NEXT GENERATION ALTERNATIVE ENERGY STORAGE

APPLICATION WITH SUPER CAPACITORS

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ABSTRACT:
As communities and industries continue to expand, delivering power becomes more
challenging– electricity grids reach capacity during peak periods, while providing
electricity off the grid becomes more expensive. In India the use of electronic loads is
increasing very fast and the gap between demand and the supply have made the
reliability and power quality a critical issue.

By utilizing advanced Super capacitors (also known as ultra capacitors) are DC energy
sources and must be interfaced to the electric grid with a static power conditioner,
providing 60-Hz output. A super capacitor provides power during short duration
interruptions and voltage sags. By combining a super capacitor with a battery-based
uninterruptible power supply system, the life of the batteries can be extended. The
batteries provide power only during the longer interruptions, reducing the cycling duty
on the battery. Small super capacitors are commercially available to extend battery life in
electronic equipment, but large super capacitors are still in development, but may soon
become a viable component of the energy storage field. The most significant advantage
super capacitors have over batteries is their ability to be charged and discharged
continuously without degrading like batteries do.

Super capacitors merged with batteries (hybrid battery) will become the new super
battery. Just about everything that is now powered by batteries will be improved by this
much better energy supply. They can be made in most any size, from postage stamp to
hybrid car battery pack. Their light weight and low cost make them attractive for most
portable electronics and phones, as well as aircraft and automobiles. The new ones are
flexible and biodegradable and can be powered by body fluids.

This project uses regulated 5V, 500mA power supply. 7805 three terminal voltage
regulator is used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify
the ac output of secondary of 230/12V step down transformer.

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 CONTENTS

Page no
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….01
Contents……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………02
Chapter-1: Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………….06
1.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………….06
1.2 Literature Survey……………………………………………………………………………….07

1.3 Objective…………………………………………………………………………………………..08
Chapter-2: Introduction to solar panel…………………………………………………………………….10
2.1 Solar panel Description……………………………………………………………………..10
2.1.1 What are solar panels? ...................................................................10
2.1.2 How does solar panel work? ………………………………………………………10
2.1.3 Use of solar panel………………………………………………………………………..11
2.1.4 Advantages of solar panel……………………………………………………………11
2.2 The theory behind the solar panel………………………………………….............12
2.3 The use of electricity from solar panel……………………………………………….12
2.4 Solar panel…………………………………………………………………………………………13
2.5 How solar panel works? ……………………………………………………………………16
2.5.1 Where are PV panels installed? …………………………………………………..17
2.5.2 What happens at night and on cloudy day? ………………………………..17
2.6 Off grid versus Grid –Tied system………………………………………………………17
Chapter-3: Ripple neutralizer………………………………………………………………………………….19
3.1 Ripple………………………………………………………………………………………………..19
3.2 Time domine ripple………………………………………………..............................19
Chapter-4: Super capacitor……………………………………………………………………………………..24
4.1 About super capacitors……………………………………………………………………..24
4.2 Principle of super capacitors……………………………………………………………..26
4.2.1 The double-layer formation…………………………………………………………26

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Chapter-5: Hardware components………………………………………………………………………….28
5.1 Resistor……………………………………………………………………………………………..28
5.2 Capacitor…………………………………………………………………………………………..29
5.3 Diodes……………………………………………………………………………………………….29
5.4 Light emitting diode………………………………………………………………………….30
5.5 Switches and push buttons………………………………………………………………..31
Chapter-6: Description of power supply………………………………………………………………….33
6.1 Description of transformer………………………………………………………………..33
6.1.1 Basic principle………………………………………………………………………………34
6.1.2 Transformer working……………………………………………………………………34
6.1.3 Classification of transformers……………………………………………………….35
6.1.4 Types of transformers………….……………………………………………………….38
6.2 Rectifier ……………………………………………………………………………………………..41
6.2.1 The half wave rectifier .…………………………………………………………………41
6.2.2 The full wave rectifier…….……………………………………………………………..42
6.3 Capacitor filter ……………………………………………………………………………………44
6.4 Voltage regulator ………………………………………………………………………………..45
Chapter-7: Circuit working, advantages, disadvantages and applications………………….47
7.1 Circuit diagram …………………………………………………………………………………..47
7.2 Circuit working…………………………………………………………………………………….48
7.3 Advantages and disadvantages……………………………………………………………49
7.4 Applications…………………………………………………………………………………………50
Chapter-8: Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………….51
8.1 Conclusion of thesis………………………………………………………………………………51
8.2 Scope of future use……………………………………………………………………………….51
8.3 References…………………………………………………………………………………………….52

Figures:

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1.0.0 Block diagram of project……………………………………………………………………………………..09
2.4.1 Using of solar energy……………………………………………………………………………………………13
2.4.2 Solar panel..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………15
2.4.3 Formation of free electrons…………………………………………………………………………………15
2.6.1 Residential grid-connected PV system…………………………………………………………………18
3.2.1 Time domain ripple……………………………………………………………………………………………..19
3.2.2 Ripple wave form…………………………………………………………………………………………………20
3.2.3 Ripple on a fifth order prototype chebystev filter………………………………………………..23
4.1.1 Super-capacitors………………………………………………………………………………………………….24
4.1.2 Formation of electrons in different electrolytic storage………………………………………25
4.1.3 Comparison of batteries and capacitors……………………………………………………………..25
4.2.1 Activated carbon…………………………………………………………………………………………………27
5.1.1 Standard EIA color code table 4 band………………………………………………………………….28
5.2.1 Capacitor circuit symbol………………………………………………………………………………………29
5.2.2 Electrolytic capacitors…………………………………………………………………………………………29
5.3.1 Diode circuit symbol……………………………………………………………………………………………29
5.3.2 Diode…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..30
5.4.1 Light emitting diode…………………………………………………………………………………………….30
5.5.1 Push button…………………………………………………………………………………………………………31
6.0.0 Block diagram of power supply……………………………………………………………………………33
6.1.1 Transformer symbol……………………………………………………………………………………………33
6.1.2 Transformer ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….33
6.1.3 Basic principle of transformer……………………………………………………………………………..34
6.1.4 Step down transformer……………………………………………………………………………………….36
6.1.5 Step up transformer……………………………………………………………………………………………38
6.1.6 Main transformer………………………………………………………………………………………………..38
6.1.7 Audio transformer……………………………………………………………………………………………….40
6.1.8 Radio transformer……………………………………………………………………………………………….40
6.2.1 Half wave rectifier circuit…………………………………………………………………………………….41

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6.2.2 Half wave rectification…………………………………………………………………………………………42
6.2.3 Full wave rectifier circuit……………………………………………………………………………………..43
6.2.4 Full wave rectification………………………………………………………………………………………….43
6.3.1 Capacitor filter circuit………………………………………………………………………………………….44
6.4.1 Voltage regulator ………………………………………………………………………………………………..46

Chapter-1: Introduction

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1.1 Introduction:

During the last few years, due to the regulatory frame work for renewable energy, the
number of Photovoltaic Generation Systems (PVGS) connected to the grid is
experiencing a dramatic increase.

