side
pressure and the P2 side pressure meets the polygonal line indicates the discharge per
pump.
The P-Q diagram in the figure is for the engine speed 1800 min-1, and the polygonal
lines for 600 mA, 565 mA, and 548 mA of the horsepower control proportional valve
currents are shown.
For example, when the proportional valve current is 600 mA, the P1 side pressure 32
MPa, and the P2 side pressure 32 MPa, the total pressure is 64 MPa. The flow at the
point where 64 MPa meets the 600 mA polygonal line indicates 85 L/min for one side.
For both sides, it will be twice of this, which is 170 L/min.
Since the servo piston's stroke is restricted with the stopper bolts, the maximum flow in
the low pressure region is nearly constant.
The figure below shows the diagram in which the pressure axis and the flow axis are
switched.
This pump has an extra pump (P3 pump) in addition to the two main pumps and the one
pilot pump. There are two polygonal lines in the diagram. "P3 = 1 MPa" indicates the
relationship when there is hardly any pressure from the P3 pump, and "P3 = 22.6 MPa"
indicates the relationship when the P3 pump generates its maximum pressure.
For example, when P1 = 20 MPa, P2 = 20 MPa, and P3 = 22.6 MPa, then the sum will
be 40 MPa. The flow at the point where 40 MPa meets the "P3=22.6MPa" polygonal
line indicates 24 L/min.
12
Torque T (N•m)
Leak flow diagram

Pressure ΣP = P1 + P2 (MPa)
P3 shift pressure (MPa)

Flow Q1, Q2 (L/min)
4. Cavitation
If the pressure of the liquid drops due to the suction by the hydraulic pump or due to the
shape of the path, the pressure may locally become negative or below the saturated
vapor pressure (the pressure at which the liquid state and the gaseous state reaches a
balance in the sealed container), and part of the liquid is vaporized generating bubbles
in the liquid. This is called cavitation. If a bubble goes to a high pressure section and is
destroyed, an impact wave, as well as noise, is generated. This impact wave may lead
to a failure eroding the material in the hydraulic equipment. Erosion occurs where a
bubble is destroyed and not where it is generated.
The hydraulic oil tank may be pressurized to prevent the pressure from becoming
negative due to suction by the hydraulic pump. The swing motor may have a make-up
check valve to prevent the pressure from becoming negative during the swing stop.
These measures are to prevent cavitation.
5. Volume efficiency
When oil is discharged from the hydraulic pump, there is always a leak from a gap
between the component parts (internal leak). This leak provides lubrication for the
13
components. The volume efficiency indicates the extent of the leak of a hydraulic pump.
Volume efficiency = Actual discharge / Theoretical discharge x 100 (%)
Generally, when the pressure rises, the leak increases, and efficiency drops.
14
II. Control Valve
1. Structure of the main unit
The control valve has a body in which a complicated oil path is formed. The spool that
switches the oil paths, the relief valve that protects the equipment from an abnormal
high pressure, the negative control relief valve that generates the negative control
pressure, the load hold valve that reduces the natural drop of the booms and arms, and
the check valve for backflow prevention are installed onto the body.
The oil discharged from the hydraulic pump goes through the central paths (A) and (F)
of the control valve and through the paths (A) and (F) of the upper section and all the
sections back to the tank.
The parallel path (B) goes paralleled to the central path. This is filled with oil but the
circuit is closed with a spool when the machine is not operated. When the spool moves,
the central path is closed and the parallel path and the path (D) to the actuators will be
opened. At the same time, the return path from the actuators and the tank path will be
opened. Oil from the pump goes to the actuators and the return oil goes back to the
tank, which operates the actuators.
1: Spool
2: Load check valve
3: Check valve
4: Spring
15
2. Spool
1) Operation
The spool moves in the axial direction inside the control valve due to the pilot
pressure, and switches the oil paths. It is at the neutral position by the spring when it
is not operated. When the pilot pressure applies to an end of the spool, it moves to
the direction opposite to the end where the pressure applies. As it moves, the path
that was closed with the large-diameter section becomes connected through the
small-diameter section allowing oil to flow.
Since the spool (A) moves in the axial direction in the body (B), a gap is required.
Thus, there is oil leak (internal leak) however minute. If the gap is small, the amount
of leak is small, but the possibility of the spool getting stuck due to dirt or thermal
expansion may increase.
16
2) Circumferential groove
A groove is machined into the circumference of the large diameter side of the spool.
In addition, there is a notch on the large-diameter end.
Pressurized oil in the gap between the spool and the body may push the spool
against the body preventing the spool from moving smoothly. The circumferential
groove allows hydraulic pressure to apply all around the spool preventing the spool
from being pushed against the body.
3) Notch
When the spool is moved in the thrust direction (axial direction), the path that has
been closed with the spool and the body opens. If the path opens abruptly, hydraulic
oil flows at once causing the hydraulic equipment to operate suddenly. The notch
reduces the abrupt flow of hydraulic oil and improves inching capability (minute
operability).
When the circuit is closed (operation of the hydraulic equipment is stopped), it
reduces the shock which might result due to the abrupt closure of the circuit.
17
3. Flow force
Flowing liquid has the force to wash away an object in it. This is called flow force (fluid
force). The greater the flow, the greater the flow force.
1) Greater effect
In the following circuit, the spool tries to move in the direction that closes the circuit
(to the left). As there is a large quantity of return oil from the motor flowing, a large
force applies to the spool to push it to the right. If the operator tries to slowly switch
back to neutral position, the spool cannot move back smoothly because of the
resistance (flow force), resulting in an abrupt switching.
2) Smaller effect
If the circuit is of the form in the figure below, the return oil from the motor flows in the
direction to close the spool. There is no reactive force in the direction of the neutral
position of the spool, and the spool can move back smoothly.
When the spool is opened, it moves to the right. The quantity of the return oil from the
motor at startup is small and hence, the force to push the spool to the left is small as
well. Thus, the spool can move smoothly.
18
4. Heat shock
If the spool is moved without warm-up when the temperature is low, the spool may
thermally expand locally to get stuck. This is called local heat shock. Normally, this can
be prevented by warming up the equipment.
At the moment when the main path is just opened as the spool moves due to the pilot
pressure, the path where oil flows is narrow and the temperature of the oil that goes
through it becomes hot. Due to this heat, the spool locally expands (the diameter
increases). The body has a large volume and it does not expand right away. There is a
gap between the spool and the body, but if the diameter of the expanded spool exceeds
that of the body, the spool may temporarily get stuck so that the actuator does not stop.
5. Main relief valve

