BUILDING SERVICES

What is Light?
•To the optical engineer, light is simply a very small part of the electromagnetic spectrum,
sandwiched between ultraviolet and infrared radiation.

• The visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum extends from about 380 to about 780
nanometers.

The “Visible”
Spectrum
• We generally associate five
basic colors with the visible
portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum.

•These colors are not distinct

bands, but rather blend
together.

Electromagnetic spectrum
Propagation of Light?
•When light encounters a surface, it can be either reflected away from the surface or
refracted through the surface to the material beneath.
•Once in the material, the light can be transmitted, absorbed, or diffused (or some
combination) by the material.
Reflection

There are three general types of reflection:

•Specular
•Spread
Law of reflection.
•Diffuse.
•In specular reflection, light is reflected away from the
surface at the same angle as the incoming light’s angle.
•A spread reflection occurs when an uneven surface
reflects light at more than one angle, but the reflected
angles are all more or less the same as the incident
angle.
•A diffuse reflection, sometimes called Lambertian
scattering or diffusion, occurs when a rough or matte
surface reflects the light at many different angles.
Refraction (Snell’s law)
•When light travels from one material to another (such as from air to glass), it refracts —
bends and changes velocity.
•Refraction depends on two factors: the incident angle (θ) and the refractive index of the
material, denoted by the letter n.
•The index of refraction for a particular material is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum
to the speed of light in that material: n = speed of light in vacuum/speed of light in the
material.
•The index of refraction for almost all other substances is greater than 1, because the speed
of light is lower as it passes through them.
•Snell’s law of refraction shows the relationship between the incident angle and the refractive
index:
n1sin θ1 = n2sin θ2

Where
n1 = the refractive index of medium 1
n2 = the refractive index of medium 2
θ1 = the incident angle of the light ray (with respect to the normal)
θ´1 = the reflected angle (with respect to the normal)
θ2 = the refracted angle (with respect to the normal)

Refraction and Snell’s law.

Transmission
•When light passes through an object, it is called transmission.
•Absorption, reflection, refraction, and diffusion all affect light transmission.

Absorption
•Instead of completely transmitting light, an object can absorb part or all of the
incident light, usually by converting it into heat.
•Many materials absorb some wavelengths while transmitting others, which is called
selective absorption.
•Lambert’s law of absorption states that equal thicknesses of a given homogenous
material absorb the same fraction of light.
•In other words, if a 1-cm block of material absorbs half of the incoming light, a
second 1-cm block of the same material would again absorb half of the beam (as
shown in Figure below) , so that only 0.5 X 0.5, or 0.25, of the original light is
transmitted through a total of 2 cm of material.

Lambert’s law of absorption.

Diffusion (Scattering)
When light strikes a perfectly smooth surface, the reflection is specular,. When light strikes a
rough surface, the light is reflected or transmitted in many different directions at once, which
is called diffusion or scattering.
The amount of diffuse transmission or reflection that
occurs when light moves through one material to
strike another material depends on two factors: ·
i. The difference in refractive index between the
two materials ·

ii. The size and shape of the particles in the diffusing

material compared to the wavelength of the light.
Diffuse transmission and reflectance.
Luminous Flux
•The total quantity of radiant energy per second responsible for visual sensation from
a luminous body is called Luminous Flux.
•It is represented as F of Ø and measured in lumens.
•Luminous flux is the quantity of the energy of the light emitted per second in all
directions. The unit of luminous flux is lumen (lm).

Lumen
•It is the unit of luminous flux. One lumen is defined as the luminous flux emitted per unit solid
angle from a point source of one candle power.
•One lumen is the luminous flux of the uniform point light source that has luminous intensity of 1
candela and is contained in one unit of spatial angle (or 1 steradian). Steradian is the spatial angle
that limits the surface area of the sphere equal to the square of the radius. This concept is shown
in the figure for 1 m radius of the sphere. Since the area of sphere is 4pr² then the luminous flux
of the point light source is 4p lumens.
The steradian (symbol: sr) or square radianis the SI unit of solid angle. It is used in three-
dimensional space, and functions analogously to the manner in which the radian quantifies planar angles.
The name is derived from the Greek stereos for "solid" and the Latin radius for "ray, beam".
The steradian, like the radian, is dimensionless, essentially because a solid angle is the ratio between the
area subtended and the square of its distance from the vertex: both the numerator and denominator of
this ratio have dimension length squared (i.e., L²/L² = Φ - no unit). It is useful, however, to distinguish
between dimensionless quantities of a different nature, so in practice the symbol "sr" is used to indicate a
solid angle. For example, radiant intensity can be measured in watts per steradian (W·sr−1). The steradian
was formerly an SI supplementary unit, but this category was abolished from the SI in 1995 and the
steradian is now considered an SI derived unit.