One of the main disadvantages of photovoltaic generation is that it limits the power
granted to the evacuation points, due to its consideration as an unmanageable power
source, which prevents ensuring the dynamic stability of the grid.

So that the PVGS do not affect the behavior of the grid, they must not only meet the
supply to the grid specifications about quality and reliability, but must also ensure their
successful integration, controlling the power generation curve. The generation curve is
highly dependent on climatic conditions making its prediction and integration difficult in
a planned system of generation. At present, these problems will not seriously affect the
operation of the grid, but could become important in a near future with the present
forecasting for integrating unmanaged renewable energy sources.

One possible solution to this problem could be that the photovoltaic generation systems
acted as “quasi-manageable”, generating energy at constant power during periods of
time, whose value will be communicated previously to the manager responsible of the
grid to which it connects. In order to function in this way, an energy storage system is
needed, whose design, sizing and composition is determined in this article.

With this function, inverters will become active parts of the grid, able to assist in the
management, planning and operation of these grids, achieving one of the main
objectives in research and development of the European technological platform of smart
grids. PVGSs generated power fluctuations produce, in many cases, inversions of the net
power flows in the head of the lines where they are connected.

Conventional power injection systems (PIS) of PVGSs are not designed to avoid these
fluctuations. These systems usually consist of a DC-DC converter, which adapts the

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voltage of the photovoltaic system and tracks the maximum power point (MPPT), and of
an inverter that converts DC-voltage into alternating voltage, controlling the current that
is injected into the grid and seeking the power factor to be one.

Some effects of power fluctuation into the grid have been observed, for example,
sudden drops in output power of 25 % in less than 3 minutes, especially in suburban and
rural grids, and significant changes in the expected energy flow causing operational
problems.

This project describes the principal energy storage technologies and discusses the
possibility of using a super capacitor energy storage system. A super capacitor energy
storage system has been selected because it is easy to implement in present PIS
structures and stores the energy in its original electrical form. Therefore, this technology
is incipient and it is expected that it will have a great development in a near future.

1.2 Literature survey:

In the early 1950s, general electric engineers began experimenting with porous carbon
electrodes, in the design of capacitors, from the design of fuel cells and rechargeable
batteries. Activated charcoal is an electrical conductor that is an extremely porous
“spongy” form of carbon with a high surface area. In 1957H.Becker developed a “Low
voltage electrolytic capacitor with porous carbon electrodes”. He believed that the
energy was stored as a charge in the carbon pores as in the pores of the etched foils of
electrolytic capacitors. Because the double layer mechanism was not known by him at
that time, he wrote in the patent: “It is not known exactly what is taking place in the
component if it is used for energy storage, but it leads to an extreme high capacity.”

General Electric did not immediately pursue this work. In1966 researchers at Standard
Oil of Ohio (SOHIO) developed another version of the component as “electrical energy
storage apparatus”, while working of experimental fuel cell designs. The nature of
electrochemical energy storage was not described in this patent. Even in 1970, the

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electrochemical capacitor patented by Donald L. Boos was registered as an electrolytic
capacitor with activated carbon electrodes.

Early electrochemical capacitors used two aluminum foils covered with activated carbon,
the electrodes which were soaked in an electrolyte and separated by a thin porous
insulator. This design gave a capacitor with a capacitance on the order of one farad,
significantly higher than electrolytic capacitors of the same dimensions. This basic
mechanical design remains the basis of most electrochemical capacitors. SOHIO did not
commercialize their invention, licensing the technology to NEC, who finally marketed the
results as “super capacitors” in 1971, to provide backup power for computer memory.
Between 1975 and 1980 Brian Evans Conway conducted extensive fundamental and
development work on ruthenium oxide electrochemical capacitors. In 1991 he described
the difference between “Super capacitor” and “Battery” behavior in electrochemical
energy storage. In 1999 he coined the term super capacitor to explain the increased
capacitance by surface redox reactions with faradic charge transfer between electrodes
and ions. His “super capacitor” stored electrical charge partially in the Helmholtz double-
layer and partially as result of faradic reactions with “pseudo capacitance” charge
transfer of electrons and protons between electrode and an electrolyte. The working
mechanism of pseudo capacitors are redox reaction, intercalation and electro sorption
(adsorption onto a surface). With his research, Conway greatly expanded the knowledge
of electrochemical capacitors.

1.3 Objective:

To determine, application using of super capacitors or ultra-capacitors which stores the

electrical energy (DC), produced from solar panel and also using power supply unit.

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Block diagram:

Fig: 1.0.0 Block diagram of project

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Chapter-2: Introduction to solar panel

2.1 Solar panel description:

2.1.1 What are solar panels?

Solar panels are devices that convert light into electricity. Solar panels make use of
renewable energy from the sun, and are a clean and environmentally sound means of
collecting solar energy.

A solar panel is a collection of solar cells. Lots of small solar cells spread over a large area
can work together to provide enough power to be useful. The more light that hits a cell,
the more electricity it produces.

2.1.2 How do solar panels work？

How do solar panels convert sunlight into electricity .Solar panels collect solar radiation
from the sun and actively convert that energy to electricity. Solar panels are comprised
of several individual solar cells. These solar cells function similarly to large
semiconductors and utilize a large-area p-n junction diode. When the solar cells are
exposed to sunlight, the p-n junction diodes convert the energy from sunlight into usable
electrical energy. The energy generated from photons striking the surface of the solar
panel allows electrons to be knocked out of their orbits and released, and electric fields
in the solar cells pull these free electrons in a directional current, from which metal
contacts in the solar cell can generate electricity. The more solar cells in a solar panel
and the higher the quality of the solar cells, the more total electrical output the solar
panel can produce. The conversion of sunlight to usable electrical energy has been
dubbed the Photovoltaic Effect.