1) Structure
The main poppet (1) and the plug (6) are inserted in the sleeve (2).
At the center of the main poppet (1) and the plug (6) is the throttling path. Oil on the
high pressure side (HP) is sealed with a pilot poppet (3) pushed by a spring.
19
1: Main poppet
2: Sleeve
3: Pilot poppet
4: Spring
5: Piston
6: Plug
2) Operation
The HP side pressure applies to chamber E through the throttling path of the main
poppet (1). The sleeve (2) securely seals the body with the difference in area
between cross sections A and B. The main poppet (1) securely seals the sleeve with
the difference in area between cross sections C and D.
When the pressure at the HP port rises and exceeds the force to close the pilot
poppet (3), the pilot poppet (3) is opened and oil flows through paths F and G to the
low pressure side (LP).
When oil flows, a pressure difference occurs due to the throttling path in the main
poppet (1), and the pressure of chamber E drops. The main poppet (1) is pushed
open and the oil on the high pressure side (HP port) flows directly into the low
pressure side (LP port).
20
3) Boosting the pressure
When the pilot pressure applies to port I, the piston (5) moves the distance of H. This
strengthens the spring force that closes the pilot poppet, and the relief pressure is
raised.
6. Over load relief valve

1) Structure
The main poppet (2) is inserted in the sleeve (3), and the piston (1) is inserted in the
main poppet (2). The HP port and the LP port are shut off with the pilot poppet (4).
1: Piston
2: Main poppet
3: Sleeve
4: Pilot poppet
21
2) Operation
The HP port side pressure applies to chamber F through path E in the piston (1). The
high pressure side (HP port) and the low pressure side (LP port) are sealed off with
the pilot poppet (4). The sleeve (3) securely seals the body with the difference in area
between cross sections A and B. The main poppet (2) securely seals the sleeve (3)
with the difference in area between cross sections C and D.
When the pressure at the HP port rises and pushes the pilot poppet (4), the oil in
chamber F flows through paths G and H to the low pressure side (LP).
The throttling path E of the piston (1) generates a pressure difference, and the
pressure in chamber F drops. Thus, the piston (1) is pushed and moves, and the pilot
poppet (4) closes path E of the piston (1).
22
When the outlet of path E of the piston (1) is closed, the oil in path E flows through
path I and then paths G and H. Thus, the pressure difference between the high
pressure side (HP port) and chamber F further increases. The main poppet (2) is
pushed open and the oil in the high pressure side (HP port) flows directly to the low
pressure side (LP port).
3) Suction
If the pressure of the HP port becomes lower than that of the LP port due to cavitation,
for instance, the sleeve (3) is pushed to the right due to the difference in area of the
cross sections B and J, and the oil in the LP port directly flows into the HP port.
7. Load hold valve

