Mars - An Introduction To Its Interior, Surface and Atmosphere (Nadine G. Barlow) PDF

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M A R S : A N IN T R O D U C TI O N TO I T S I N TE R I O R ,
S U R F A C E A N D A TM O S P H E R E
Our knowledge of Mars has changed dramatically in the past 40 years due to the wealth of
information provided by Earth-based and orbiting telescopes, and spacecraft investiga-
tions. Recent observations suggest that water has played a major role in the climatic and
geologic history of the planet. This textbook covers our current understanding of the
planet’s formation, geology, atmosphere, interior, surface properties, and potential for life.
This interdisciplinary textbook encompasses the fields of geology, chemistry, atmo-
spheric sciences, geophysics, and astronomy. Each chapter introduces the necessary
background information to help the non-specialist understand the topics explored. It
includes results from missions through 2006, including the latest insights from Mars
Express and the Mars Exploration Rovers.
Containing the most up-to-date information on Mars, this textbook is essential reading
for graduate courses and an important reference for researchers.
Na d i n e Ba r l o w is Associate Professor in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at

Northern Arizona University. Her research focuses on Martian impact craters and what
they can tell us about the distribution of subsurface water and ice reservoirs.
Cambridge Planetary Science
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6. The Surface of Mars
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8. Mars: An Introduction to its Interior, Surface and Atmosphere
Barlow
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Shaded relief map of Mars showing the locations of major features discussed in the text. Landing sites of the two Viking Landers (VL1 and
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National Geographic Society/MOLA Science Team/Malin Space Science Systems (MSSS)/NASA/JPL)
MARS: AN INTRODUCTION TO ITS
INTERIOR, SURFACE AND
ATMOSPHERE
NADINE BARLOW
Northern Arizona University
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo
Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
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© N. Barlow 2008
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2008
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Contents
Preface page xi
1 Introduction to Mars 1
1.1 Historical observations 1
1.1.1 Pre-telescopic observations 1
1.1.2 Telescopic observations from Earth and space 2
1.2 Spacecraft missions 5
1.2.1 US missions to Mars 8
1.2.2 Soviet/Russian Mars missions 15
1.2.3 European Space Agency Mars missions 18
1.2.4 Japanese missions to Mars 19
1.3 Mars’ orbital properties 19
1.3.1 Orbital elements 19
1.3.2 Mars’ orbital properties with respect to the Sun and Earth 21
1.4 Physical properties of Mars 21
1.4.1 Rotation 21
1.4.2 Size 23
1.4.3 Mass and density 23
1.5 Martian moons 23
1.5.1 Phobos 24
1.5.2 Deimos 25
1.5.3 Origin of Phobos and Deimos 26
1.5.4 Possible other satellites? 27
1.5.5 Trojan asteroids at Mars orbit 27
2 Formation of Mars and early planetary evolution 28
2.1 Formation of Mars 28
2.1.1 Accretion 28
2.1.2 Heavy bombardment 30
vii
viii Contents
2.2 Differentiation and core formation 32

2.2.1 Planetary heating 32
2.2.2 Geochronology 33
2.2.3 Martian meteorites 37
2.2.4 Differentiation and core formation on Mars 40
2.3 Bulk composition of Mars 41
2.4 Thermal evolution of Mars 44
2.4.1 Isotopic and geologic constraints on thermal
models 44
2.4.2 Thermal models for Mars 47
3 Geophysical measurements and inferred interior structure 51
3.1 Shape and geodetic data 51
3.1.1 Shape of Mars 51
3.1.2 Coordinate systems 52
3.2 Gravity and topography 54
3.2.1 Gravity analysis 54
3.2.2 Gravity anomalies, isostacy, and crustal thickness 57
3.2.3 Topography 60
3.3 Seismic data 60
3.4 Heat flow 64
3.4.1 Conduction 65
3.4.2 Convection 65
3.4.3 Martian heat flux 66
3.5 Magnetics 66
3.5.1 Active dynamo 67
3.5.2 Remnant magnetization 68
3.6 Interior structure of Mars 70
4 Surface characteristics 72
4.1 Albedo and color 72
4.1.1 Albedo 72
4.1.2 Color 73
4.2 Surface roughness and structure 75
4.3 Crustal composition 76
4.3.1 Methods of compositional analysis 76
4.3.2 Crustal composition from remote sensing
observations 81
4.3.3 Crustal composition from martian meteorite
analysis 85
4.3.4 Crustal composition from in situ analysis 87
4.3.5 Summary of martian crustal composition 92
Contents ix
4.4 Physical characteristics of surface materials 93

4.4.1 Regolith 94
4.4.2 Thermal inertia and rock abundance 97
4.4.3 Dust 100
5 Geology 102
5.1 Geologic terms and techniques 102
5.1.1 Rocks and minerals 102
5.1.2 Stratigraphic techniques 103
5.1.3 Crater statistical analysis 104
5.2 Martian geologic periods 110
5.3 Geologic processes 110
5.3.1 Impact cratering 110
5.3.2 Volcanism 120
5.3.3 Tectonism 132
5.3.4 Mass movement 140
5.3.5 Eolian features 141
5.3.6 Fluvial processes 147
5.3.7 Polar and glacial processes 151
5.4 Geologic evolution of Mars 161
6 Atmospheric conditions and evolution 163
6.1 Characteristics of the present martian atmosphere 163
6.2 Atmospheric physics 164
6.2.1 Barometric equation and scale height 164
6.2.2 Conduction 166
6.2.3 Convection 166
6.2.4 Radiation 169
6.3 Present-day martian atmosphere 171
6.3.1 Atmospheric structure 171
6.3.2 Clouds and dust storms 173
6.3.3 Winds 177
6.3.4 Atmospheric circulation 181
6.3.5 Present-day martian climate 183
6.4 Evolution of the martian atmosphere 185
7 History of water on Mars 187
7.1 Origin of water on Mars 187
7.2 Water versus other volatiles 190
7.3 Water on early Mars 191
7.4 Water in the post-Noachian period 194
7.4.1 Martian oceans 194
7.4.2 Obliquity cycles and climate change 197
x Contents
7.5 Present-day stability and distribution of H2O 199