The photovoltaic effect arises from the properties of the p-n junction diode, as such
there are no moving parts in a solar panel.

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2.1.3 Uses of solar panel:

Solar panels can used to power all kinds of electronic home appliances. This electricity is
produced from sunlight and enables you to use it for many devices including solar-
powered handheld calculators.

Moreover, it can also be used for street lights and satellites. To produce light during the
night, the solar cells charge during the day hours which are then utilized at night.

Many environmental friendly communities in America have installed solar power

stations to produce energy. Solar power plants are not only free of cost but is also
pollution free.

Solar power plants are used to make energy available to homes, businesses and remote
research stations.

2.1.4 Advantages of solar panels:

 Solar panels are clean and pollution free.

 Only initial investment for installing the plant is required because electricity is
generated free of cost.
 Solar power is clean, plentiful, and will stay a renewable source of energy that
can meet all of earth’s power needed.
 Solar panels are commonly named solar cells or photovoltaic cells.
 A photovoltaic module is an interconnected collection of cells combined into one
item.
 Solar modules allow for a wide range of varying sizes of solar panel products to
be manufactured.
 When a number of solar or photovoltaic modules are installed together, this is
commonly referred to as a solar array, or photovoltaic array.
 Arrays are a great way to increase the potential of a solar electricity system, to
provide a greater output of electricity.

2.2 The theory behind the solar panel:

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As you can see from the above diagram of a solar panel, photons are contained within
the sun rays and beam down to earth. Once these photons reach the solar panel, they
are absorbed by the silicon material, and this allows electrons to be knocked off their
orbit. As the electrons are knocked off their orbit, they become free electrons and are
able to pick up a current, resulting in the flow of electricity to external sources. New
technologies are making renewable energy devices much more efficient and a viable
contender for electricity production from fossil fuels.

2.3 The use of electricity from solar panels:

As the solar panel diagram shows, you can see how power is sourced out to various
locations, this depends on how you plan to use the energy harnessed by a solar cell.
Possible uses of solar electricity could be to incorporate the current into an existing
power supply, provide a separate power supply dependent upon the solar panel, to
charge solar batteries for the storage of solar electricity, or even to sell back to the
national grid.

Solar panels can even be used to heat water in different designs. Some home swimming
pools also use solar energy to heat the water, however this can usually be a very
expensive option. Solar energy has a huge advantage for providing electricity in remote
locations due to the simple running requirements (i.e. no fossil fuels need to be
transported the location). A remote solar panel system can provide electricity for vital
tasks where the laying of electricity cable is not practical, a working example of this is on
satellites.

2.4 Solar panel:

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A solar panel (photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged interconnected
assembly of solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be used as
a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in
commercial and residential applications.

Because a single solar panel can only produce a limited amount of power, many
installations contain several panels. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of
solar panels, an inverter, may contain a battery and interconnection wiring.

Fig:2.4.1 Using of solar energy

Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the
photovoltaic effect. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the
top layer or the back layer. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon
cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The conducting wires that
take the current off the panels may contain silver, copper or other conductive (but
generally not magnetic) transition metals.

The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system.
Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar panels
are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells.

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Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in
parallel to provide a desired current capability.

Separate diodes may be needed to avoid reverse currents, in case of partial or total
shading, and at night. The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells may have
adequate reverse current characteristics that these are not necessary. Reverse currents
waste power and can also lead to overheating of shaded cells. Solar cells become less
efficient at higher temperatures and installers try to provide good ventilation behind
solar panels.

Some recent solar panel designs include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses
or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per
unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.

Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce electricity from a range of

frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range (specifically,
ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the incident sunlight
energy is wasted by solar panels, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated
with monochromatic light. Therefore another design concept is to split the light into
different wavelength ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those
ranges. This has been projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%. The use of
infrared photovoltaic cells has also been proposed to increase efficiencies, and perhaps
produce power at night.

Sunlight conversion rates (solar panel efficiencies) can vary from 5-18% in commercial
products, typically lower than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation. Panels with
conversion rates around 18% are in development incorporating innovations such as
power generation on the front and back sides. The Energy Density of a solar panel is the
efficiency described in terms of peak power output per unit of surface area, commonly
expressed in units of Watts per square foot (W/ft2). The most efficient mass-produced
solar panels have energy density values of greater than 13 W/ft2.

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 Fig:2.4.2 solar panel

The solar panel diagram below shows how solar energy is converted into electricity
through the use of a silicon cell.

Fig: 2.4.3 Formation of free electrons

The above image is not a solar panel wiring diagram, if you need access to a wiring plan,
you could consult a specialist electrician, or solar installer.

In the diagram below, you can see how a solar panel converts sunlight into energy to
provide electricity for a range of application can be used for heating, through the use of
solar hot water panels, or electricity through the use of regular solar cells.

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2.5 How solar panel work?

There are two main types of solar panels 1) solar electric panels and 2) solar water
heating panels. We'll discuss water heating later. Right now, let's talk about solar
photovoltaic (PV) panels, which provide electricity.

PV panels collect energy from the sun and convert it into electricity. PV systems convert
sunlight directly into electricity. “Photo” refers to light and “voltaic” to electricity. A PV
cell is made of a semiconductor material, usually crystalline silicon, which absorbs
sunlight. You’ve seen PV cells at work in simple mechanisms like watches and calculators.
You’ve probably even seen them for signs on the road. More complex PV systems
produce solar electricity for houses and the utility grid. The utility grid is the power
source available to your local electricity provider.

PV cells are typically combined into modules, or panels, containing about 40 cells.
Roughly ten modules constitute a PV array, or grouping of panels

Most PV panels contain a top protective layer, two specially treated layers of silicon with
collecting circuitry attached to the top layer, and a polymer backing layer.

The top layer of silicon is treated to make it electrically negative; the back layer is treated
it make it electrically positive. When sunlight knocks electrons loose from the silicon,
electrons move up from the bottom layer of silicon and crowd the electrons in the top
layer. The electrons freed from the top layer are collected by electrical contacts on the
surface of the top layer and routed through an external circuit, thus providing power to
the electrical system attached to the panels.

New technology, which we’ll get to in a later section, uses different, less expensive
materials than silicon in PV panels to capture sunlight more affordably.