1) Structure
The spool (3) and the poppet (5) are inserted in the sleeve (4). When the piston (2)
pushes the spool (3), the poppet (5) is also pushed and moves, and it shuts off the
path in the sleeve (4). At the same time, the paths in the spool (3) and the sleeve (4)
are connected.
23
1: Poppet
2: Piston
3: Spool
4: Sleeve
5: Poppet
2) Operation
The cylinder hold pressure applies to port A through path B. At the same time, it
applies to chamber E through paths C and D. The cylinder hold pressure of port A
tries to push the poppet (1) open, but because the same pressure applies to chamber
E, the poppet (1) seals the body due to the difference in area where pressure applies.
On the other hand, when the pressure from port M pushes the poppet (1), the oil in
chamber E can flow through paths D and C to path B. Thus, the poppet (1) can be
opened.
If the pilot pressure for canceling the load hold valve applies to port F, the piston (2)
pushes the spool (3) and the poppet (5). Since the relative position between the
sleeve (4) and the poppet (5) changes, paths C and D are shut off from each other. At
the same time, path D becomes connected to paths G and H of the spool (3), and
further more to path L, which is a tank line, through paths J and K. When the oil in
chamber E is connected to the tank line and its pressure decreases, the oil in port A
pushes the poppet (1) open and flows into port M.
24
8. Negative control relief
1) Structure
The piston (2) moves to the right with the pilot pressure. Then, the reactive force to
push the poppet (1) open becomes great. The sleeve (3) has small holes as orifices.
1: Poppet
2: Piston
3: Sleeve
2) Generating signal pressure

When the pilot pressure applies to port S, the force to push the poppet (1) increases.
Oil from the pump comes to path P through the control valve. The oil further flows
through orifice A to tank line T. Throttling the flow generates pressure in path P, and
the pressure acts on the negative control port of the pump through port N.
3) Relief operation
When the flow further increases, the throttling further increases the pressure. The
poppet valve (1) gets opened and prevents excessive pressure from happening.
25
When the pilot pressure of port S is shut off, the spring force that pushes the poppet
(1) decreases and the poppet (1) opens at an extreme low pressure, which makes
the generated pressure at path P extremely low.
26
III. Swing motor
1. Structure and operation of the main unit
1) Structure
The piston (6) is inserted in the cylinder (1) and it is connected to the piston shoe (2)
with a ball joint. The piston (6) and the piston shoe (2) have a hole at their centers,
and the holes are connected to the groove (pocket) on the sliding surface of the shoe
(2).
The return plate (5) pushes the piston shoe (2) against the cam plate (4) with the
force of the hold spring (3).
The balance plate (14) separates the suction side and the discharge side of the
cylinder (1), and is secured onto the body with a pin. On both sides of the opening are
notches to reduce cavitation and noise. The balance plate (14) is pushed against the
cylinder (1) via the bush (13) with the spring force of the cross wave (12). The
balance plate (14) has small holes and the pistons (11) are inserted in them.
The brake liners (7) are interlocked to the cylinder (1) with a spline, and they rotate
with the cylinder (1). The brake plates (8) are interlocked to the body with a spline.
The brake liners (7) and the brake plates (8) are stacked alternately. Brake functions
as the brake piston (9) pushes them with the force of the spring (10). When the pilot
pressure applies to port A, the piston (9) moves up, releasing the brake.
1. Cylinder 7: Brake liner 13: Bush
2: Piston shoe 8: Brake plate 14: Balance plate
3: Hold spring 9: Brake piston 15: Relief valve
4: Cam plate 10: Spring 16: Reversal prevention valve
5: Return plate 11: Piston 17: Check valve

