Topic 1: Cell biology

Hi Guys as you get ready for your end of semester 1, here is what you have covered
First, Let’s focus on Topic 1: Cell Biology.
This topic has one of the highest percentage (28%) of occurrence in the IB exam
papers.
Below you can find the subtopics of Topic 1 and the percentage of how many times they
appear on the exams the last two years.

Every subtopic is important for the exam, but some are known to be seen more often
than others.
Here you will find some guidance on the content that you should focus more on.
 1.1 Introduction to cells: Very Common SubTopic
Focus more on these understandings, applications, and skills:

 According to the cell theory, living organisms are composed of cells

 The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in
embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses
 Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples, including striated muscle, giant algae and
aseptate fungal hyphae
 Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease and one other named condition
 Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues, with drawing of cells
 Calculation of the magnification of drawings and the actual size of structures and ultrastructures
shown in drawings or micrographs
Questions related to these are:

 Different Cell theory exceptions

Striated muscle fibers are muscle cells that fuse to form fibers that may grow about 300 mm.
Consequently, they have multiple nuclei despite being surrounded by a single, continuous
plasma membrane that challenges the idea the cells always function as autonomous units.

Aseptate Fungal hyphae are fungi that may have filamentous structures, hyphae which are
separated into cells by internal walls called septa. Some fungi are not partitioned by septa and
have a continuous cytoplasm along the length of the hyphae. This idea contradicts the cell
theory since living structures are composed of

Giant algae is a specie of unicellular algae and may grow to very large sizes (>7cm in length)
which is an exception since larger organisms are always made of many microscopic cells.

 Stem cell use in Stargardt’s disease and diabetes

Stargardt’s disease is an inherited form of juvenile macular degeneration that causes

progressive vision loss to the point of blindness. It is caused by a gene mutation that impairs
energy transport in retinal photoreceptor cells, causing them to degenerate. This could be
treated by replacing the dead cells in the retina with functioning ones derived from stem cells.

Diabetes can be treated by replacing non-functioning islet cells with those capable of producing
insulin in type. Other therapeutic examples are leukemia and paraplegia.

 Stell cell advantages and disadvantages

Stem cells can continuously divide and replicate and have the capacity to differentiate into
specialized cell types. Stem cells have become a viable therapeutic option when tissues are
damaged or dead. It can replace them into healthy, functioning ones. Stem cells can be
artificially generated (nuclear transfer or nuclear reprogramming). Somatic cell nuclear transfer
(SCNT) involves the creation of embryonic clones by fusing a diploid nucleus with an
enucleated egg cell. However, this raises ethical concerns about the exigency of excess
embryos. Nuclear reprogramming induces a change in the gene expression profile of a cell in
order to transform it into a different cell type. However, this increases the risk of health
consequences such as cancer.

There are ethical considerations associated with the therapeutic use of stem cells. Using
multipotent adult tissue may be effective, but it is limited in its scope of application. Also,
embryos which is one of the three sources of stem cells requires the destruction of a potential
living organism.
 1.2 Ultrastructure of cells: Very common subtopic
Focus more on these understandings, applications and skills:

 Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without compartmentalisation

 Eukaryotes have a compartmentalised cell structure
 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas and within
palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf
 Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells based on electron micrographs
 Drawing of the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells based on electron micrographs
 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the function of
specialised cell
Questions related to these are:

 Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, include organelles functions

Organelles are specialized sub-structure within a cell that serve a certain function.
Prokaryotic cells do not typically possess any membrane-bound organelles, whereas eukaryotic
cells possess several. Organelles present in both prokaryote and eukaryote cells are ribosomes,
cytoskeleton and plasma membranes. However, ribosomes are larger in eukaryotes (80S) than
prokaryotes (70S). Cytoskeleton is a filamentous scaffolding within the cytoplasm and provides
internal structure and mediates intracellular transport which less developed in prokaryotes. The
structure of plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins and acts as a
selective barrier surrounding the cell.