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2.5.1 Where are PV panels installed?
Most PV panels go on solar south-facing roofs parallel to the roof’s slope in the northern
hemisphere, and on solar north-facing roofs in the southern hemisphere. Some arrays
can be mounted on poles or on the ground, but such placement could be prohibited by
local regulations or homeowners association rules. An important consideration is how
many peak sun hours your system will get. Will your solar panels get year-round un
shaded sun exposure from 9 a.m. - 3 p.m. (the ideal)? Is your climate stormy, foggy,
dusty?. The power of your system will vary depending on your geographical location.
People in the northeastern US, for example, will need more solar panels on their roofs to
provide the same amount of solar electricity as someone in Arizona.

2.5.2 What happens at night and on cloudy days?

Because solar electric systems only produce power when the sun is shining, many
consumers also connect their solar system to a utility power grid that provides additional
electricity when the solar panels are not producing enough. That type of solar system is
called a grid-tied system.

2.6 Off-Grid vs. Grid-Tied Systems:

Costs also vary depending on whether your solar energy system is grid-tied or off-grid.
The cost lowers when the solar system is installed as part of the initial house
construction, because it is easier and more cost-efficient to incorporate energy-saving
design, PV panels and other equipment during construction than to add them after the
house is already built.

Off-grid systems require batteries to store electricity and a charge regulator to make sure
the batteries are not under- or overcharged. However, with the cost of extending power
lines from the utility grid averaging from 1,20,000-48,00,000Rs per mile, a PV system can
be a wise investment for electricity in remote areas.

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 Fig: 2.6.1 Residential grid-connected PV system

Here are several varieties of off-grid systems:

 Small stand-alone solar electricity systems are often used for RV power,
lighting, cabins, back-up and portable power systems.
 A complete stand-alone solar system provides independence from both
fossil fuels and electric utility companies.

 A typical complete stand-alone system uses two inverters to make sure

power is available for large loads such as air conditioners, and one
inverter can supply power when the other may not be working or needs
servicing.

 Such systems require sizable battery storage capacity so electricity is

available when adverse weather diminishes solar power.

 Batteries are an expensive component of stand-alone solar systems,

initially costing between 4800-12000/-Rs per kWh for residential use.

Hybrid systems combine PV panels with additional power sources such as fossil-fuel
generators.

 A hybrid system uses fewer solar panels than a typical stand-alone

system, because a gasoline, propane or diesel generator produces power
when solar panels are not producing enough.
 Such systems can be used for cabins, remote homes and to power small
medical facilities in third-world countries.

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Chapter-3: Ripple neutralizer

3.1 RIPPLE:

The most common meaning of ripple in electrical science, is the small unwanted
residual periodic variation of the direct current (dc) output of a power supply which has
been derived from an alternating current (ac) source. This ripple is due to incomplete
suppression of the alternating waveform within the power supply.

As well as this time-varying phenomenon, there is a frequency domain ripple that arises
in some classes of filter and other signal processing networks. In this case the periodic
variation is a variation in the insertion loss of the network against increasing frequency.
The variation may not be strictly linearly periodic. In this meaning also, ripple is usually
to be considered an unwanted effect, its existence being a compromise between the
amount of ripple and other design parameters.

3.2 TIME DOMINE RIPPLE:

Fig: 3.2.1 Time domain ripple

Full wave rectifier circuit with a reservoir capacitor on the output for the purpose of
smoothing ripple

Ripple factor may be defined as the ratio of the root mean square (rms) value of the
ripple voltage to the absolute value of the dc component of the output voltage, usually
expressed as a percentage. However, ripple voltage is also commonly expressed as
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the peak-to-peak value. This is largely because peak-to-peak is both easier to measure
on an oscilloscope and is simpler to calculate theoretically. Filter circuits intended for the
reduction of ripple are usually called smoothing circuits.

The simplest scenario in ac to dc conversion is a rectifier without any smoothing circuitry

at all. The ripple voltage is very large in this situation; the peak-to-peak ripple voltage is
equal to the peak ac voltage. A more common arrangement is to allow the rectifier to
work into a large smoothing capacitor which acts as a reservoir. After a peak in output
voltage the capacitor (C) supplies the current to the load (R) and continues to do so until
the capacitor voltage has fallen to the value of the now rising next half-cycle of rectified
voltage. At that point the rectifiers turn on again and deliver current to the reservoir
until peak voltage is again reached. If the time constant, CR, is large in comparison to the
period of the ac waveform, then a reasonable accurate approximation can be made by
assuming that the capacitor voltage falls linearly. A further useful assumption can be
made if the ripple is small compared to the dc voltage. In this case the phase
angle through which the rectifiers conduct will be small and it can be assumed that the
capacitor is discharging all the way from one peak to the next with little loss of accuracy.

Fig: 3.2.2 Ripple wave form

Ripple voltage from a full-wave rectifier, before and after the application of a
smoothing capacitor.

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With the above assumptions the peak-to-peak ripple voltage can be calculated as:

For a full-wave rectifier:

For a half-wave rectification:

Where,

 Vpp is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage

 I is the current in the circuit

 F is the frequency of the ac power

 C is the capacitance

 For the rms value of the ripple voltage, the calculation is more involved as
the shape of the ripple waveform has a bearing on the result. Assuming
a saw tooth waveform is a similar assumption to the ones above and
yields the result:

Where,

 γ is the ripple factor

 R is the resistance of the load

Another approach to reducing ripple is to use a series choke. A choke has a filtering
action and consequently produces a smoother waveform with less high-
order harmonics. Against this, the dc output is close to the average input voltage as
opposed to the higher voltage with the reservoir capacitor which is close to the peak
input voltage. With suitable approximations, the ripple factor is given by:

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Where,

 ω is the angular frequency 2πf.

 L is the inductance of the choke.

More complex arrangements are possible; the filter can be an LC ladder rather than a
simple choke or the filter and the reservoir capacitor can both be used to gain the
benefits of both. The most commonly seen of these is a low-pass Π-filter consisting of a
reservoir capacitor followed by a series choke followed by a further shunt capacitor.
However, use of chokes is deprecated in contemporary designs for economic reasons. A
more common solution where good ripple rejection is required is to use a reservoir
capacitor to reduce the ripple to something manageable and then pass through
a voltage regulator circuit. The regulator circuit, as well as regulating the output, will
incidentally filter out nearly all of the ripple as long as the minimum level of the ripple
waveform does not go below the voltage being regulated to.