Solid Angle
•The solid angle, Ω, is the two-dimensional angle in three-dimensional space that an object subtends at a
point.
•It is a measure of how large that object appears to an observer looking from that point. A small object
nearby may subtend the same solid angle as a larger object farther away

For a solid angle that measures 1 steradian, A = r2

A 1-steradian solid angle removed from a sphere.
 Luminous
Intensity
•Luminous intensity is the ability to emit light into a given direction, or it is the luminous flux that
is radiated by the light source in a given direction within the unit of the spatial angel. If the point
light source emits Ø lumens into a small spatial angel ß, the luminous intensity is I=Ø/ß.
The unit of luminous intensity is candela. There is a standard that details the candela definition.
This includes the standard light source and the physical conditions of the measurement.

Illumination
•When light falls on a surface, it becomes visible, the phenomenon is called as
illumination.
•It is defined as luminous flux falling on a surface per unit area. It is denoted by E and
measured in lumen per square meter or meter- candle.
E = Ф / A lux
One lx is the illuminance of 1 m² surface area uniformly lighted by 1 lm of luminous
flux. The following drawing explains this definition. One foot-candle is 10.76 lux.

Lux
One meter candle or lux is defined as the illumination produced by a uniform source of one CP on
the inner surface of a sphere of radius one meter.
 Glare
In the human eye, the opening of pupil is controlled by its iris which depends upon the
intensity of light received by the eye. If the eye is exposed to a very bright source of
light, the pupil of the eye contracts automatically in order to reduce the amount of light
admitted and prevent damage to the retina. This effect is called glare.
Glare is defined as the brightness within the field of vision of such a character so as to
cause discomfort and interference in vision.
 Law of Illumination
The illumination on a surface depends upon the luminous intensity, distance between
the source and surface and the direction of rays of light. It is governed by following
laws :
1. Inverse square law
2. Lambert’s cosine law

1. Inverse square law

• As a surface that is illuminated by a light source moves away from the light source, the
surface appears dimmer. In fact, it becomes dimmer much faster than it moves away from
the source. The inverse square law, which quantifies this effect, relates illuminance (Ev) and
intensity (Iv) as follows:

Where d = the distance from the light source.

(Ev) = Illuminance
(lv) = Intensity
 Lambert’s Cosine Law
This law states that the illumination on any surface is depend on the cosine of angle
between the direction of the incident flux and perpendicular to the area.

E = 1/d2 cos θ
Lambertian Emission and Reflection
•A lambertian surface reflects or emits equal
(isotropic) luminance in every direction.
For example, an evenly illuminated diffuse flat
surface such as a piece of paper is
approximately lambertian, because the reflected
light is the same in every direction from which
you can see the surface of the paper.

Lambert’s Cosine Law

Lambertian Surface
Lighting Schemes
• Lighting schemes are classified according to the location, requirement and
purpose etc. are as under :
1. Direct lighting
2. Indirect lighting
3. Semi direct lighting
4. Semi indirect lighting
5. General lighting
 Direct lighting
•As is clear from the name, in this system almost 90 to 95 % light falls directly on
the object or the surface.
•The light is made to fall upon the surface with the help of deep reflectors.
•Such type of lighting scheme is most used in industries and commercial lighting.
• Although this scheme is most efficient but it is liable to cause glare and
shadows.

•For corridors and staircases direct type of luminaries with wide spread
of light distributions are recommended.
 Indirect lighting

•In this system, the light does not fall directly on the surface but more than 90 % of
light is directed upwards by using diffusing reflectors.
•Here the ceiling acts as a source of light and this light is uniformly distributed over
the surface and glare is reduced to minimum.
•It provides shadow less illumination which is useful for drawing offices and
composing rooms. It is also used for decoration purposes in cinema halls, hotels
etc.
 Semi direct Lighting
•This is also an efficient system of lighting and chances of glare are also reduced.
• Here transparent type shades are used through which about 60 % light is directed downward
and 40 % is directed upward.
•This also provides a uniform distribution of light and is best suited for room with high ceilings.