Eukaryotic cells can be divided into two type: plant and animal cells. Eukaryotic organelles
present in both plant and animal cells are nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus,
mitochondrion, peroxisome, centrosome. Organelles present in plant cells only are chloroplast,
vacuole, and cell wall. Organelle in animal cells only is lysosome which breakdowns
macromolecules.

 Electrographs related to Prokaryotic, Eukaryotic, include Small intestine and pancreas

cells
 1.3 Membrane structure: Least common subtopic
Focus more on these understandings, applications and skills:

 Cholesterol in mammalian membranes reduces membrane fluidity and permeability to some

solutes
 Membrane proteins are diverse in terms of structure, position in the membrane and function
 Analysis of evidence from electron microscopy that leads to the proposal of the Davson-Danielli
model
 Analysis of the falsification of the Davson-Danielli model that lead to the Singer-Nicolson model

Questions related to these are:

 Davidson and Danelli theory explanation

Danielli and Davson proposed a model which shows two layers of protein flanked a central
phospholipid bilayer. The dark segment seen under electron microscope were identified wrongly
as two protein layers. There were number of problems that lead Danielli and Davson into the lipo-
protein sandwich model. It was assumed that all membranes were of a uniform thickness and that
all membranes would have symmetrical internal and external surfaces. The temperature at which
membranes solidified caused freeze fracturing which lead to the wrong image of the membrane.

 Cholesterol role in cell membrane fluidity.

Cholesterol is found in animal cell membranes and functions to improve stability and
reduce fluidity. Cholesterol interacts with the fatty acid tails of phospholipids to moderate the
properties of the membrane. It functions to immobilize the other surface of the membrane which
reduces the fluidity. It makes the membrane less permeable to very small water-soluble molecules
that would otherwise freely cross. It functions to separate phospholid tails and prevent
crystallization of the membrane.
 Cell membrane and its composition

Components of the plasma membrane are phosphides which form a bilayer with
phosphate heads facing outwards and fatty acid tails facing inwards, cholesterol which improves
stability, and proteins that may be either integral (transmembrane) or peripheral and serve a
variety of roles. The structure of the plasma membrane is well represented in the Fluid-Mosaic
Model.

1.4 Membrane transport: Common Topic

Focus more on these understandings, applications and skills:

 Particles move across membranes by simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and active
transport
 The fluidity of membranes allows materials to be taken into cells by endocytosis or released by
exocytosis
 Estimation of osmolarity in tissues by bathing samples in hypotonic and hypertonic solutions
Questions related to these are:

 Differentiate the different types of transportation from inside and outside the cell.

Passive Transport involves the movement of particles along a concentration gradient (high
concentration to low concentration). Three main types of passive transport are simple diffusion,
osmosis and facilitated diffusion. Simple diffusion is the movement of small or lipophilic molecules
such as oxygen gas and carbon dioxide. Osmosis is the movement of water molecules which
depends on its solute concentrations. Facilitated diffusion is the movement of large or charged
molecules/ membrane proteins.

Active transport involves the movement of materials against a concentration gradient (low
concentration to high concentration). Since it moves against gradient, it requires ATP hydrolysis,
unlike passive transport. Two main types of active transport are primary/direct active transport
which involves the direct use of metabolic energy (ATP hydrolysis) to mediate transport, and
secondary/indirect active transport which involves coupling the molecules with another moving
along an electrochemical gradient.
 Explain how materials are transported by vesicles inside and outside cell through
endocytosis and exocytosis.

Endocytosis is the process by which large substance (or bulk amounts of smaller
substances) enter the cell without crossing the membrane. Two main types of endocytosis are
phagocytosis, the process which solid substances are ingested (usually transported to the
lysosome) and pinocytosis, the process by which liquids/dissolved substances are ingested
(allows faster entry through protein channels).

Exocytosis is the process by which large substances (or bulk amounts of small
substances) exit the cell without crossing the membrane. Vesicles (derived from the Golgi) fuse
with the plasma membrane, expelling their contents into the extracellular environment. This
process adds vesicular phospholipids to the cell membrane, replacing those lost when vesicles
are formed.