The majority of power supplies are now switched mode. The filtering requirements for
such power supplies are much easier to meet due to the frequency of the ripple
waveform being very high. In traditional power supply designs the ripple frequency is
either equal to (half-wave), or twice (full-wave) the ac line frequency. With switched
mode power supplies the ripple frequency is not related to the line frequency, but is
instead related to the frequency of the chopper circuit.

 The ripple frequency and its harmonics are within the audio band and will
therefore be audible on equipment such as radio receivers, equipment for
playing recordings and professional studio equipment.

 The ripple frequency is within television video bandwidth. Analogue TV receivers

will exhibit a pattern of moving wavy lines if too much ripple is present. [7]

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  The presence of ripple can reduce the resolution of electronic test and
measurement instruments. On an oscilloscope it will manifest itself as a visible
pattern on screen.

 Within digital circuits, it reduces the threshold, as does any form of supply rail
noise, at which logic circuits give incorrect outputs and data is corrupted.

 High amplitude ripple currents reduce the life of electrolytic capacitors.

Fig: 3.2.3 Ripple on a fifth order prototype Chebyshev filter

Ripple in the context of the frequency domain is referring to the periodic variation in insertion
loss with frequency of a filter or some other two-port network. Not all filters exhibit ripple, some
have monotonically increasing insertion loss with frequency such as the Butterworth filter.
Common classes of filter which exhibit ripple are the Chebyshev filter, inverse Chebyshev
filter and the Elliptical filter. The ripple is not usually strictly linearly periodic as can be seen from
the example plot. Other examples of networks exhibiting ripple are impedance
matching networks that have been designed using Chebyshev polynomials. The ripple of these
networks, unlike regular filters, will never reach 0dB at minimum loss if designed for optimum
transmission across the passband as a whole.

The amount of ripple can be traded for other parameters in the filter design. For
instance, the rate of roll-off from the passband to the stopband can be increased at the
expense of increasing the ripple without increasing the order of the filter (that is, the
number of components has stayed the same). On the other hand, the ripple can be
reduced by increasing the order of the filter while at the same time maintaining the
same rate of roll-off.

23
Chapter-4: Super capacitors

Fig: 4.1.1 Super capacitor

4.1 About super capacitors:

Super capacitors (also known as ultra-capacitors) are DC energy sources and must be
interfaced to the electric grid with a static power conditioner, providing 60-Hz output. A
super capacitor provides power during short duration interruptions and voltage sags. By
combining a super capacitor with a battery-based uninterruptible power supply system,
the life of the batteries can be extended. The batteries provide power only during the
longer interruptions, reducing the cycling duty on the battery. Small super capacitors are
commercially available to extend battery life in electronic equipment, but large super
capacitors are still in development, but may soon become a viable component of the
energy storage field.

Here we are using 1Farad capacitor. This small cap can be charged up and then slowly
dissipated running an entire system for hours. Combine two in series for 0.5F/5V; do not
over voltage or reverse polarize these capacitors.

24
Cooper Bussmann PowerStor super capacitors are unique, ultra-high capacitance devices
utilizing electrochemical double layer capacitor (EDLC) construction combined with new,
high performance materials. This combination of advanced technologies allows Cooper
Bussmann to offer a wide variety of capacitor solutions .

Specifications:

 Working Voltage : 2.5V

 Surge Voltage :3.0V

 Nominal Capacitance :1.0F to 9.0F

 Capacitance Tolerance :-20% to +80% (20°C)

 Operating Temperature Range :-40°C to 60°C

 Extended Operating Temperature Range :-40°C to 85°C (Max. working

voltage: 2.0V)

 The new Powerstor M Series of super capacitors offers high capacitance and
ultra-low equivalent series resistance in 8mm, 10mm and 13mm diameter
can sizes.The electrochemical storage devices, storing electricity in the form of
Electrochemical double layer.Different from batteries (electricity stored as
chemical), or dielectric capacitors or parallel plate condensers (electricity is
stored electro statically in a dielectric material between two metal plates).

25
 Fig: 4.1.2 Formation of electrons in different electrolytic storage

Fig: 4.1.3 Comparison of batteries and capacitors

4.2 Principle of super capacitors:

The principle is identical to that of the electrochemical capacitors, and is based on the
double layer concept.
4.2.1 The double-layer formation:
When the electrodes are charged, there is an accumulation of ionic species of opposed
charges at the interface. Two models, in particular, describe the formed double layer:
that of Helmhotz and that, more worked out, of Gouy-Chapman. By the Helmotz model,
one considers that the charges accumulated at the interface form a parallel plan with
the interface: one speak about Helmhotz plan (HPE). With the model of Gouy-Chapman,
the double layer does not limit itself to the Helmotz plan, but takes into account a
diffuse layer of ionic species. Other models take into account the interactions between
charges, the polarizability of the molecules of the electrolyte and solvent. These various
interpretations keep the concept of surface, very close to that of geometrical surface.
However, in addition to the preceding ideas, for the super capacitors, one uses materials
with very high and active surface, as the activated carbon.
Electrode Materials:
There are various types of carbonaceous compounds used as material of polarizable
electrodes. In particular, the activated carbon and the activated fibers, which have very
high active surface. Therefore, allowing to increase the capacitive term.
Activated carbon:
26
The activated carbon is a carbonaceous compound (80 % of Carbon) of high specific
surface (typically > 1000 m2/g to 2000 m2/g). The following figure shows the basic
carbonaceous structure, which correspond to a stacking of several layers.

Fig: 4.2.1 Activated carbon

It comes from the calcination and the wood activation of pine, for example, or other
hydrocarboned compounds. The end product is presented most of the time in the form
of pellets, or of powder. Because of its high developed surface, acived carbonl is
particularly reactive...! One of the main applications is the adsorption's properties (i.e.
used waters), the trapping of toxic molecules. In the supercapacitors, one uses the
polarizable character of the carbon electrode, and the high physical surface of coal. One
gram of activated carbon can lead to capacities of several tens of Farad/gramme of
electrode, therefore with energies of some Wh/kg. In addition, the power varies
between few hundreds and few thousands of W/kg, according to the conductivity. One
of the difficulties of the activated carbon remains nevertheless their working and
manipulating, and, because of addition of a binder for that, the interpretation of the
modified physical parameters.
Actived carbon fibers/fabrics :
There are producted from precursors like polymeric fibers (e.g. PAN) having undergone a
calcination and an activation. There active specific surfaces still reach 2000 m2/g in a

27
usual way, but it is possible to preserve (in spite of a certain brittleness), working of the
fabrics (grammage, weaving). So these products present properties quite higher than the
activated carbon (better electronic conductivity, less impurities, lighter, possibility of
making " suitable " for active surfaces, and a good mechanical behaviour.
Chapter-5: Hardware components

5.1 RESISTOR:

Resistors "Resist" the flow of electrical current. The higher the value of resistance
(measured in ohms) the lower the current will be. Resistance is the property of a
component which restricts the flow of electric current. Energy is used up as the voltage
across the component drives the current through it and this energy appears as heat in
the component.