7.5.1 Models of subsurface H2O distribution 200
7.5.2 Direct detection of subsurface H2O 201
8 Search for life 203
8.1 Martian conditions relevant to biology 203
8.2 Viking biology experiments 204
8.3 Martian meteorite ALH84001 207
8.4 Atmospheric methane 208
8.5 Future missions 209
8.6 Planetary protection issues 212
9 Looking ahead 216
References 221
Appendix: Mission reports 255
Index 257
The color plates are situated between pages 84 and 85
Preface
It is an exciting time to be a planetary scientist specializing in Mars research. I have

had the privilege of experiencing our changing views of Mars since the beginning
of space missions to our neighbor. Mariners 6 and 7 flew by the planet shortly after
I became interested in astronomy at age 10. I checked the news every day when
Mariner 9 began to reveal the geologic diversity of Mars. The Viking missions
started their explorations as I was entering college and the Viking 1 lander ceased
operations just as I was starting to utilize the orbiter data in my Ph.D. thesis. Over
the subsequent years I grieved the lost missions and cheered the successful ones. I
feel extremely fortunate to be able to work in such an exciting field and contribute
to our expanding knowledge of the planet and its history.
I have taught graduate courses about Mars at the University of Houston Clear
Lake, University of Central Florida, and Northern Arizona University. The 1992
University of Arizona Press book Mars is the best compilation of our knowledge
through the Viking missions, but has become increasingly deficient as Mars
Pathfinder, Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, and the Mars
Exploration Rovers have revealed new facets of Mars’ evolution. A few years ago I
developed a course pack for my students which I updated prior to each term when I
taught the course. This book is an expanded version of that course pack and is
appropriate for graduate students in planetary science, professional scientists, and
advanced undergraduate science majors.
Mars: An Introduction to its Interior, Surface and Atmosphere focuses on what
we have learned about Mars since 1992. I have had no delusions that I could
replicate the excellent detailed summaries provided by the experts in the 1992
Mars book. What I have endeavored to do is to expand upon that treatise by
summarizing the latest discoveries and how they are once again changing our
paradigm of Mars.
The study of Mars is a very interdisciplinary science, covering sciences as
diverse as geology, geophysics, geochemistry, atmospheric dynamics, and biology.
xi
xii Preface
Mars researchers specialize in a specific discipline and can have difficulty

understanding the other aspects of Mars studies. I have taught my graduate level
Mars class to geology, physics, astronomy, and engineering students and have seen
how they struggle with material outside of their discipline. I have therefore
structured this book to include enough background material so someone from
another discipline can understand and appreciate the advances made in other fields.
I assume the reader has sufficient background to understand basic geology terms,
calculus-based introductory physics, and mathematics through differential equa-
tions. However, it is impossible to provide detailed coverage of every aspect of
Mars research in such a book. I have therefore provided an extensive reference list
and encourage the reader whose interest is piqued by a particular topic to explore
the original literature. I apologize in advance to my colleagues who find some of
their works not included in the references. The Mars literature is voluminous and I
have attempted to provide a reasonable sampling of the articles and books which
cover the currently accepted views of the planet and some of the ongoing debates.
It is difficult to write a book like this while so many Mars missions are still
operating. Several times I thought I had completed a specific chapter only to go
back later and revise it as new discoveries were announced. Therefore the reader
needs to recognize that the book includes information only through the end of
2006. I fully expect that results from the recently arrived Mars Reconnaissance
Orbiter together with new discoveries by Odyssey, Mars Express, Spirit, and
Opportunity will make some of the discussion in this book obsolete very soon. We
are obviously in the golden age of Mars exploration, but now is a good time to step
back and summarize the dramatic shift in our view of Mars produced during the
past ten years of spacecraft and telescopic observations.
This book would not have been possible without the input and support of many
people. My mother Marcella, my late father Nathan, and my sister Lynn have
provided love and support throughout the years, even when they probably thought I
was crazy for being such a Mars fanatic. I also appreciate all my friends and family
who are not scientists but who have always shown great interest in the work that I do.
I have had many wonderful professors who have inspired me and would like to
specifically acknowledge the mentorship of James Pesavento and Robert Strom. My
colleagues at Northern Arizona University have been a great support system and I
especially acknowledge Dean Laura Huenneke and chairs Tim Porter and David
Cornelison who encouraged me to undertake this project even when I was not yet
tenured. The staff at Cambridge University Press has been a joy to work with and I
want to thank Helen Goldrein for her patience and encouragement. Finally, this book
would not have been possible without the work of my friends and colleagues in the
Mars community. Here’s to many more years of exciting discoveries!
1
Introduction to Mars
1.1 Historical observations

1.1.1 Pre-telescopic observations
Mars has been the focus of intense scientific interest and study throughout recorded
history. Even before the advent of the telescope in 1609, astronomers carefully
charted the motion of Mars across the sky. The planet’s obviously reddish-orange
color led many ancient civilizations to name the planet after war or warrior gods.
Our current use of the name Mars comes from the Roman God of War. Large
martian sinuous valleys (vallis) are named after the term for Mars in different
languages: hence Ares Vallis (Greek name for Mars), Augakuh Vallis (Incan), and
Nirgal Vallis (Babylonian).
Careful observations of Mars’ motion across the celestial sphere led early
astronomers to deduce two things about the planet. First they determined that Mars’
sidereal period (time to return to same position relative to the stars) is about 687 Earth
days (1.88 Earth years). The Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus found that the
sidereal period (P) of a planet located beyond the Earth’s orbit is related to its synodic
period (S; time for planet to return to same Earth–Sun–planet configuration) by
1 1
¼1 : (1:1)
P S
Using this relationship, we can determine that the synodic period of Mars is 2.14
Earth years.
The second thing that pre-telescopic observers noticed about Mars was its
strange looping path across the sky. While planets tend to slowly travel from west
to east across the background of stars over the period of several nights, occasionally
they reverse course and travel east to west for a period of time before resuming their
normal west-to-east motion. This retrograde (east-to-west) motion is most notice-
able for planets closest to the Earth, and thus Mars’ retrograde motion is apparent
1
2 Introduction to Mars
even to naked-eye observers. The geocentric model of the universe had extreme
difficulty explaining retrograde motion, requiring the use of hundreds of small
circles upon orbital circles (epicycles and deferents). However, retrograde motion
was easily explained when Copernicus rearranged the view of the Solar System in
1543 by placing the Sun at the center and having Earth orbit the Sun along with the
other planets. In the heliocentric model, retrograde motion results when one planet
catches up to and overtakes another during their orbital motions.
Mars also played a major role in determining the shapes of planetary orbits. It was
Tycho Brahe’s very accurate and voluminous observations of Mars’ celestial pos-
itions that led Johannes Kepler in 1609 to deduce that planetary orbits were elliptical
with the Sun at one focus of the orbit. Mars has the second most elliptical orbit of the
eight major planets in the Solar System – Mercury’s orbital eccentricity is higher but
the planet is difficult to observe due to its proximity to the Sun.
1.1.2 Telescopic observations from Earth and space