For offices semi-direct type of luminaries are recommended so that both the work
plane illumination and surround luminance can be effectively enhanced.
 Semi Indirect Lighting
•In this system about 60 to 90 % of total light is thrown upward to the ceiling for
diffused reflection and the rest reaches the working plane directly.
•A very small amount of light is absorbed by the bowl.
•It is mainly used for interior decoration.
 General Lighting
Also called Ambient lighting, ambient lighting provides overall illumination for a room, and is
intended to create a uniform light level throughout a space, independent of any special lighting
that may be needed in targeted areas of a room. In most home settings, when a person steps
into a room and flips on a switch, ambient lighting illuminates the space. Ambient lighting takes
many forms, including: ceiling-mounted or recessed fixtures that direct light downwards; floor-
lamp torchieres that wash the walls with light; cove, etc.

Design of Indoor Light Scheme

While designing a good lighting schemes, the following points must be kept in mind :
1. It should provide adequate illumination.
2. It should provides uniformly distributed light all over working plane.
3. It should avoid glare and shadows as far as possible.
4. It should provide light of suitable colors.

Factors required for Light Scheme

The following factors are required to be considered while designing the lighting scheme :
1. Illumination level
2. Quality of light
3. Co efficient of utilization
4. Depreciation factor
5. Space height ratio
 Illumination Level
•This is the most vital factor in deciding the number and wattage of luminaries so
that we are able to see and recognize the object properly.
•Colors of the body have the property of reflecting the light in different proportions,
degree of illumination, its distance from the viewer, contrast between the object to
be seen and its surroundings.
Type of work Recommended illumination level

Offices 100-400 lumens/ meter square

Schools 250-400 lumens/ meter square

Industry 1000 lumens/ meter square

Shops 250-500 lumens/ meter square

Hotels 80-100 lumens/ meter square

Hospitals 250-3500 lumens/ meter square

Methods for calculating illumination
There are three method for Lighting
calculations:-
1) Watts per square meter method
2) Lumen or Light flux method
3) Point to Point OR Inverse – Square law
method
Lumen or Light flux method
•To estimate the illumination pattern from a
set of diffuse lighting sources over a broad
area in a room.
•This method gives rough and reasonable
estimates of the lamps / luminaries needed.
•Is used in areas where a uniform light
intensity is required for the work area.
•Used for rectangular rooms with gridded
luminaries pattern.
•Also called as Light Flux Method
1) Watts per square meter method : This is
principally a “rule of thumb” method. Very
handy for rough calculation and checking .
2) Lumen or light flux method : This method is
applicable to those cases where the source
of light are such as to produce approximate
uniform illumination over the working
plane.
Lumen received on working plane =
Numbers of Lamp * wattage of each lamp
*efficiency of each lamp in term of
lumen/watt * (coefficient of
utilization/Depreciation factor)
1) Point to point or inverse –square law
method : This method is applicable where
the illumination at a point due to one or
more source of light is required.
•Illumination level required at the work surface is obtained by,
rec
E=
A
•E = illumination level required at the work surface

•A = total area of the plane where the work is done.

•Φrec = flux of light received on the working surface.

•It is to determine how much flux needs to be installed, i.e. Φinst, to get the required amount of
received flux Φrec.

•First determine how much flux is to be received.

•Multiply the illumination required by the surface area.
Φrec = E A
•The received flux is related to the installed flux by a formula

rec = MF  UF  inst

where
MF = Maintenance factor (Light Loss Factor LLF)
UF = Utilization factor
Φ = Total Lumen
Maintenance factor
•Gives an estimate of how lighting conditions will deteriorate through use.
•Some factors are dust and dirt inside luminaire surfaces.
•Aging of light bulbs emitting less light
•Cleaning of room surfaces, e.g. ceiling
•Without detailed knowledge of a maintenance plan,
MF is assumed to be = 0.80

Depreciation factor
•Light emitted by source reduces due to dust or dust decomposition on light.
•So, quantity of light reflected from ceiling also get reduced.
•This reduction of light can be minimized by cleaning the light fittings or white washing.
•But absolute cleanliness is not possible hence we need to consider depreciation factor.
•D. F. = 1/ M. F.
Illumination under ideally clean condition
D.F. =
Illumination under normal working condition
 Utilization Factor (η)
•Is the ratio of effective luminous flux to the total luminous flux of light sources.