1.5 The origin of cells: Common Topic

Focus more on these understandings, applications and skills:

 Cells can only be formed by division of pre-existing cells

 The first cells must have arisen from non-living material
 The origin of eukaryotic cells can be explained by the endosymbiotic theory
 Evidence from Pasteur’s experiments that spontaneous generation of cells and organisms does
not now occur on Earth
Questions related to these are:

 Explain the endosymbiotic theory.

An endosymbiont is a cell which lives inside other cell. Eukaryotic cells are believed to
have evolved from early prokaryotes that were engulfed by phagocytosis. This cell remained
undigested as it contributed new functionality to the engulfing cell (photosynthesis). Over
generations, the engulfed cells lost some of its independent utility and became a supplemental
organelle. Evidences for this theory are mitochondria and chloroplasts. Key features that were
looked over were the structure of the membranes, the susceptibility of the antibiotics, the method
of division, the presence and structural composition of its DNA and the size of the ribosomes.
 Explain the Pasteur’s experiment.

Biogenesis describes the principle that living things only arise from the previous living
things by reproduction which proves that spontaneous generation is not real. The law of
biogenesis is largely attributed to Louis Pasteur who demonstrated that emergent bacterial growth
in nutrient broths was due to contamination by pre-existing cells. Broths were stored in vessels
and contained in long tubes that did not allow external dust particles to pass through. The broths
were boiled to kill any micro-organisms. Growth only occurred in the broth if the flask was broken
open, exposing the content to contaminants from outside. From this experiment, it concluded that
emergent bacterial growth came from external contaminants, and spontaneous generation does
not occur.

1.6 Cell division: Common Topic

Focus more on these understandings, applications and skills:

 Interphase is a very active phase of the cell cycle with many processes occurring in the nucleus
and cytoplasm
 Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is different in plant and animal cells
 Cyclins are involved in the control of the cell cycle
 Identification of phases of mitosis in cells viewed with a microscope or in a micrograph
Questions related to these are:

 Cell cycle and its phases, description about each

Cell cycles is a set of phases which culminates the division of a cell into two daughter
cells. Interphase is the development of the cell between two successive divisions which includes
three phases, G1, S and G2. G1 is the first intermediate gap stage in which the cell grows and
prepares for DNA replication; S is the synthesis stage where DNA is replicated. G2 is the second
intermediate gap stage in which the cell finishes growing and prepares for cell division.

 Mitosis and its stages, describe them and identify them in micrographs

M phase is the period of the cell cycle in which the cell and the content divides into two
genetically identical daughter cells, and this involves two phases: mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis
 is the nuclear division where the DNA is separated into two identical nuclei. Prophase is when
DNA supercoils and chromosomes condense which comprised of genetically identical sister
chromatids joined at the centromere. Paired centrosomes move to the opposite poles of the cell
and form microtubule spindle fibers and the nuclear membrane breaks down which later
dissolves. Metaphase is when the microtubule spindle fibers from both centrosomes connect to
each chromosome and causes the spindle fibers to shorten in length and contract. This causes
chromosomes to align along the center of the cell. Anaphase continues the contraction previously
from the metaphase phase. This causes genetically identical sister chromatids to separate and
move to the opposite poles of the cell. Telophase is when the spindle fibers dissolve when the
two chromosome sets arrive at the opposite poles. Chromosomes decondense which means it
no longer visible under the light microscope. Nuclear membranes reform around each
chromosome set and cytokinesis occurs, splitting the cell into two.

Cytokinesis is the cytoplasmic division where the cellular contents are segregated and
splits into two daughter cells. This is the final stage of mitosis and occurs differently in plant and
animal cells. In animal cells, centripetal happens unlike plant cells. Centripetal is when the
separation outside occurs and moves toward to the center of the cell. In plant cells, centrifugal
occurs which is very similar with centripetal.

 How the cell cycle is controlled from one stage to the others?
Mitotic index shows the measure of the proliferation status of a cell population/ the proportion of
dividing cells.