Although Galileo’s small telescope was unable to reveal anything other than the
reddish-orange disk of the planet in 1609, larger telescopes slowly coaxed more
information from the planet. By 1610, Galileo reported that Mars can show a
gibbous phase, which subsequent observers verified. The first report of albedo
markings on the surface was published in 1659 by Christiaan Huygens, whose map
showed a dark spot which was likely Syrtis Major. The identification of surface
albedo markings allowed astronomers to determine that the rotation period of Mars
was approximately 24 hours. The bright polar caps apparently were not noticed until
Giovanni Cassini reported them in 1666. Cassini’s nephew, Giacomo Maraldi,
made detailed observations of the polar caps during several oppositions, including
the favorable opposition of 1719. Among his discoveries were that the south polar
cap was not centered on the rotation pole, that the polar caps and equatorial dark
areas displayed temporal variations, and that a dark band occurs around the edge of
the receding polar cap (which he interpreted as meltwater).
Sir William Herschel observed Mars from 1777 to 1783 and was the first to
determine that Mars’ rotation axis was tipped approximately 30° from the per-
pendicular to its orbit. This result showed that Mars experiences four seasons,
similar to the Earth. Herschel also determined the planet’s rotation period to be
24 hours 39 minutes 21.67 seconds. Herschel deduced the presence of a thin
atmosphere around Mars based on the changes he saw in the appearance of the
planet, which he attributed to clouds. These were primarily the white clouds which
are now known to be composed of ice particles. The yellow dust clouds were first
reported by Honoré Flaugergues in 1809.
Historical observations 3
Major advances in our understanding of Mars began in 1830 during a close

approach between Mars and Earth. The first complete map of Mars was derived
from observations during this time and published in 1840 by Johan von Mädler and
Wilhelm Beer – this was the first map to establish a latitude–longitude system for the
planet, with the zero longitude line defined through a small, very dark spot. They
also refined the rotation period of Mars to 24 hours 37 minutes 22.6 seconds (within
0.1 second of the currently accepted value). Numerous drawings of Mars were made
between 1830 and the early twentieth century and these drawings were gradually
incorporated into maps by William Dawes in 1864, Richard Proctor in 1867, Nicolas
Flammarion (1876), and E.M. Antoniadi (between 1901 and 1930). Although Proctor
and Flammarion both named features on their maps, the nomenclature system
currently used for martian features is based on one proposed by Giovanni Schiaparelli
on his 1877 map.
Mars and Earth were very close in 1877, resulting in a surge of new discoveries.
Principal among these was the discovery of Mars’ two small moons, Phobos and
Deimos, by Asaph Hall. High-altitude clouds were detected as white spots along the
morning and evening limbs of the planet by Nathaniel Green and the first attempts to
photograph the planet were also made this year by M. Gould. But it was another
observation made in 1877 that would focus considerable attention on Mars for many
years to come: Schiaparelli’s observations of thin dark lines crossing the martian
surface, which he called canali.
Schiaparelli reported thin dark lines crossing the martian surface, but he was
unsure of their origin. As a result, he used the generic term “channel” to describe
these features. A channel is a natural feature which can be formed by flowing liquid/
ice, tectonics, or wind. The Italian word for channel is “canali,” which unfortunately
was mistranslated into English as “canal,” a word that implies a waterway con-
structed by intelligent beings.
The discovery of these “canals” simply augmented several other observations
which people felt supported the idea of life on Mars. Mars displays a number
of Earth-like characteristics which were already known in the nineteenth
century. Mars’ rotation period is about 37 minutes longer than an Earth day,
and, due to the tilt of its rotation axis, it undergoes four seasons just like the
Earth. Telescopic observations had revealed the presence of polar caps and an
atmosphere, although their compositions were unknown. But one of the most
intriguing observations for possible life on Mars was the “wave of darkening.”
Telescopic observations revealed that as one hemisphere’s polar cap began to
recede in the spring, the region immediately surrounding the polar cap became
noticeably darker. As the polar cap continued to recede into summer, the area of
darkening extended towards the equator. As fall arrived and the polar cap began to
increase in size, the “wave of darkening” reversed itself and the hemisphere
Figure 1.1 Image of the martian canals (dark lines) and putative lakes (round dots),
drawn by Percival Lowell on the night of 9 November 1894. (Image courtesy of
Lowell Observatory Archives.)
underwent a “wave of brightening” from the equator toward the poles. Most
people attributed the wave of darkening to the melting of water ice at the polar
caps in the spring and summer and the greening of surface vegetation as it
absorbed this water.
Schiaparelli’s canali were quickly accepted as evidence that not only vegetation
but also intelligent life existed on Mars. This idea was promulgated by Percival
Lowell, a wealthy Bostonian who founded the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, AZ,
in 1894 specifically to study the martian canals. Lowell observed hundreds of single
and double canals using the 0.6-m Clark refracting telescope at the Observatory
(Figure 1.1) and wrote several books describing his thoughts on the origin of these
canals. According to Lowell, ancient Mars retained a thicker atmosphere, which led
to temperate conditions on the surface, including abundant liquid water. A race of
Martians arose under these conditions and settled the entire planet. But since Mars is
only 52% the size of the Earth, the atmosphere gradually began to escape to space,
cooling the surface and making liquid water less abundant. The Martians moved to
the warm equatorial region of the planet and constructed the elaborate network of
canals to bring water from the polar regions to the thirsty masses at the equator.
Lowell realized that the canals themselves would likely be too small to be resolved
with any Earth-based telescope, so he argued that the dark lines he observed were
regions of vegetation bordering the canals. Lowell’s books and public lectures
always drew large, enthusiastic crowds and many science fiction books about
Martians resulted from this discussion (e.g., The Martian Chronicles and The War
of the Worlds).
Most astronomers, however, were not convinced that martian canals existed.
More powerful telescopes did not show dark lines but dark blotches across the
surface. Scientists argued that the linear canals were optical illusions caused by the
Spacecraft missions 5
human mind “connecting the dots” when observing at the limits of a telescope’s
ability. Such conditions are exacerbated by the turbulent atmospheres of both the
Earth and Mars. Testing of human subjects confirmed these arguments. Lowell
countered that the excellent seeing at his Flagstaff site allowed him to observe
features that other telescopes did not reveal. The controversy continued after
Lowell’s death in 1916 and the development of large telescopes such as the 5-m
telescope at Palomar Observatory in California in 1948. It was only after the advent
of spacecraft exploration that astronomers were able to say definitively that canals
do not exist on Mars and that the “wave of darkening” simply results from the
movement of dust and sand across the planet by seasonal winds.
Advances in telescope size and technology have greatly affected the quality and
type of astronomical observations in recent years, and Mars studies have been one of
the areas to reap these benefits. Infrared observations of Mars from Earth-based
telescopes and the Hubble Space Telescope provided evidence of mineralogical
variations across the surface, including the presence of hydrated minerals. The
advent of adaptive optics, together with observations from the Hubble Space
Telescope, have provided dramatic improvements in resolution and allow study of
martian features which previously were only seen by orbiting spacecraft at Mars.
Radar observations from ground-based radio telescopes have provided important
constraints on surface roughness which have been important in the selection of
landing sites for landers and rovers. These ground-based roughness measurements
have only recently been surpassed by the acquisition of Mars Orbiter Laser
Altimeter (MOLA) data from Mars orbit.
Some people argue that ground-based observations of Mars are no longer
needed because of the large number of orbiters and landers currently invading the
planet (Section 1.2). Nothing could be further from the truth. Ground-based
observations can provide the continuous or near-continuous monitoring of rapidly
changing events, such as atmospheric phenomena (including dust storm formation
and propagation) and polar cap changes. Due to orbital constraints, orbiting
spacecraft cannot continuously monitor one location or event each day and
landers/rovers are even more restricted in their observations. The wavelengths of
observation also are restricted on spacecraft instrumentation. Hubble Space
Telescope observations of Mars are few due to the demand for observing time.
Thus, ground-based observations still fill an important niche in our ongoing
observations of Mars.
1.2 Spacecraft missions