•Always less than one

Fn Effective luminous flux
U.F.= =
F Total luminous flux of all the sources

Room index
The horizontal areas are
Area H = 2  Length  Width
= 2  L W
The vertical areas are

Area L = 2   Length  Width   Height Lum

=2   L  W   Hm
Hm = mounting height = Vertical distance from the work place to the luminaire.
The Room index is Area H L×W
RI = =
Area V (L+W) × H m
For uniform illumination
•As a rule of thumb, to achieve uniform lighting spacing between the
luminaries should be less than 1.5 times the mounting height.

•Lumnaire Spacing < 1.5 Hm

No. Lamps required

rec = MF  UF  
inst
rec
   E×A
inst MF  UF MF  UF
Φ
So, No. of lamps required = inst
Lumen o/p

So, No. of lamps required = E×A

Lumen o/p  MF  UF
Light Sources(Types of Lamps)
•The lighting industry makes millions of electric light sources, called lamps.
•Those used for providing illumination can be divided into three general classes:
i. Incandescent- produce light by heating a filament until it glows
ii. Discharge- produce light by ionizing a gas through electric discharge inside the lamp.
iii. Solid-state lamps- use a phenomenon called electroluminescence to convert electrical
energy directly to light.

Incandescent Lamps
•Incandescent lamp technology uses electric current to
heat a coiled tungsten filament to incandescence.
• The glass envelope contains a mixture of nitrogen and a
small amount of other inert gases such as argon.
•Some incandescent lamps, such as some flashlight lamps,
also contain xenon.
•Commonly available incandescent lamps have average
lives of between 750 and 2000 hours.
Discharge Lamps
•Discharge lamps produce light by passing an electric current through a gas that emits light when
ionized by the current.
• An auxiliary device known as a ballast supplies voltage to the lamp’s electrodes, which have been
coated with a mixture of alkaline earth oxides to enhance electron emission.
•Two general categories of discharge lamps are used to provide illumination:
high-intensity discharge
fluorescent lamps.

HID Lamps
Four types of high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps are most widely available on
today’s market:
a. high-pressure mercury vapor lamps

b. metal-halide lamps

c. high-pressure sodium lamps

d. xenon lamps.

Mercury Vapour Lamp

High-Pressure Mercury Vapor Lamps
•In a high-pressure mercury vapor lamp, light is
produced by an electric discharge through gaseous
mercury.
•The mercury, typically along with argon gas, is
contained within a quartz arc tube, which is surrounded
by an outer bulb of borosilicate glass.
•Xenon may also be used in high-pressure mercury
vapor lamps to aid starting time, and does not
significantly change the visible spectrum of the lamp.
Construction of a high-pressure mercury vapor lamp

Metal-Halide Lamps
•A metal-halide lamp is a mercury vapor lamp with
other metal compounds (known as halides) added to
the arc tube to improve both color and luminous
efficacy.
•Figure shows the construction of a typical single-
ended, screw base metal-halide lamp.

Construction of a metal-halide lamp.

High-Pressure Sodium Lamps
• Light is produced in a high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamp by an electric discharge through
combined vapors of mercury and sodium. The hard glass outer bulb may be clear, or its inner
surface may be coated with a diffuse powder to reduce the brightness of the arc tube.
•Figure shows the construction of a typical single-ended, screwbase high- pressure sodium
lamp.

Xenon Lamps
•Unlike the other three HID lamps described here,
xenon lamps do not contain mercury vapor.

•They contain xenon gas, kept at a pressure of

several atmospheres.

Construction of a high-pressure sodium lamp. •Xenon lamps are available in wattages from 5 to
32,000 watts.

•Figure shows some examples of xenon lamps. Some

incandescent lamps, such as some flashlight lamps,
also contain xenon.

Typical xenon lamps

 Fluorescent Lamps
•The fluorescent lamp is a gas discharge source that contains mercury vapor at low
pressure, with a small amount of inert gas for starting.
•Once an arc is established, the mercury vapor emits ultraviolet radiation.
•Fluorescent powders (phosphors) coating the inner walls of the glass bulb respond to this
ultraviolet Illumination emitting wavelengths in the visible region of the spectrum.
Fluorescent Tube
it is a low pressure mercury vapor lamp. It consists of a glass tube 25 mm in
diameter and 0.6 m, 1.2 m and 1.5 m in length. The tube contains argon gas at low
pressure about 2.5 mm of mercury. At the two ends, two electrodes coated with
some electron emissive material are placed.