Color code:

Fig: 5.1.1 Standard EIA color code table 4 band

28
5.2 CAPACITOR:

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it
takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC
supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because
capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.

Fig: 5.2.1 Capacitor circuit symbol

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way round,
at least one of their leads will be marked + or -.

Examples:

Fig: 5.2.2 Electrolytic capacitors

5.3 DIODES:

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol
shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a
valve and early diodes were actually called valves.

29
 Fig: 5.3.1 Diode circuit symbol

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labeled a or + for
anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is
marked by a line painted on the body. Diodes are labeled with their code in small print;
you may need a magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodes.

Example:

Fig: 5.3.2 Diode

5.4 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED):

The longer lead is the anode (+) and the shorter lead is the cathode (&minus). In the
schematic symbol for an LED (bottom), the anode is on the left and the cathode
is on the right. Light emitting diodes are elements for light signalization in
electronics.

Fig: 5.4.1 Light emitting diode

They are manufactured in different shapes, colors and sizes. For their low price, low
consumption and simple use, they have almost completely pushed aside other light
sources- bulbs at first place.

30
It is important to know that each diode will be immediately destroyed unless its current
is limited. This means that a conductor must be connected in parallel to a diode. In order
to correctly determine value of this conductor, it is necessary to know diode’s voltage
drop in forward direction, which depends on what material a diode is made of and what
colors it is. Values typical for the most frequently used diodes are shown in table below:
As seen, there are three main types of LEDs. Standard ones get full brightness at current
of 20mA. Low Current diodes get full brightness at ten time’s lower current while Super
Bright diodes produce more intensive light than Standard ones.

Since the 8051 microcontrollers can provide only low input current and since their pins
are configured as outputs when voltage level on them is equal to 0, direct confectioning
to LEDs is carried out as it is shown on figure (Low current LED, cathode is connected to
output pin).

5.5 Switches and Pushbuttons:

A push button switch is used to either close or open an electrical circuit depending on
the application. Push button switches are used in various applications such as
industrial equipment control handles, outdoor controls, mobile communication
terminals, and medical equipment, and etc. Push button switches generally include a
push button disposed within housing. The push button may be depressed to cause
movement of the push button relative to the housing for directly or indirectly changing
the state of an electrical contact to open or close the contact. Also included in a
pushbutton switch may be an actuator, driver, or plunger of some type that is situated
within a switch housing having at least two contacts in communication with an electrical
circuit within which the switch is incorporated.

31
 Fig: 5.5.1 Push button

Typical actuators used for contact switches include spring loaded force cap actuators
that reciprocate within a sleeve disposed within the canister. The actuator is typically
coupled to the movement of the cap assembly, such that the actuator translates in a
direction that is parallel with the cap. A push button switch for a data input unit for a
mobile communication device such as a cellular phone, a key board for a personal
computer or the like is generally constructed by mounting a cover member directly on a
circuit board. Printed circuit board (PCB) mounted pushbutton switches are an
inexpensive means of providing an operator interface on industrial control products. In
such push button switches, a substrate which includes a plurality of movable sections is
formed of a rubber elastomeric. The key top is formed on a top surface thereof with a
figure, a character or the like by printing, to thereby provide a cover member. Push
button switches incorporating lighted displays have been used in a variety of
applications. Such switches are typically comprised of a pushbutton, an opaque legend
plate, and a back light to illuminate the legend plate.

32
Chapter-6: Description of power supply

Fig: 6.0 Block diagram of power supply

6.1 Description of transformer:

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors the transformer's coils. A varying current in the
first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and
thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field
induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This
effect is called mutual induction.

Fig: 6.1.1 Transformer Symbol

Transformer is a device that converts the one form energy to another form of energy like
a transducer.

33
 Fig: 6.1.2 Transformer

6.1.1 Basic Principle:

A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an iron
core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase power so that
if the voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and vice versa.

Fig: 6.1.3 Basic Principle of transformer

34
6.1.2 Transformer Working:

A transformer consists of two coils (often called 'windings') linked by an iron core, as
shown in figure below. There is no electrical connection between the coils; instead they
are linked by a magnetic field created in the core.

Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to another with minimal
loss of power. They only work with AC (alternating current) because they require a
changing magnetic field to be created in their core. Transformers can increase voltage
(step-up) as well as reduce voltage (step-down).

Alternating current flowing in the primary (input) coil creates a continually changing
magnetic field in the iron core. This field also passes through the secondary (output) coil
and the changing strength of the magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the
secondary coil. If the secondary coil is connected to a load the induced voltage will make
an induced current flow. The correct term for the induced voltage is 'induced
electromotive force' which is usually abbreviated to induced e.m.f.

The iron core is laminated to prevent 'eddy currents' flowing in the core. These are
currents produced by the alternating magnetic field inducing a small voltage in the core,
just like that induced in the secondary coil. Eddy currents waste power by needlessly
heating up the core but they are reduced to a negligible amount by laminating the iron
because this increases the electrical resistance of the core without affecting its magnetic
properties.

Transformers have two great advantages over other methods of changing

voltage:

1. They provide total electrical isolation between the input and output, so they can
be safely used to reduce the high voltage of the mains supply.
2. Almost no power is wasted in a transformer. They have a high efficiency (power
out / power in) of 95% or more.

35
6.1.3 Classification of Transformer:

 Step-Down Transformer

 Step-Up Transformer

Step-Down Transformer:

Step down transformers are designed to reduce electrical voltage. Their primary voltage
is greater than their secondary voltage. This kind of transformer "steps down" the
voltage applied to it. For instance, a step down transformer is needed to use 110V
product in a country with a 220V supply.