Mars has been a major spacecraft destination ever since the early days of space
exploration. This was partly driven by its proximity to Earth, but primarily this
6
Table 1.1 Missions to Mars
Mission Country Launch date Type of mission Results

[Unnamed] USSR 10 Oct 1960 Flyby Did not reach Earth orbit
[Unnamed] USSR 14 Oct 1960 Flyby Did not reach Earth orbit
[Unnamed] USSR 24 Oct 1962 Flyby Achieved Earth orbit only
Mars 1 USSR 1 Nov 1962 Flyby Radio failed at 106×106 km
[Unnamed] USSR 4 Nov 1962 Flyby Achieved Earth orbit only
Zond 2 USSR 30 Oct 1964 Flyby Passed Mars but radio failed
Mariner 3 US 5 Nov 1964 Flyby Shroud failed to jettison
Mariner 4 US 28 Nov 1964 Flyby Successfully flew by 14 July 1965
Mariner 6 US 24 Feb 1969 Flyby Successfully flew by 31 July 1969
Mariner 7 US 27 Mar 1969 Flyby Successfully flew by 5 Aug 1969
Mariner 8 US 8 May 1971 Orbiter Failed during launch
Kosmos 419 USSR 10 May 1971 Lander Achieved Earth orbit only
Mars 2 USSR 10 May 1971 Orbiter/lander No useful data; lander failed
Mars 3 USSR 28 May 1971 Orbiter/lander Arrived 3 Dec 1971; some data
Mariner 9 US 30 May 1971 Orbiter In orbit 13 Nov 1971 to 27 Oct 1972
Mars 4 USSR 21 July 1973 Orbiter Failed; flew past Mars 10 Feb 1974
Mars 5 USSR 25 July 1973 Orbiter Arrived 12 Feb 1974; lasted a few days
Mars 6 USSR 5 Aug 1973 Orbiter/lander Arrived 12 Mar 1974; little data return
Mars 7 USSR 9 Aug 1973 Orbiter/lander Arrived 9 Mar 1974; little data return
Viking 1 US 20 Aug 1975 Orbiter/lander Orbiter lasted 19 June 1976–7 Aug 1980;
lander operated 20 July 1976–13 Nov 1982
Viking 2 US 9 Sept 1975 Orbiter/lander Orbiter lasted 7 Aug 1976–25 July 1978;
lander operated 3 Sept 1976–7 Aug 1980
Phobos 1 USSR 7 July 1988 Orbiter/lander Lost en route to Mars
Phobos 2 USSR 12 July 1988 Orbiter/lander Lost March 1989 near Phobos
Mars Observer US 25 Sept 1992 Orbiter Lost just before Mars arrival
Mars Global Surveyor US 7 Nov 1996 Orbiter Operated 12 Sept 1997–2 Nov 2006
Mars 96 Russia 16 Nov 1996 Orbiter/lander Launch vehicle failed
Mars Pathfinder US 4 Dec 1996 Lander/rover Operated 4 July 1997–27 Sept 1997
Nozomi Japan 4 July 1998 Orbiter In heliocentric orbit
Mars Climate Orbiter US 11 Dec 1998 Orbiter Lost on arrival 23 Sept 1999
Mars Polar Lander/Deep Space 2 US 3 Jan 1999 Lander/penetrators Lost on arrival 3 Dec 1999
Mars Odyssey US 7 Apr 2001 Orbiter Arrived 24 Oct 2004; still operating
Mars Express ESA 2 June 2003 Orbiter/lander Arrived 25 Dec 2003; orbiter operating,
lander lost upon landing
Mars Exploration Rovers:
Spirit US 10 June 2003 Rover Arrived 3 Jan 2004; still operating
Opportunity US 7 July 2003 Rover Arrived 25 Jan 2004; still operating
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter US 12 Aug 2005 Orbiter Arrived 10 Mar 2006; still operating
7
interest resulted from the question of whether life could ever have existed on our
neighbor. Even today much of the incentive for Mars exploration is driven by
questions related to whether the planet could have supported life in the past or even
today. NASA’s mantra of “Follow the water” focuses on how water has affected the
geologic and climatic evolution of the planet and its implications for biologic
activity. Although there is considerable interest in exploring Mars, it has not been
the easiest place to explore. Approximately two-thirds of all spacecraft missions to
date have been partial or complete failures. A list of the missions which have been
launched through 2006 is given in Table 1.1. These missions are described in more
detail in the following sections.
1.2.1 US missions to Mars