6: Piston 12: Cross wave 18: Spring
27
2) Operation
If oil is supplied to the left port of the cylinder (1), the piston (6) is pushed out. Then,
the piston (6) moves to the right along the cam plate (4). Thus, the cylinder (1)
rotates.
The pressing force of the cross wave presses the cylinder (1) and the balance plate
(14) together. Yet, the force of the cross wave (12) is not sufficient when hydraulic oil
acts. Thus, the oil that goes through the path in the balance plate (14) acts on the
piston (11) and pushes the balance plate.
The oil that has flowed through the path in the piston (6) and the piston shoe (2) is
supplied to the surface of the cam plate (4). With the help of the groove (pocket) at
the bottom of the shoe, lubrication and reduction of the pressing force (surface
pressure) are attained.
When swing is stopped, the swing motor is forced to run due to the inertia of the
swing body to act as a pump. The pressure on the discharge side is released to the
tank line through the relief valve (15). Yet, since the circuit is closed, negative
pressure is generated on the suction side. Then, the check valve (17) opens to suck
in oil from the return line to prevent cavitaion.
2. Relief valve
1) Structure
The poppet (1) has a path at its center. The path is throttled in the middle and
reaches to the end. The poppet piston (3) also has a throttling hole.
1: Poppet
2: Sleeve
3: Poppet piston
2) Operation
The pressure in path A tries to open the poppet. Yet, the pressure goes through the
path in the poppet (1) and applies to chamber C to become the force that closes the
poppet (1). This force and the spring force combine to seal the poppet (1) securely.
When the pressure in path A rises, the pressure in chamber D also rises and the
28
poppet piston (3) moves to the left. While the piston is moving, the pressure in
chamber C drops and the force to close the poppet (1) decreases. The poppet (1)
opens and oil flows from path A to path B.
When the poppet piston (3) stops moving, the pressure in chamber C rises. The force
to close the poppet (1) increases and paths A and B are closed. Because of the
higher pressure, the poppet (1) opens again. In this fashion, by relieving pressure
once at a pressure lower than the setting, shocks at swing starts and stops are
reduced.
3. Reversal prevention valve

1) Structure
The valve is symmetrically constructed with the same components for the right and
left of the center line. The check (1) and the poppet (3) are inserted in the sleeve (2).
The sleeve (2) has orifices on its side. The poppet (3) also has orifices on the side
and at the center.
1: Poppet
2: Sleeve
3: Poppet Piston
2) Operation
If a lever is moved from Swing to Neutral while pressure applies to the port B side,
the swing motor generates pressure on the port A side because of the pumping
action due to the inertia of the swing body. The pressure applies to chamber E
through paths C and D, and presses the poppet (1) to the left.
29
When the swing body stops, the accumulated pressure turns the swing motor in the
opposite direction.
When reverse rotation starts, the pressure at port A decreases and the pressure at
port B starts to increase. Along with this, the poppet (1) is pushed to the right. As oil in
chamber E goes through paths D and C, the flow is throttled and the poppet (1)
slowly moves to the right. During this time, ports A and B are linked with path F,
quickly becoming the same pressure, and reverse rotation stops.
4. Rotational speed
Rotational speed can be calculated from the discharge flow of the pump and the
absorption and reduction ratio of the motor.
1) Reduction ratio
To decrease the motor speed and to increase the torque, a reducer is employed. The
reduction ratio indicates the ratio of output speed against input speed.
Reduction ratio = Driven gear teeth / Drive gear teeth
Sample 1) Driven gear 40 teeth

Drive gear 20 teeth
Reduction ratio = 40 / 20 = 2
For one rotation of the output shaft, the input shaft should turn twice.
30
Sample 2) A: 20 teeth
B: 30 teeth
C: 15 teeth
D: 30 teeth
Reduction ratio = (B / A) x (D / C) = (30 / 20) x (30 / 15) = 3
For one rotation of gear D, gear A should turn three times.
M: Motor
G: Reducer
A: Gear A
B: Gear B
C: Gear C
D: Gear D
2) Rotational speed
The motor speed including the reducer can be obtained with the following expression.
Output shaft speed = Pump discharge / Motor absorption / Reduction ratio
Sample) Pump discharge 200 L/min