Topic 2: Molecular Biology

Focus will be on Topic 2: Molecular Biology.
This topic has 14% of occurrence in the papers 1 and 2.
Below you can find the subtopics of Topic 2 and the percentage of how many times they
appear on the exams from the last two years.
 Every subtopic is important for the exam, but some are known to be seen more often
than others.
Here you will find some guidance on the content that you should focus more on.

2.1 Molecules to metabolism: Least common subtopic

Focus more on these understandings, applications and skills:

 Urea as an example of a compound that is produced by living organisms but can also
be artificially synthesized
 Drawing molecular diagrams of glucose, ribose, a saturated fatty acid and a generalised
amino acid
 Identification of biochemicals such as sugars, lipids or amino acids from molecular
diagrams
Questions related to these are:

 Usually there is identification or drawing of the structures such as fatty acid,

amino acid, starch;
 Explain the process of Urea production.

Vitalism as a theory has since been disproven with the discovery that organic molecules
can be artificially synthesized. In the year of 1828, Frederick Woehler heated an
inorganic salt and produced urea which is a waste product of nitrogen metabolism and
is eliminated by the kidneys in mammals. The artificial synthesis of urea demonstrated
that organic molecules are not fundamentally different to inorganic molecules.

2.2 Water: Least common subtopic

Focus more on these understandings, applications and skills:

 Hydrogen bonds and bipolarity explain the cohesive, adhesive, thermal and solvent
properties of water
 Substances can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic
 Comparison of the thermal properties of water with those of methane
 Use of water as a coolant in sweat
 Modes of transport of glucose, amino acids, cholesterol, fats, oxygen and sodium
chloride in blood in relation to their solubility in water
Questions related to these are:

 Water properties and how it affects the environment, usually it comes as multiple choice
or as a long answer question.

Water (H2O) can form polar associations with other charged molecules (polar or
ionic) due to its dipolarity. Water molecules can also form hydrogen bonds with other
water molecules between its bonding among hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Water can
form intermolecular associations with other molecules with common properties such as
other water molecules and charged molecules. The cohesive properties of water results
in high surface tension which resist low level of external forces.
 Water, also known as universal solvent, dissolve a large number of substances
can sufficiently weaken forces and form dispersive hydration shells. Solvent properties
such as hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances make water an important medium for
metabolic reaction, as well as necessary transport medium. Its thermal properties are also
very significant. Water has a capacity to absorb large amounts of heat energy (very high
specific high capacity). These properties make water a very effective coolant. An example
is evaporation of sweat requiring heat. Water is also transparent which allows light to pass
through; this is important for the process of photosynthesis.

2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids: Common Topic

Focus more on these understandings, applications and skills:

 Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated

 Triglycerides are formed by condensation from three fatty acids and one glycerol
 Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and glycogen in humans
 Lipids are more suitable for long-term energy storage in humans than carbohydrates
 Determination of body mass index by calculation or use of a nomogram
Questions related to these are:

 Analyze nomogram

Nomograms is a way of calculating mass index. It displays height and weight on

perpendicular axes and assign BMI values to the color code. However, BMI values are
not a valid indicator for pregnant women or professional athletes with atypical muscles/fat
ratios. BMI calculations should not be used as a diagnostic tool and should be used in
conjunction with other measurements.

 Compare energy of lipid against carbohydrates

 ATP is the energy currency of the cell which is earned through cell respiration and spent
through metabolism. Storing energy as carbohydrates such as glycogen is easier to carry
around, readily accessible but not as much. Storing energy for lipids is not viable to carry
around, harder to access and more capacity to store.

 Identify the difference between saturated and unsaturated

Fatty acids with no double bonds are saturated. Saturated fatty acids are linear in
structure, originate from animal sources and are usually solid at room temperature. Fatty
acids with double bonds are unsaturated either monounsaturated meaning one double
bond or polyunsaturated, more than one bond. Unsaturated fatty acids are bent in
structure, originate from plant sources and are usually liquid at room temperature.