The United States began its spacecraft exploration of Mars in 1964 when it launched
the Mariner 3 and 4 spacecraft. Although both missions launched successfully, the
solar panels powering Mariner 3 did not deploy and that mission ended up in solar
orbit. Mariner 4 became the first successful flyby mission of Mars when it passed
within 9920 km of the planet’s surface on 14 July 1965. It returned 22 close-up
photos, revealing a heavily cratered surface (Figure 1.2). Spacecraft instruments
confirmed that Mars is surrounded by an atmosphere primarily composed of carbon
dioxide (CO2) and that this atmosphere exerted a surface pressure in the range of
500 to 1000 Pascal (Pa). Mariner 4 also reported the existence of a small intrinsic
magnetic field. After its successful flyby of Mars, Mariner 4 went into solar orbit
where it remains to this day.
Mariners 6 and 7 expanded upon the discoveries made by Mariner 4. Mariner 6
passed within 3437km of the planet’s equatorial region on 3 July 1969 and Mariner
7 followed on 5 August 1969, passing 3551km over the south polar region.
Mariners 6 and 7 returned over 200 pictures of the martian surface and provided
measurements of the surface and atmospheric temperatures, surface molecular
composition, and atmospheric pressure.
These three flyby missions returned important new information about Mars, but
the amount of surface area covered by their cameras was very small and suggested
that Mars was a heavily cratered, geologically dead world. That view changed
dramatically when Mariner 9 entered orbit on 24 November 1971. Mariner 9 was
one of two orbiters launched in May 1971, but its companion, Mariner 8, failed to
reach Earth orbit. Mariner 9, along with its Soviet counterparts Mars 2 and 3
(Section 1.2.2) arrived when Mars was shrouded in a global-wide dust storm.
Most of the scientific experiments were delayed because of the dust storm and
the spacecraft was reprogrammed to image the two martian moons, Phobos and
Deimos. By January 1972, the dust storm began to subside and Mariner 9 resumed
Figure 1.2 View of the martian surface taken by the Mariner 4 spacecraft. Craters can
be seen, but little else is discernible in this image. (Image PIA02979, NASA/JPL.)
Figure 1.3 One of the first views of the Valles Marineris canyon system, taken by
the Mariner 9 spacecraft as the global dust storm was subsiding. (Image PIA02998,
NASA/JPL.)
its planned activities. The mission was an outstanding success and operated until 27
October 1972. Among the discoveries made by Mariner 9 were the existence of
young volcanoes, canyons (Figure 1.3), and channels in addition to the heavily
cratered ancient terrain; meteorological phenomena such as local dust storms,
weather fronts, ice clouds, and morning fog; detailed information about the size and
shape of Mars, Phobos, and Deimos; temperature gradients within the atmosphere;
thermal properties of the surface and atmosphere; and better constraints on the
atmospheric composition and pressure.
The discovery of channels formed by a flowing liquid, most likely water, was one
of the most exciting results from the Mariner 9 mission. Although Mariners 4, 6, and
7 had unequivocally shown that liquid water cannot exist under the low pressures
and temperatures present at the surface today, the channels showed that conditions
Figure 1.4 Viking 1 lander view of the surface of Mars. Viking 1 lander landed in
the Chryse Planitia region within material deposited by flooding through the
outflow channels. Large rock on the left (“Big Joe”) is ∼2 m high. Rocks and
dunes/drifts are visible in this image. (Image PIA00393, NASA/JPL.)
had likely changed through martian history. With the possibility that liquid water
had existed on the planet’s surface, the question of life on Mars again arose. In
response to this resurgence of interest in biology, NASA’s next two missions,
Vikings 1 and 2 (Soffen, 1977; Kieffer et al., 1992), included landers which tested
the soil for evidence of microorganisms. In addition to the landers, each spacecraft
also consisted of an orbiter to provide detailed views of the entire planet.
The Viking 1 orbiter/lander spacecraft was launched 20 August 1975 and arrived
at Mars on 19 June 1976. The spacecraft spent approximately one month imaging
the martian surface to find a safe site for the lander. On 20 July 1976 (the seventh
anniversary of Apollo 11 landing on the Moon), the Viking 1 lander set down at
22.48°N 312.03°E in Chryse Planitia within the outwash deposits of several large
channels. The lander operated until 13 November 1982, taking pictures of its
surroundings (Figure 1.4) and testing the soil for evidence of microorganisms. The
orbiter was deactivated on 7 August 1980 when it ran out of attitude-control
propellant.
Viking 2 was launched 9 September 1975 and went into Mars orbit on 7 August
1976. The lander set down on 3 September 1976 in the Utopia Planitia region of
Mars at 47.97°N 134.26°E. The orbiter ran out of attitude-control gas and was
deactivated on 25 July 1978. The lander then used the Viking 1 orbiter as a com-
munication relay and had to be shut down when that orbiter was deactivated on 7
August 1980.
The Viking orbiters mapped the entire surface of Mars and acquired over 52000
images. They provided detailed views of the surface geology and atmospheric
phenomena for about two Mars years, including the first close-up long-term view of
seasonal variations. The Mars Atmospheric Water Detector (MAWD) provided
information on the concentrations and transport of water vapor in the atmosphere