(discharge flow for one minute per pump)
Motor absorption 150 cm3/rev
(150 cm3 required for one rotation of the motor)
Reduction ratio 15
(when the motor turns 15 times, the output shaft of the
reducer turns once)
Output shaft speed = 200 x 1000 / 150 / 15
= 88.9 min-1 (88.9 rotations per minute)
* To adjust the unit, it is multiplied by 1000.
1 L = 1000 cm³
31
IV. Travel motor
1. Structure and operation of the main unit of the motor
1) Structure
The cylinder block (10) and the shaft (03) are connected with the spline. The piston
(11) is inserted in the cylinder block (10) and it is connected to the piston shoe (16)
with a ball joint. The piston (11) and the piston shoe (16) have a hole, and the holes
are linked to the groove (pocket) on the sliding surface of the piston shoe (16). The
pin (17) pushes the retainer holder (12) with the force of the spring (09). The retainer
plate (13) pushed by the retainer holder (12) pushes the piston shoe (16) against the
swash plate (02).
The valve plate (18) separates the suction side and the discharge side of the cylinder
block (10), and it is secured onto the body with a pin. On both sides of the opening
are notches to reduce cavitation and noise.
The friction plates (06) are interlocked to the cylinder block (10) with a spline, and
they rotate with the cylinder block (10). The disc plates (05) are interlocked to the
body with a spline. The disc plates (05) and the friction plates (06) are stacked
alternately. Brake functions as the brake piston (07) pushes them with the force of the
spring (08). When the travel drive pressure applies to port A, the brake piston (07)
moves up to release the brake.
The swash plate (02) is supported with the steel balls (01) and the pistons (14). The
pilot pressure from the travel 2-speed switching solenoid valve switches the 2-speed
switching spool, and the pistons (14) are switched with the travel drive pressure.
32
01: Steel ball 07: Brake piston 13: Retainer plate
02: Swash plate 08: Spring 14: Piston
03: Shaft 09: Spring 15: Spring
04: Flange 10: Cylinder block 16: Piston shoe
05: Disc plate 11: Piston 17: Pin
06: Friction plate 12: Retainer holder 18: Valve plate
33
2) Operation
If oil is supplied to the lower port of the cylinder block (10), the piston (11) is pushed
out. Then, the piston (11) moves upward along the swash plate (02). Thus, the
cylinder block (10) rotates.
The oil that has flowed through the path in the piston (11) and the piston shoe (16) is
supplied to the surface of the swash plate (02). With the help of the groove (pocket)
at the bottom of the shoe, lubrication and reduction of the pressing force (surface
pressure) are attained.
When switched to the travel 2nd speed, the 2nd speed switching piston (14) is
pushed out with the pilot pressure from the solenoid valve. The swash plate (02)
changes its angle with the steel ball (01) as the fulcrum. Thus, the stroke of the piston
(11) decreases, and the amount of oil required for one rotation decreases. Thus, with
the same flow, the rotational speed increases and the travel speed becomes faster.
2. Counter balance valve