2.4 Proteins Least, common subtopic

Focus more on these understandings, applications and skills:

 The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is coded for by genes

 A protein may consist of a single polypeptide or more than one polypeptide linked
together
 The amino acid sequence determines the three-dimensional conformation of a protein
 Denaturation of proteins by heat or by deviation of pH from the optimum
Questions related to these are:

 Describe primary and tertiary structures for proteins

Amino acids are covalently joined to long chains called polypeptides. The order of
amino acid sequences is called the primary structure and determines the way the chain
will fold. Different amino acid sequences will fold into different configurations due to the
chemical properties of the variable side chains.

Secondary structure is when the sequences is folded into two stable

configurations. Alpha helices occur when amino acid sequences folds into a coil/spiral
arrangement. Beta-pleated sheets occur when the amino acid sequence adopts a
directionally-oriented staggered strand conformation. Where no secondary structure
exists, the polypeptide chain will form a random coil.
 Identify when proteins are denatured by heat or pH

Denaturation is a structural change in a protein that results in the loss of its

biological properties. Because the way a protein folds determines its function, any change
or abrogation of the tertiary structure will alter its activity. High level of thermal energy/high
temperature may disrupt the hydrogen bonds that hold the protein together. As these
bonds are broken, the protein will begin to unfold and lose its capacity to function as
intended. Temperatures at which proteins denature may vary, but most human proteins
function optimally at body temperature, about 37 degrees.

Amino acids are neutral molecules possessing both negatively and positively
charged regions. Changing the ph level will charge the protein which will alter protein
solubility and overall shape. All proteins have an optimal ph which is dependent on the
environment in which it function. Example: Stomach proteins require an acidic
environment to operate whereas blood proteins function best at a neutral ph.

2.5 Enzymes, Least common subtopic

Focus more on these understandings, applications and skills:

 Temperature, pH and substrate concentration affect the rate of activity of enzymes

 Enzymes can be denatured
 Design of experiments to test the effect of temperature, pH and substrate concentration
on the activity of enzymes
 Experimental investigation of a factor affecting enzyme activity
Questions related to these are:

 Enzymes role in different processes

Enzymes are not changed or consumed by the reactions they catalyze and thus
can be reused. Enzyme reactions usually occur in aqueous solutions such as cytoplasm
and interstitial fluid. Consequently, the substrate and enzyme are usually moving
randomly within the solution. Sometimes an enzyme may be fixed in position which serves
to localize reactions to particular sites.
 How enzymes are denatured dependent on the environment.

Live all proteins, enzyme structure can be modified by external factors such as
high temperatures and extreme Ph. These factors disrupt the chemical bonds which are
necessary to maintain the tertiary structure of the enzyme. Any change to the structure of
the active site (denaturation) will negatively affect the enzyme’s capacity to bind the
substrate.

 Explain the factors that affect enzyme activity, temperature, pH and substrate
concentration

The rate of enzyme catalysis can be increased by improving the frequency of

collision. The increase in molecular motion of particles and the increase of the
concentration of particles would increase the rate of the enzyme catalysis. Low
temperatures result in insufficient thermal energy for the activation of the reaction to
proceed. Increase in temperature will increase the speed and amount of movement for
both enzyme and substrate which will increase the enzyme activity. Meaning higher
kinetic energy will result in more frequent collisions between the enzymes and substrates.
At optimal temperature, the rate of enzyme activity will be at its peak. Also, higher
temperature will cause enzyme stability to decrease as the thermal energy disrupts the
enzyme’s hydrogen bonds which causes the enzyme to lose its shape and loss of activity
leading to denaturation.

The change for the ph level will alter the charge of the enzyme which in turn will
alter protein solubility and overall shape. Leads to change in shape or charge of the active
site will diminish its ability to bind the substrate, losing its functions. Enzymes have an
optimal ph level and moving outside this range diminishes enzyme activity. Increase in
the concentration of the substrate will increase the activity of a corresponding enzyme.
More substrates mean that the increase in chances of enzyme and substrate colliding
and reacting. This leads to the rate of activity to rise regardless of any further increases
in substrate levels. This is because the environment is saturated with substrate and all
enzymes are bound and reacting to its maximum.