and revealed the importance of the seasonal water cycle for both the atmosphere and
polar regions (Section 6.3.3). The Infrared Thermal Mapper (IRTM) recorded
temperature, albedo, and thermal inertia data for the entire planet, the latter pro-
viding important constraints on regional variations in the particle size of surface
materials.
The Viking landers measured temperature, density, and composition of the
atmosphere as a function of height during their descent. Once on the ground, both
landers deployed all of their instruments successfully except for one of the seis-
mometers. Both returned the first color views of the surface of Mars, revealing a
rocky and dusty surface. The biology experiments (Section 8.2) were designed to
test the soil for organics and detect any possible biogenic waste products resulting
from the various tests. The experiments found no unequivocal evidence for life but
did discover that the soil readily releases a variety of gases when moistened. Other
experiments on the landers included a meteorology station which measured daily
pressure, temperature, and wind variations, a magnetic properties investigation that
tested the magnetic properties of martian soil, and an investigation which used the
robotic sampling arm to determine the physical properties of the soil. Radio signals
from the two landers not only helped to identify their exact locations but also have
been used to determine accurately the precession and spin deceleration rates
for Mars.
Following the end of the Viking missions, US exploration of Mars entered a
substantial lull, not broken until the 1990s. The Mars Observer mission, launched on
25 September 1992, was to be a triumphant “return to Mars,” with instruments
designed to study the surface composition and properties, topography, atmospheric
composition and dynamics, and magnetic field environment for at least one entire
martian year (Albee et al., 1992). Unfortunately, communication was lost while
the spacecraft was entering Mars orbit on 22 August 1993. It is believed that a fuel
line cracked during the transfer of fuel in preparation for orbit insertion, causing the
spacecraft to tumble out of control.
New instruments have been flown on recent missions in an attempt to recover the
science lost on Mars Observer. The first mission to recover some of the initial
investigations was Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) (Albee et al., 2001). This was
launched on 7 November 1996, successfully achieved Mars orbit on 11 September
1997, and operated until 2 November 2006 when radio communication was lost.
The Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) consisted of three components: a black-and-white
narrow-angle camera providing high-resolution imagery (1.5 to 12 m/pixel reso-
lution), and red-and-blue wide-angle cameras which provide context (240 m/pixel
resolution) and daily global imaging (7.5 m/pixel resolution). The Mars Orbiter
Laser Altimeter (MOLA) used laser pulses to determine topography and roughness
Figure 1.5 Mars Pathfinder view of Chryse Planitia. The rover Sojourner is seen
investigating the large rock “Yogi.” “Twin Peaks” are seen in the distance. (Image
PIA01005, NASA/JPL.)
values for the surface. The Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) provided
information about the thermal properties of the surface and atmosphere as well as
surface composition. Additional information about the atmosphere and its structure
was obtained through MGS’s Radio Science Experiment, which provided daily
weather reports for the planet. The Magnetometer investigation (MAG) provided
the first detailed constraints on an active martian magnetic field and detected
remnant magnetization in surface rocks.
MGS arrived at Mars shortly after the first successful rover was deployed on the
planet. The Mars Pathfinder (MPF) mission was launched 4 December 1996,
the second of NASA’s low-cost Discovery missions. The lander set down in the
outwash region of Ares Vallis (19.13°N 326.78°E), a large channel on Mars, on
4 July 1997 (Golombek et al., 1999a) (Figure 1.5). The mission utilized a new type
of landing mechanism, using airbags to cushion the landing of the spacecraft. After
landing, the airbags deflated and retracted, the triangular-shaped lander opened,
and the small rover, called Sojourner (after American civil-rights leader Sojourner
Truth), rolled onto the martian surface. Although the rover was expected to last for
only one week and the lander for one month, they both operated until 27 September
1997. The rover traveled a distance of ∼100m near the lander in its three months
of operation. The lander contained a stereo camera (Imager for Mars Pathfinder:
IMP) and a meteorology package (Atmospheric Structure Instrument/Meteorology
Package: ASI/MET). The rover carried a navigation camera and an Alpha Proton
X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS) to characterize soil and rock compositions. Magnets
attached to the lander also provided information about the magnetic properties
of dust.
The year 1999 was to be an exciting one for Mars exploration with the addition
of two more American spacecraft. The Mars Climate Orbiter (MCO) was launched
on 11 December 1998, and was designed to serve as a martian weather satellite.

The mission carried two instruments: an atmospheric sounder (a similar instru-
ment was lost on the Mars Observer mission) and a color imager. Unfortunately an
error in converting between English and metric measurement units caused the
spacecraft to enter the atmosphere too low during aerobraking operations and
the spacecraft probably burned up in the atmosphere. MCO’s 1999 companion
spacecraft, the Mars Polar Lander (MPL), was to land on the edge of the south
polar cap. It included a sample arm which was to dig into the soil and measure
water content and thermal properties. Attached to MPL were two small penetra-
tors, the Deep Space 2 (DS2) mission, which were to separate from the spacecraft
during descent and impact into the ice-rich materials near the south pole. No
communications from either MPL or DS2 were ever received. The MPL landing
may have failed due to sensors on the lander’s legs shutting off the rockets too
soon, causing the spacecraft to crash.
The loss of both 1999 missions was a major setback to America’s exploration of
Mars. A planned lander for 2001 was canceled because its landing gear was iden-
tical to that of MPL – until the loss of MPL was understood and corrected, nobody
was willing to spend the money on another mission which could suffer the same
fate. The orbiter planned for 2001 proceeded and was renamed the Mars Odyssey
mission (in reference to Arthur C. Clarke’s book 2001: A Space Odyssey). Odyssey
was to carry the last of the Mars Observer replacement instruments: a Gamma
Ray Spectrometer (GRS) instrument package to measure gamma rays and neutrons
produced by surface materials either through natural radioactive decay or by inter-
action with cosmic rays. Odyssey was launched 7 April 2001 and entered Mars orbit
on 24 October 2001. In addition to GRS, Odyssey also carries the Thermal Emission
Imaging System (THEMIS) instrument which observes the planet in both visible
(VIS: 18 m/pixel resolution) and infrared (IR: 100 m/pixel resolution) wavelengths.
The IR camera operates during both day and night, providing extremely valuable
information about the thermophysical properties of surface materials. Daytime IR also
is used to determine the mineralogical variations which occur across the martian
surface. GRS constrains abundances of a variety of elements, including water (H2O)
and carbon dioxide (CO2), within the upper meter of the surface. A third instrument,
the Martian Radiation Experiment (MARIE), provided important insights into the
radiation environment at Mars until the instrument was damaged by a large solar flare
event on 28 October 2003. As of late 2006, Odyssey’s THEMIS and GRS instru-
ments continue to return data.
The two Mars Exploration Rover (MER) missions, named Spirit and Opportunity,
were sent to Mars in 2003 to investigate sites which might contain evidence of ancient
water and the early martian climate. Spirit was launched on 10 June 2003, with
Opportunity following on 7 July. Both rovers utilized the airbag-cushion landing
Figure 1.6 Spirit image of the Gusev Crater plains. This image was taken shortly
after Spirit landed. Columbia Hills, ∼3km away, can be seen in the distance.
(NASA/JPL/Cornell University.)
Figure 1.7 Meridiani Planum from Opportunity. The bedrock exposed in the walls
of Eagle Crater can be seen from this image taken by Opportunity shortly after it
landed. Landing platform is seen at the bottom of the image. (NASA/JPL/Cornell
University.)
system first developed for MPF. Spirit successfully landed at 14.5692°S 175.4729°E
on 3 January 2004 inside the 160-km-diameter Gusev impact crater, selected because
it was interpreted to be the site of an old lakebed (Squyres et al., 2004a) (Figure 1.6).
Opportunity landed on 25 January 2004 in Meridiani Planum (1.9483°S 354.47417°E)
(Figure 1.7), a region containing an abundance of the mineral hematite which often
forms in a water-rich environment (Squyres et al., 2004b). Although the primary
mission for both rovers was 90 days, both are still operating as of the end of 2006. The
rovers each carry a Panoramic Camera (Pancam) to survey their surroundings, a
Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mini-TES) to determine the mineralogy
of soil and rocks, a Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT) which allows them to grind past
surface coatings and into the unweathered interiors of rocks, a Microscopic Imager
(MI) to obtain magnified views of rocks and soils, an Alpha Particle X-ray Spec-
trometer (APXS) which can be placed against rocks/soil to determine their chemical
compositions, and a Mössbauer Spectrometer to determine iron phase and concen-