When the travel lever is operated, oil flows to the P1 port and pushes the check (2)
open. It further flows into the cylinder block (M1 port). However, the return oil from the
motor (M2 port) is blocked with the counter balance valve. Thus, oil does not flow and
the motor will not turn.
When the pressure in the P1 port further rises, the pressure of chamber B at the end of
the counter balance valve increases through the orifice (6) and the check (4) from the
P1 port. The counter balance valve (1) moves to the right. Then, the return oil from the
motor (M2 port) flows through path E to the P2 port, opening the travel circuit. At the
same time, the drive pressure applies to the parking brake piston to release the brake,
and the travel motor turns.
On the downhill, the motor is turned because of the weight of the machine (external
force). Then, the pressure in the P1 port drops and the counter balance valve (1)
returns to the neutral position with spring force. Since the oil which acts on the end of
the counter balance valve (1) should go through the orifice, the counter balance valve
slowly returns. When it returns to the neutral position, path E is closed and the motor
tries to stop its rotation. Yet, since the travel lever is at "Travel," the P1 pressure
increases and the counter balance valve (1) moves to the right again, turning the motor.
In this fashion, even if the motor is turned with external force, the rotational speed does
not exceed a certain speed, and excursion is prevented.
34
3. Relief valve
1) Structure
The poppet (1) has a path with an orifice at its center. Port A and chamber C are
connected. The free piston (2) can move right and left on the circumference of the
sleeve (3). Chamber E formed with the sleeve (3) and the free piston (2) is connected
to chamber C via path D.
35
2) Operation
The pressure in port A acts on area F and tries to push the poppet (1) open. Yet, the
pressure of chamber C, which goes through the path, acts on area G, and with the
spring force, the poppet (1) stays closed.
When the pressure in port A rises, the oil lead to chamber C acts on chamber E via
path D, and the free piston (2) is moved to the left. Oil flow occurs in chamber C and
the pressure drops. Since the pressure in chamber C becomes lower than that of port
A, the force to close the poppet (1) decreases, and the poppet (1) is opened with a
lower pressure.
When the free piston (2) moves to the end of its stroke, the pressure in chamber C
becomes identical to that of port A, and the force to close the poppet (1) increases.
Thus, the poppet (1) will be opened when the pressure rises to the set pressure. In
this manner, by relieving the pressure once at a lower pressure and then at the set
pressure, the shocks of the motor start/stop are reduced.
36
4. Speed switching
1) Low speed
The oil in chamber N at the back of the 2nd speed switching pistons (1 & 8) is
connected to the tank line through paths D and E and the path inside the 2nd speed
switching spool. Thus, the 2nd speed switching pistons (1 & 8) are pushed back and
the swash plate (3) is on the low-speed side.
37
2) High speed
When the 2nd speed switching solenoid valve (7) is switched, the pilot pressure
applies to chamber K through paths H and J. The pilot pressure that applies in
chamber K pushes the spool (4) to the right. Although the travel drive pressure
applies to chamber M, the spool (4) is switched because the cross section of
chamber K is larger. Thus, the tank line is shut off, and the motor internal pressure (A
& B) applies to chamber N through paths D and E on the back of the 2nd speed
switching piston, and the 2nd speed switching pistons (1 & 8) are pushed out.
Because of the 2nd speed switching pistons, the swash plate changes its angle with
the steel ball (2) as its fulcrum, and the piston stroke decreases. Thus, the rotational
speed becomes faster.
38
3) High speed (Automatic switching)
If the drive pressure increases due to uphill during high-speed travel, the pressure in
chamber M increases. When the force generated with the travel drive pressure in
chamber M increases, the spool (4) is moved back to the left due to the force
generated with the pilot pressure in chamber K. Paths D & E are shut off from the
motor internal pressure (A & B) to the 2nd speed switching pistons (1 & 8), and the
swash plate moves to the low-speed side.
39
4) 2nd speed switching piston
This travel motor has two 2nd speed switching pistons, but some have one. This
motor has two pistons for the following reasons.
Depending on the rotational direction of the motor, the drive pressure (high pressure)
applies to half of the motor. If the drive pressure applies to the right half of the valve
plate (9), the center of the force that pushes the swash plate is at position A. The
swash plate is supported with two steel balls (2) and two 2nd speed switching pistons
(1 & 8). If the motor has only one 2nd speed switching piston, the swash plate would
be stable when the center of the force is within the range of triangle C. However, if it
is outside of the range of the triangle, a force will push up the left part of the swash
plate to make it unstable. Since the center of the force always comes within the
triangle formed with two steel balls (2) and the 2nd speed switching piston (1), the
swash plate stays stable.
1: 2nd speed switching piston (high-pressure side)
8: 2nd speed switching piston (low-pressure side)
2: Steel ball
9: Valve plate
A: Center of action
B: Stable range when the piston 1 is a fulcrum

C: Stable range when the piston is at the center
40
5. Travel reduction gear
1) Structure
The motor output shaft is connected to the drive gear (5).
Planetary gear B (6) is inserted on the shaft of holder B (10) of the first stage.
Planetary gear B (6) is meshed with the drive gear (5) and the ring gear of the
housing (2). Sun gear C (11) is connected to holder B (10) and it rotates with it.
Holder C (15) of the second stage is secured onto the flange (1), and the planetary
gear (12) is inserted on its shaft. Planetary gear C (12) is meshed with sun gear C
(11) and the ring gear of the housing (2).
1: Flange 7: Needle bearing 13: Needle bearing
2: Housing 8: Inner race 14: Inner race
3: Cover 9: Thrust plate 15: Holder C (2nd stage)
4: Thrust plate 10: Holder B (1st stage) 16: Thrust plate
5: Drive gear (shaft) 11: Sun gear C
6: Planetary gear B (1st stage) 12: Planetary gear C (2nd stage)
41
2) Operation
When the drive gear (5) rotates clockwise, planetary gear B (6) rotates
counter-clockwise. Then, planetary gear B (6) revolves clockwise since it is meshed
with the gear of the housing (2). Thus, holder B (10) rotates clockwise. Sun gear C
(11), which is connected to holder B (10), also rotates clockwise.
Due to the rotation of sun gear C (11), planetary gear C (12) rotates
counter-clockwise. Since the holder C (15) is fixed, the housing (2) rotates
counter-clockwise due to the rotation of planetary gear C (12).
42
V. Cylinder
1. Structure of the main unit
1) Whole unit
The cylinder tube (4) and the cylinder head (3) are secured with bolts, and the inside
of the cylinder tube (4) is sealed. Inside the cylinder tube (4), the piston rod (1) and
the piston (2) are secured with a nut. The piston (2) divides the inside of the cylinder
tube (4) into two chambers.
If oil is supplied to port A, the cylinder shortens, and if oil is supplied to port B, the
cylinder expands.
1: Piston rod 3: Cylinder head A: Head-side port