The colors produce by fluorescent tubes are as :

Material Color
Zinc silicate Green
Advantages of Fluorescent Tube Calcium tungsten Blue
1. Voltage fluctuation has very small effect on light
output. Cadmium borate Pink
2. The luminous efficiency is more as length of rod is
more. Calcium Holo phosphate White/day light
3. It gives light close to natural light.
4. Heat radiations are negligible.
Magnesium tungsten Bluish white
Neon Lamp
•These lamps are operated at a very low temperature of about 200 ˚C that’s why these are
called cold cathode discharge lamps.
•Two electrodes are housed at the two ends of the tube which contain neon gas.
•The electrodes are made of iron or nickel cylinder without any coating and practically they do
not emit electrons.
•Voltage require for starting and operation is 10000 V. This high voltage is obtained from
transformer.
Working :
•When the supply is switched ON at primary side
of transformer, a voltage of 10000 V develops
across secondary side which come across two
electrodes.
•At this voltage a discharge occurs in neon gas.
•Different colors can be obtained by changing the
constituents of gases and mercury filled in the
tubes.

Applications :
•Neon lamps are generally used for advertising.
•Most of letters having two ends at which electrodes are placed. In letter having more than two
ends , the tube path is repeated for some portion.
Compact fluorescent Lamp( CFL)

•The compact fluorescent lamps are becoming more and more popular now a days because of
their low power consumption, low running cost, longer life, attractive look, smooth light and
low maintenance.
•These lamps are available in different sizes and designs.
•They have single rod, double rod, triple rod or spiral rod.
•These lamps are available in different power rating e.g. 5, 7, 9, 11, 18 and 24 watt 220 V

•It is basically a low pressure mercury vapor lamp

having two electrodes coated with electron
emissive material placed in a glass tube.
•The tube is coated internally with some
fluorescent material in the form of powder.
•In the tube one drop of mercury and argon gas is
filled at low pressure.
Advantages of Fluorescent Tube
1. Low energy consumption.
2. Low maintenance cost
3. It stars instantly
4. It does not heat the surroundings
Examples of compact fluorescent lamps. 5. Excellent color properties
6. Low operating cost
7. More life
LUMINAIRES
•Luminaires are comprised of a light source (or lamp), reflector, shade, lens,
refractor, mounting hardware and an electrical connection.
 Pendant Mounted Luminaires
Pendant mounted luminaires are suspended from
the ceiling and may light down onto a table, uplight
the ceiling, or provide a glow in all directions. Pendant mounted luminaires.

Wall Mounted Luminaires

Sconces or uplights may light the wall, ceiling, or
provide a decorative glow. Steplights, often recessed
Wall mounted luminaires.
into a wall, are located low on a wall can illuminate
pathways and stairs.
Ceiling or Surface Mounted Luminaires
This type of luminaire is mounted directly
to the ceiling. Lenses should adequately
diffuse the light so as not to become a
glare source and to prevent an image of
the lamp from showing on the lens.

Ceiling / surface mounted luminaires.

Recessed Luminaires
Luminaires that are recessed into the ceiling
typically light the horizontal surface below, or
possibly an adjacent wall. These types of
luminaires are often used for general ambient
lighting
Recessed luminaires.

Track Lighting.
Track mounted luminaires are adjustable and
can also be relocated along the length of track.
These typically use tungsten halogen or low
wattage metal halide directional sources
Track mounted luminaires.
especially appropriate for accent lighting.
Pole Mounted Exterior Luminaires
Pole mounted luminaires for exterior
lighting come in a wide range of heights,
but can generally be grouped in one of
three categories: high mast luminaires,
area luminaires on 7.6 – 12.2 m (25 -40 ft)
poles, and pedestrian scale luminaires on
shorter poles Pole Mounted Exterior luminaires.
LIGHTING SCHEMES FOR OFFICES

LOBBIES INDIVIDUAL OFFICE

OPEN OFFICES
CORRIDORS
EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES HEALTHCARE FACILITIES

CLASSROOMS WAITING ROOMS

AUDITORIUM PHARMACY
FOOD SERVICES

OFFICER DINING ROOMS

KITCHEN

CAFETERIAS ENLISTED DINING ROOMS

INDUSTRIES

VEHICLE REPAIR

WAREHOUSES

MOTOR POOLS
RESIDENTIAL HOUSING

BATHROOMS
BED ROOMS

LIVING ROOM
KITCHEN
Examples of types of exterior lighting fixtures.
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