Step down transformers convert electrical voltage from one level or phase configuration
usually down to a lower level. They can include features for electrical isolation, power
distribution, and control and instrumentation applications. Step down transformers
typically rely on the principle of magnetic induction between coils to convert voltage and
current levels.

Step down transformers are made from two or more coils of insulated wire wound
around a core made of iron. When voltage is applied to one coil (frequently called the
primary or input) it magnetizes the iron core, which induces a voltage in the other coil,
(frequently called the secondary or output). The turn’s ratio of the two sets of windings
determines the amount of voltage transformation.

36
 Fig: 6.1.4 Step-Down Transformer

An example of this would be: 100 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary, a
ratio of 2 to 1.

Step down transformers can be considered nothing more than a voltage ratio device.

With step down transformers the voltage ratio between primary and secondary will
mirror the "turn’s ratio" (except for single phase smaller than 1 KVA which have
compensated secondary). A practical application of this 2 to 1 turn’s ratio would be a 480
to 240 voltage step down. Note that if the input were 440 volts then the output would
be 220 volts. The ratio between input and output voltage will stay constant.
Transformers should not be operated at voltages higher than the nameplate rating, but
may be operated at lower voltages than rated. Because of this it is possible to do some
non-standard applications using standard transformers. Single phase step-down
transformers 1 KVA and larger may also be reverse connected to step-down or step-up
transformers.

(Note: single phase step up or step down transformers sized less than 1 KVA should not
be reverse connected because the secondary windings have additional turns to
overcome a voltage drop when the load is applied. If reverse connected, the output
voltage will be less than desired.)

Step-Up Transformer:

A step up transformer has more turns of wire on the secondary coil, which makes a
larger induced voltage in the secondary coil. It is called a step up transformer because
the voltage output is larger than the voltage input.

Step-up transformer 110v- 220v design is one whose secondary voltage is greater than
its primary voltage. This kind of transformer "steps up" the voltage applied to it. For
instance, a step up transformer is needed to use a 220v product in a country with a 110v
supply.

37
A step up transformer 110v- 220v converts alternating current (AC) from one voltage to
another voltage. It has no moving parts and works on a magnetic induction principle; it
can be designed to "step-up" or "step-down" voltage. So a step up transformer increases
the voltage and a step down transformer decreases the voltage.

The primary components for voltage transformation are the step up transformer core
and coil. The insulation is placed between the turns of wire to prevent shorting to one
another or to ground. This is typically comprised of Mylar, Nomex, Kraft paper, varnish,
or other materials. As a transformer has no moving parts, it will typically have a life
expectancy between 20 and 25 years.

Fig: 6.1.5 Step-Up Transformer

Applications:

Generally these Step-Up Transformers are used in industries applications only.

6.1.4 Types of Transformers:

Mains Transformers:

Mains transformers are the most common type. They are designed to reduce the AC
mains supply voltage (230-240V in the UK or 115-120V in some countries) to a safer
low voltage. The standard mains supply voltages are officially 115V and 230V, but
120V and 240V are the values usually quoted and the difference is of no significance in
most cases.

38
 Fig: 6.1.6 Main Transformer

To allow for the two supply voltages mains transformers usually have two separate
primary coils (windings) labeled 0-120V and 0-120V. The two coils are connected in
series for 240V and in parallel for 120V. They must be wired the correct way round as
shown in the diagrams because the coils must be connected in the correct sense
(direction).

Most mains transformers have two separate secondary coils (e.g. labeled 0-9V, 0-9V)
which may be used separately to give two independent supplies, or connected in series
to create a center-tapped coil (see below) or one coil with double the voltage.

Some mains transformers have a center-tap halfway through the secondary coil and they
are labeled 9-0-9V for example. They can be used to produce full-wave rectified DC with
just two diodes, unlike a standard secondary coil which requires four diodes to produce
full-wave rectified DC.

A mains transformer is specified by:

 Its secondary (output) voltages Vs.

 Its maximum power, Pmax, which the transformer can pass, quoted in VA (volt-
amp). This determines the maximum output (secondary) current, I max...

39
 Where, Vs is the secondary voltage. If there are two secondary coils the maximum
power should be halved to give the maximum for each coil.

Its construction - it may be PCB-mounting, chassis mounting (with solder tag

connections) or toroidal (a high quality design).

Audio Transformers:

Audio transformers are used to convert the moderate voltage, low current output of an
audio amplifier to the low voltage, high current required by a loudspeaker. This use is
called 'impedance matching' because it is matching the high impedance output of the
amplifier to the low impedance of the loudspeaker.

Fig: 6.1.7 Audio transformer

Radio Transformer:

Radio transformers are used in tuning circuits. They are smaller than mains and audio
transformers and they have adjustable ferrite cores made of iron dust. The ferrite cores
can be adjusted with a non-magnetic plastic tool like a small screwdriver. The whole
transformer is enclosed in an aluminum can which acts as a shield, preventing the
transformer radiating too much electrical noise to other parts of the circuit.

Fig: 6.1.8 Radio Transformer

40
Turns Ratio and Voltage:

The ratio of the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils determines the
ratio of the voltages...

...where Vp is the primary (input) voltage, Vs is the secondary (output) voltage, Np is the
number of turns on the primary coil, and Ns is the number of turns on the secondary
coil.

6.2 Rectifier

The purpose of a rectifier is to convert an AC waveform into a DC waveform (OR)

Rectifier converts AC current or voltages into DC current or voltage. There are two
different rectification circuits, known as 'half-wave' and 'full-wave' rectifiers. Both use
components called diodes to convert AC into DC.

6.2.1 The Half-wave Rectifier:

The half-wave rectifier is the simplest type of rectifier since it only uses one diode, as
shown in figure.

Fig: 6.2.1 Half- wave rectifier circuit

41
Figure 6.2.1 shows the AC input waveform to this circuit and the resulting output. As
you can see, when the AC input is positive, the diode is forward-biased and lets the
current through. When the AC input is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and the
diode does not let any current through, meaning the output is 0V. Because there is a
0.7V voltage loss across the diode, the peak output voltage will be 0.7V less than Vs.

Fig: 6.2.2 Half-wave rectification

While the output of the half-wave rectifier is DC (it is all positive), it would not be
suitable as a power supply for a circuit. Firstly, the output voltage continually varies
between 0V and Vs-0.7V, and secondly, for half the time there is no output at all.