trations in the analyzed materials.
The early Mariner and Viking missions provided our first detailed views of Mars.
More recent missions (MGS, Pathfinder, Odyssey, and MER) have expanded these
initial views and are allowing us to reconstruct the evolutionary history of Mars’
surface and atmosphere at a level that was impossible to conceive of with the early
missions. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, which launched 12 August 2005 and
entered Mars orbit on 10 March 2006, and several future missions, such as the 2007
Phoenix lander and the 2009 Mars Science Laboratory, promise to continue adding
new insights into our understanding of the Red Planet.
1.2.2 Soviet/Russian Mars missions

The former Soviet Union also was interested in sending spacecraft to Mars from the
early days of space exploration. As was often the case during this period of the
Space Race between the USSR and USA, the Soviets were the first to send a
spacecraft to Mars. After several failures, the Soviets succeeded with the Mars 1
spacecraft, which launched on 1 November 1962 and flew within 195000 km of the
martian surface on 19 June 1963. The spacecraft was designed to photograph the
planet, obtain data on the solar wind during transit, and determine if Mars had a
magnetic field. The orientation system for the antenna failed in March 1963 so no
data were returned during the actual flyby.
A replica of Mars 1 was launched as Zond 2 on 30 November 1964, but one of its
solar panels failed and the power output was only half of what was planned.
Communications were lost in May 1965, so once again no data were returned during
the probe’s flyby of Mars on 6 August 1965. Zond 3 missed the Mars launch
window in 1964. It was launched on 18 July 1965 on a trajectory towards Mars
orbit, even though the planet would not be in the vicinity at the time of “encounter.”
Two Soviet launch attempts in 1969 both failed as did the Kosmos 419 launch in
1971. The Soviets had better luck with the Mars 2 and 3 orbiter/lander spacecraft,
launched 19 May and 28 May 1971, respectively. Both achieved Mars orbit in late
November, a few weeks after Mariner 9 arrived at Mars. Both Mars 2 and 3 were
preprogrammed to take pictures of the planet upon their arrival. Unfortunately the
global dust storm of 1971 had completely covered the planet by the time the two
Soviet spacecraft arrived. Pictures were taken, but they showed only the featureless
face of the planet. Other instruments, however, provided more useful data. The
infrared radiometer provided the first indication of surface temperatures and thermal
inertia, suggesting the planet’s surface was covered by dry dust. Temperature
observations of the north polar cap were close to the condensation temperature
of carbon dioxide, indicating that CO2 is a major component of the ice caps.
Observations of the atmosphere with the Mars 2 and 3 photometers indicated that
the altitude of the dust storm clouds was ∼10 km and that the amount of water vapor
in the atmosphere during the dust storm was extremely low. Sizes of dust particles
(a few microns) and particles in the polar condensation clouds (sub-microns) were
made, and radiation scattered from the atmosphere (particularly the Lyman alpha
line of hydrogen and the atomic oxygen triplet) was measured. The radio occultation
experiment on Mars 2 revealed two major regions of the martian ionosphere, sep-
arated by composition and scale height. Measurements of the martian magnetic field
indicated a very weak field, with a magnetic moment ∼4000 times smaller than
Earth’s. Both spacecraft continued operating for four months in orbit, although
their orbits provided only seven opportunities for close-up observations. The
telemetry of Mars 2 was of very low quality so most of the data from this spacecraft
were lost.
Both Mars 2 and 3 also carried landers (called “descent modules” by the Soviets)
which were deployed shortly before each orbiter entered Mars orbit. The Mars 2
descent module was released on 27 November but it failed during descent and
crashed. The Mars 3 descent module was released on 2 December and successfully
descended to the martian surface. After 20 seconds of transmission, however,
communication from the lander ceased and was never recovered.
The Mars 4 and 5 orbiters were launched during the 1973 launch window, on 21
July and 25 July, respectively. These were followed by the launches of the Mars 6
and 7 lander carriers on 5 August and 9 August. All four spacecraft arrived at Mars
between February and March of 1974. Mars 4 suffered a propellant loss which
prevented it from entering Mars orbit. It flew by at 2200 km from the surface, but its
radio occultation data detected the nighttime ionosphere for the first time. Mars 5
entered orbit successfully but survived only 22 orbits because of loss of pressur-
ization in the compartment containing the transmitter. The spacecraft returned 60
photographs covering the same area photographed by Mariner 6 in 1969. Mars 5
was the first spacecraft to determine that thermal inertia varies across the surface of
Mars, indicating differences in particle size of surface materials. Gamma-ray
spectrometry showed that uranium (U), thorium (Th), and potassium (K) concen-
trations were similar to terrestrial mafic rock concentrations. Data from Mars 4 and 5
revealed that the surface pressure was 670 Pa. Mars 5 also found higher water-vapor
levels in the martian atmosphere than had been detected by Mars 3 during the dust
storm. Ozone was detected near 40 km altitude, but the concentration was about
three orders of magnitude smaller than ozone values on Earth. The US Mariner
missions had detected ozone near the martian poles, but Mars 5 also detected it near
the equator, although in smaller concentrations. Altitudes and temperatures of the
atmospheric layers were better constrained by Mars 5 observations and three plasma
zones near the planet were detected.
Neither of the descent modules launched in 1973 survived to the surface. The
descent module from Mars 7 missed the planet completely. The Mars 6 descent
module sent back information during descent, providing the first in situ observations
of the atmospheric density and temperature profiles. However, the signal promptly
ceased upon landing, suggesting that the lander crashed.
The Soviets did not return to Mars until 1988, focusing their space exploration
efforts on Venus in the interim. The Phobos 1 and 2 spacecraft were launched on
7 July and 12 July 1988, respectively, and, as the spacecraft names suggest, the main
target was actually Mars’ largest moon, Phobos. The spacecraft would eventually
achieve a circular orbit around Phobos and send two small stationary landers to the
surface to study the elemental composition of the moon, and the orbiters would use
laser and ion guns to evaporate small pieces of soil to measure the surface com-
position using mass spectrometers. Phobos 2 also contained a small lander, called
“Hopper,” which could hop across the surface of Phobos and measure the elemental
composition in different locations.
Phobos 1 received an erroneous command sequence which switched off the
communications system less than two months after launch. This problem was never
resolved and the spacecraft was lost. Phobos 2 entered Mars orbit on 29 January 1989
with a series of orbit corrections planned over the next two months to bring the
spacecraft into orbit around Phobos. Phobos 2 made a number of observations of
Mars, including the first thermal infrared wavelength images of the surface by the
TERMOSKAN instrument. New information about topography and mineralogy of
the martian surface was obtained from the near-infrared mapping spectrometer (ISM)
and the thermal infrared radiometer (KRFM) revealed atmospheric features due to
aerosol formation such as clouds and limb brightenings. The occultation spec-
trometer (AUGUST) provided detailed information on the daily variations in
atmospheric ozone and water vapor. Although communications were lost just as
the Phobos 2 spacecraft was maneuvering into orbit around Phobos, the spacecraft
provided detailed images of the moon, the first accurate estimates of the moon’s mass
and density, information about the surface composition, and temperature variations
across the surface. The density and compositional information showed that Phobos
was not as similar to carbonaceous chondrites as had been previously believed and
that the moon’s interior must be more porous than had been expected.
The most recent attempt by the Russians to reach Mars was in 1996 with the
Mars 96 mission. The mission contained an orbiter, two surface landers, and two
penetrators. It was an ambitious mission, designed to study the topography and
mineralogic/elemental composition of the martian surface, study the martian climate
and monitor variations in temperature, pressure, aerosols, and composition over time,
study the internal structure of the planet, and characterize the plasma environment
near Mars. The mission launched 16 November 1996, but a failure of the booster
rockets caused the mission to crash into the Pacific Ocean.
1.2.3 European Space Agency Mars missions