2: Piston 4: Cylinder tube B: Bottom-side port
2) Cylinder head section

The wiper ring (5) removes foreign objects stuck on the piston rod (1). The bush (9)
holds the piston rod (1) so that it will not directly contact the cylinder head (3). The
buffer ring (8) and the U ring (7) seal the cylinder tube (4) so that the oil inside it will
not leak out.
5. Wiper ring 7: U ring 9: Bush

6. Backup ring 8. Buffer ring
43
3) Piston section
The seal ring (12) separates the expansion side chamber and the contraction side
chamber. The slide ring (14) holds the piston (2) so that it will not directly contact the
cylinder tube (4). The slide ring (15) traps and embeds the foreign object attached to
the inside wall of the cylinder tube (4) to prevent scratching the seal ring (12). The
cushion rings (10 & 21) mitigate the impact at the cylinder stroke ends.
The narrower the gap between the cushion rings (10 & 21) and the cylinder tube (4),
the better the cushioning properties (cushion is more effective). However, since the
piston (2) is held with the slide ring (14), the center of the cushion rings (10 & 21)
tends to get misaligned with the center of the tube hole. If the gap is made narrow,
there will be a greater possibility of the cushion rings (10 & 21) interfering with the
hole.
For the floating type (cushion rings are floating against the piston rod) as in the figure,
when the cushion rings (10 & 21) come close to the tube hole, a phenomenon occurs
in which the center of the ring and the tube hole gets aligned due to the pressure
generated around the rings (automatic centering). Thus, the gap between the
cushion rings (10 & 21) and the tube hole can be lessened, and the cushioning
properties will improve.
2: Piston 14: Slide ring 19: Ball
10: Cushion ring 15: Slide ring 20: Cushion seal
11: Seal cushion 16: Shim 21: Cushion ring
12: Seal ring 17: Piston nut
13. Backup ring 18: Screw
44
2. Cushioning function
Cushioning function is provided to reduce the impact on the cylinder stroke ends.
When the piston is moving in the middle of the stroke, the return oil goes back to the
control valve through a wide path. On the contrary, the cushioning rings shut off the
wide path close to the stroke ends, and the return oil goes through a narrow path. Thus,
the return oil flow is throttled down, and the cylinder speed decreases, reducing the
shock.
45
3. Cylinder thrust
The cylinder thrust is a force P generated in the cylinder as the hydraulic pressure acts
on the cylinder. The thrust is obtained by multiplying the acting pressure by the
receiving area. If there is a pressure (back pressure) generated on the return side, this
force should be subtracted.
Sample) Piston rod outer diameter = 95mm

Cylinder tube inner diameter = 135 mm
Pressure = 32 MPa
Back pressure = 1 MPa
1 MPa = 10.2 kgf/cm²
The thrust in this sample is calculated.
Cylinder rod area = 70.8 cm²
Cylinder tube area = 143.1 cm²
Pushing force = (Receiving area) x (Pressure)
= 70.8 × (32 × 10.2)
= 46708 kg
Reactive force = (Receiving area) x (Pressure)
= (143.1 – 70.8) × (1 × 10.2)
= 737 kg
Thrust = 46708 -737

= 45,971 kg
46
VI. Small hydraulic devices
1. Remote control valve
1) Structure
The operation lever is connected to the adjusting nut (5). The hydraulic pressure from
the pilot pump applies to the port P. The port T is connected to the tank line. The
discharge ports such as A and B are connected to the control valve spool switching
port.
The discharge port can be opened or closed to the port P or the port T with the spool
(13). The return spring (14) pushed up the spring seat (11), and the pressure setting
spring (12) pushes down the spool (13).
When the operation lever is pushed forward, the force is transmitted to the plate (6),
push rod (8), and spring seat (11) in this order.
1. Casing
2. Washer
3. Plate
4. Boot
5. Adjusting nut
6. Round plate (plate)
7. Joint
8. Push rod
9. Seal
Ｔ 10. Plug
11. Spring seat
12. Pressure setting spring