6.2.2 The Full-wave Rectifier:

The circuit in figure 6.2.3 addresses the second of these problems since at no time is the
output voltage 0V. This time four diodes are arranged so that both the positive and
negative parts of the AC waveform are converted to DC. The resulting waveform is
shown in figure 4.

42
 Fig: 6.2.3 Full-wave rectifier circuit

Fig: 6.2.4 Full-Wave Rectification

When the AC input is positive, diodes A and B are forward-biased, while diodes C and D
are reverse-biased. When the AC input is negative, the opposite is true - diodes C and D
are forward-biased, while diodes A and B are reverse-biased.

While the full-wave rectifier is an improvement on the half-wave rectifier, its output still
isn't suitable as a power supply for most circuits since the output voltage still varies
between 0V and Vs-1.4V. So, if you put 12V AC in, you will 10.6V DC out.

43
6.3 Capacitor Filter:

The capacitor-input filter, also called "Pi" filter due to its shape that looks like the Greek
letter pi, is a type of electronic filter. Filter circuits are used to remove unwanted or
undesired frequencies from a signal.

Fig: 6.3.1 Capacitor filter circuit

A typical capacitor input filter consists of a filter capacitor C1, connected across the rectifier
output, an inductor L, in series and another filter capacitor connected across the load.

1. The capacitor C1 offers low reactance to the AC component of the rectifier output while
it offers infinite reactance to the DC component. As a result the capacitor shunts an
appreciable amount of the AC component while the DC component continues its journey
to the inductor L.
2. The inductor L offers high reactance to the AC component but it offers almost zero
reactance to the DC component. As a result the DC component flows through the
inductor while the AC component is blocked.

3. The capacitor C2 bypasses the AC component which the inductor had failed to block. As
a result only the DC component appears across the load RL.

44
6.4 Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a

constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active
electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or
more AC or DC voltages. There are two types of regulator are they.

 Positive Voltage Series (78xx) and

 Negative Voltage Series (79xx)

78xx:

‘78’ indicate the positive series and ‘xx’ indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7805
produces the maximum 5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is 5V.

79xx:

‘79’ indicate the negative series and ‘xx’ indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7905
produces the maximum -5V.’05’indicates the regulator output is -5V.

These regulators consists the three pins there are

Pin1: It is used for input pin.

Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator

Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.

45
Fig: 6.4.1 Voltage Regulator

46
Chapter-7: Circuit working, advantages, disadvantages and applications

7.1 Circuit diagram:

47
7.2 Circuit working:

A 6 volts solar panel needed to charge the super capacitor in this project. Due to
chemical reaction of solar panel, solar energy is converted into electrical energy. In this
process the electrical energy having some amount of ripples. Ripple neutralizer is used
to remove ripples in electrical energy. This electrical energy is passed through the
semiconductor device (diode) to charge the super capacitor to its maximum value. Here,
diode is used as a switch to flow the current only in one direction. After getting charged,
super capacitor is ready to use for application. Duration of charging of super capacitor is
very quick (in seconds) as well as discharging period is also low. Super capacitor will
store direct current only. The super capacitors are charged directly from the solar panel
without using any rectifier circuit, because solar panel will give output current as direct
current (DC).

The alternative method is used to charge the super capacitor in this project, through the
power supply unit. The power supply unit consists of step down transformer, bridge
rectifier and regulator. The step down transformer is used to convert the 230volts from
primary winding to 12volts from secondary winding. The 230/12v step down
transformer will give 12volts alternative current as output from secondary winding is
further connected to the bride rectifier. The bridge rectifier is used to convert the
alternative current to direct current. In this project bridge rectifier is used to convert
12volts alternative current to 12volts direct current. In the conversion process the
ripples will present in output of bridge rectifier. This ripple will clear or filtered by using
of filter circuit. The filter circuit is nothing but, which consists of capacitor as filter
component. The filter circuit is now connected to 7805 voltage regulator which gives
5volts (DC) as output of power supply unit. The output of power supply unit 5volts
direct current is used to charge the super capacitors alternatively.

(NOTE: The super capacitor will not charge same time, by using power supply unit and
solar panel.)

48
7.3 Advantages:
01. Very high cell voltages possible.
02. High power available.
03. High power density.
04. Simple charging methods. No special charging or voltage detection circuits required.
05. Very fast charge and discharge. Can be charged and discharged in seconds, much
faster than batteries.
06. No chemical actions.
07. Cannot be overcharged.
08. Long cycle life of more than 500,000 cycles.
09. Long calendar life 10 to 20 years.
10. Low impedance.
Disadvantages:
01. Linear discharge voltage characteristic prevents use of all the available energy in
some applications.
02. Power only available for a very short duration.
03. Low capacity.
04. Low energy density.
05. Cell balancing required for series chains.
06. High self dis charge rate, much higher than batteries.

49
7.3 Applications:
01. Applicable for a short duration power boost.
02. Capacitors are extensively used as power back-up for memory functions in a wide
range of consumer products such as mobile phones, laptops and radio tuners.
03. Used in pulsed applications to share the load and for providing peak power
assistance to reduce the duty cycle on the battery to prolong battery life in products or
devices using mechanical actuators such as digital cameras.
04.Use for energy storage for solar panels and motor starters.
05. Super capacitors are also used to provide fast acting short term power back up for
UPS applications.

50
Chapter-8: Conclusion
8.1 Conclusion of thesis:
The super capacitors thus present a completely different technology from the batteries.
Instead of storage of a faradic type, the storage of energy is capacitive: the number of
cycles obtained could be very high. The technology used is lighter than for the batteries,
but generally with similar processes on the principle (collectors, two electrodes...).
However, the super capacitors did not make currently the great marketing strides
expected; there stayed in small markets. Nevertheless, on the conceptual level, the
study of these electrochemical systems involves that of the interface electrochemical,
enough ignored, and so the development of extremely interesting, and profitable ideas.
8.2 Scope of future use:
The-project we have designed an excellent storage device to have an alternate of
batteries. Experimental work has been carried out carefully. The proposed method is
verified to be highly beneficial for the replacement of batteries with super capacitors.

51
8.3 References:
1. www.scribd.com
2. www.linkedin.com
3. www.electronic projects.com
4. www.elprocus.com
5. www.electronic hub.com
6. www.skyfi labs.com
7. www.nevon projects.com

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