2.6 Structure of DNA and RNA, Least common subtopic

Focus more on these understandings, applications and skills:
 DNA differs from RNA in the number of strands present, the base composition and the
type of pentose
 DNA is a double helix molecule made of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides linked by
hydrogen bonding between complementary base pairs
 Drawing simple diagrams of the structure of single nucleotides of DNA and RNA, using
circles, pentagons and rectangles to represent phosphates, pentose and bases
Questions related to these are:

 Difference between DNA and RNA structure

Both DNA and RNA are both polymers of nucleotides; however, differ in a few key
structural aspects such as the number of strands, composition of nitrogenous bases and
type of pentose sugar.

 Be able to draw nucleotides and DNA structure

 2.7 DNA replication, transcription and translation: Very Common SubTopic
Focus more on these understandings, applications and skills:

 The replication of DNA is semi-conservative and depends on complementary base

pairing
 Helicase unwinds the double helix and separates the two strands by breaking hydrogen
bonds
 DNA polymerase links nucleotides together to form a new strand, using the pre-existing
strand as a template
 Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA copied from the DNA base sequences by RNA
polymerase
 Translation is the synthesis of polypeptides on ribosomes
 The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is determined by mRNA according to the
genetic code
 Codons of three bases on mRNA correspond to one amino acid in a polypeptide
 Translation depends on complementary base pairing between codons on mRNA and
anticodons on tRNA
 Use a table of the genetic code to deduce which codon(s) corresponds to which amino
acid
 Analysis of Meselson and Stahl’s results to obtain support for the theory of semi-
conservative replication of DNA
 Use a table of mRNA codons and their corresponding amino acids to deduce the
sequence of amino acids coded by a short mRNA strand of known base sequence
 Deducing the DNA base sequence for the mRNA strand
Questions related to these are:

 Transcription of mRNA and reading codons to amino acids

Transcription is the process by which an RNA sequence is produced from a DNA
template. RNA polymerase separates the DNA strands and synthesizes a complementary
RNA copy from one of the DNA strands. When separated, ribonucleotide triphosphates
 align opposite their exposed complementary base partner. RNA polymerase removes the
additional phosphate groups and uses the energy from this cleavage to covalently join the
nucleotide to the growing sequence. When the sequence has been synthesized, RNA polymerase
separates from the DNA molecule and the double helix reforms.

 Explain DNA replication and translation, how ribosomes are important for it.

The process of DNA replication is coordinated by two key enzymes: helicase and
DNA polymerase. This is a semi-conservative process whereby pre-existing strands acts
as templates for newly synthesized strands. Translation is the process of protein
synthesis in which the genetic information encoded in m RNA is translated into a
sequence of amino acids on a polypeptide chain. Ribosomes bind to m RNA in the
cytoplasm and move along the molecule in a 5’ to 3’ direction until it reaches a start codon
(AUG). Later on, the ribosomes catalyze the formation of peptide bonds between adjacent
amino acids, known as condensation reactions. The ribosomes move along the m RNA
molecule synthesizing a polypeptide chain until it reaches a stop codon. This makes the
ribosomes key components of translation.

 mRNA codes are given and students need to deduce the DNA base sequence

 Explain the Meselson and Stahl’s results and how it support semi-conservative
replication.

The theory that DNA replication was semi-conservative was confirmed by Meselson-Stahl
experiment in 1958. There were three hypotheses proposed. Firstly, the conservative
model is an entirely new molecule synthesizing from a DNA template. Secondly, semi-
conservative model is when each new molecule consists of one newly synthesized strand
and one template strand. Lastly, the dispersive model is when new molecules are made
of segements of new and old DNA. By looking at the results of the experiment related to
the use of radioactive isotopes of nitrogen. The two divisions of a heavier nitrogen ion
replicate in the presence of the lighter nitrogen ion supported the semi-conservative
model of DNA replication.