Ｐ
13. Spool
14. Return spring

ＡＢ
47
2) Operation
When the operation lever is in neutral, the discharge port and the port T are
connected, and the control valve spool remains neutral.
When the operation lever is pushed to the left, the push rod (8) pushes the spring
seat (11). This causes the pressure setting spring (12) to be pushed making the spool
(13) move down. Therefore, the flow of the pressurized oil from the port P to the port
A is restricted at the gap between the casing (1) and the spool (13), moving the
control valve spool. At this time, because of the pressure at the port A, the spool (13)
is pushed up and is maintained at the point where it balances with the force of the
pressure setting spring (12), which results in the discharge port pressure (secondary
pressure) being kept constant in accordance with the stroke of the push rod (8).
ＡＢ
48
2. Cushion valve
1) Structure
The ports A and C are connected to the remote control valve while the ports B and D
are connected to the control valve.
The pressure at the port A applies to the side of the spool (2). Oil flows from A to B
pushing up the check valve (5), but for the opposite direction, it flows through the
restricting section of the check valve. The situation is the same for the ports C and D.
1. Body
2. Spool
3. Spring
4. Plug
5. Check valve
6. Check valve
7. Spring
8. Screw cap
49
2) Operation
A. When the remote control valve is operated
The oil from the remote control valve acts on the port A to push up the check valve
(5). It then makes the spool of the control valve move via the port B. At this time,
the spool (2) moves to the right, and the oil pushed out of the control valve spool
flows through the port D to the port T.
B. When the remote control valve is returned to the neutral position

The oil pushed out of the control valve spool as the remote control valve is in
neutral flows through the port B to the port A. As the oil flows through the restricting
section of the check valve, the return speed of the control valve spool is
suppressed to reduce the shock when the cylinder stops.
50
C. When the remote control valve is operated in reverse
When the operation lever is switched in reverse (from the direction in which the
cylinder extends to the direction in which the cylinder contracts), the cushioning
function is disabled with no response delay.
When the remote control valve is switched to switch the pressurized oil from the
port A to the port C, the spool moves to the left because of the pressure at the port
C. The oil pushed out of the control valve spool directly returns from the port B to
the tank line without flowing through the restricting section of the check valve.
51
3. Solenoid valve
1) Structure
A. Normal-close type
There are three ports: the port B to which the pilot pressure applies, the port T
which is connected to the tank line, and the port C which is connected to the
actuator.
When the solenoid is deactivated, the ports B and C are shut off while the ports C
and T are connected. When it is activated, the spool (2) moves to the right
connecting the ports B and C and shutting off the ports C and T.
1. Solenoid
2. Spool
3. Body
4. Spring
5. Snap ring
6. Adapter
52
B. Normal-open type
There are three ports: the port B to which the pilot pressure applies, the port T
which is connected to the tank line, and the port C2 which is connected to the
actuator.
When the solenoid is deactivated, the ports B and C2 are connected while the
ports C2 and T are shut off. When it is activated, the spool (2) moves to the right
shutting off the ports B and C2 and connecting the ports C2 and T.
C. Four port type

There are four ports: the port P to which the pilot pressure applies, the port T which
is connected to the tank line, and the ports C4 and C5 which are connected to the
actuator.
When the solenoid is deactivated, the ports P and C4 are connected and the ports
C5 and T are connected. When it is activated, the spool (2) moves to the right
shutting off the ports P and C4 and the ports C5 and T while connecting the ports P
and C5.
53
2) Operation
When the solenoid (1) is activated, the pin inside the solenoid is pushed out due to
the electromagnetic force to push the spool (2) in turn, which switches the passage.
[ Solenoid OFF ]
[ Solenoid ON ]
54

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Chapter 2.

Note that 1 kgf/cm2 is the amount of pressure produced by a weight of 1 kg resting on

3. Pressure & area of action

Force (kg) = Pressure (kg/cm2) x Area of action (cm2)

4. Hydraulic pumps & motors

7. Symbols in hydraulic circuit

Spool A device contained within a control

Cylinder A device using discharged hydraulic

Check valve A device permitting the flow of

Solenoid valve A device that opens and closes a

Oil cooler A device used to lower the

Stop valve A device used to stop flow within a

Connection point The entry at the top of this symbol

2. Operation of hydraulic circuit devices

B. Load retention valves

Furthermore, different negative-control circuits are employed in certain other

The proportional solenoid valve located close to pump 1 controls reduction of

2) Main unit of hydraulic pump

A. Suction and discharge operation

Stop (same pressure)

2) Main relief valves

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Oil Water Air

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<Spot where the curvature <Spot where the path expands <Spot where the path narrows

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