The European Space Agency (ESA) has long been interested in sending a mission to
Mars and several concept studies have been completed over the years. The first Mars
mission for which funding was approved was Mars Express (Chicarro, 2002). Mars
Express consisted of an orbiter and the Beagle 2 surface lander. The combined
orbiter/lander spacecraft was launched on 2 June 2003 and reached Mars orbit on
25 December 2003. The Beagle 2 lander separated from the orbiter six days before
Mars orbit insertion. Beagle 2 was to descend through the atmosphere, slowed by a
parachute, and land on the surface using the airbag-type design utilized for Mars
Pathfinder and the Mars Exploration Rover missions. It was designed to study the
geology and mineralogy of its landing site in Isidis Planitia, study the weather and
climate at the landing site, and search for signatures of life. Unfortunately no signal
was detected from Beagle 2 after its landing and the lander was declared lost on
6 February 2004.
The Mars Express orbiter, however, has been very successful. All of its instruments
have checked out and are returning data. The instruments include several that were
lost on the Mars 96 mission, including the High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC),
the Observatoire pour la Minéralogie, l’Eau, les Glaces, et l’Activité (OMEGA)
Visible and Infrared Mineralogical Mapping Spectrometer, the Spectroscopy for
Investigation of Characteristics of the Atmosphere of Mars (SPICAM) Ultraviolet and
Infrared Atmospheric Spectrometer, the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS), and
the Analyzer of Space Plasma and Energetic Atoms (ASPERA) energetic neutral
atoms analyzer. The Mars Radio Science Experiment (MaRS) and Mars Advanced
Radar for Subsurface and Ionospheric Sounding (MARSIS) instrument are new
experiments on Mars Express.
HRSC has produced spectacular three-dimensional images of the martian surface
(Figure 1.8) and is providing important new insights into the surface ages and
geologic evolution of the planet. OMEGA has been providing evidence of water ice
in the martian polar caps and mineralogic variations across the planet’s surface.
SPICAM has recently reported nighttime light emissions in the upper atmosphere of
Mars due to nitrogen oxide production and the presence of aurorae over the regions
retaining strong remnant magnetization (as revealed by MGS’s magnetometer
experiment). One of the most exciting results from Mars Express has been the
detection of atmospheric methane (CH4) by the PFS experiment – the short lifetime
of CH4 in the martian atmosphere indicates that this molecule must be replenished
by currently active volcanic or hydrothermal processes or perhaps by biologic
activity. ASPERA is providing detailed measurements of the plasma environment
and upper atmosphere of Mars and has confirmed that the solar wind erodes the
upper atmosphere of Mars, providing a mechanism for the loss of water from the
Mars’ orbital properties 19
Figure 1.8 Valles Marineris canyon system from HRSC. Stereo images are
produced from Mars Express’ High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC). This
stereo image reveals details of Coprates Canyon within the Valles Marineris
canyon system. (Image SEMPH01DU8E, ESA/DLR/FU Berlin (G. Neukum).)
planet. MaRS is giving new insights into the structure of the martian atmosphere.
MARSIS was deployed in late 2005 and has resolved layering within the polar
deposits and buried impact basins. All of these instruments promise to make major
changes to our understanding of our neighboring world.
1.2.4 Japanese missions to Mars

Japan joined the international exploration of Mars in 1998 with the launch of the Planet
B mission. After launch, the mission was renamed Nozomi, Japanese for “hope.” The
mission was designed to study the upper atmosphere of Mars and its interactions with
the solar wind. The mission launched on 3 July 1998 and was originally expected to
enter Mars orbit on 11 October 1999. However a malfunctioning valve caused the
spacecraft to lose some fuel and two subsequent course-correction burns used more
fuel than expected. Since Nozomi no longer had enough fuel for its originally planned
trajectory, Japanese engineers put the spacecraft into a heliocentric orbit for four years,
allowing it to use two more Earth gravity assists to get it to Mars on a slower trajectory.
Its new arrival date at Mars was 14 December 2003. On 9 December 2003, efforts to
orient the spacecraft for its orbit insertion five days later failed. Nozomi was put into a
heliocentric orbit and all attempts to have it enter Mars orbit were abandoned.
1.3 Mars’ orbital properties

1.3.1 Orbital elements
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun, with an average distance of 2.279·108 km
(1.5237 AU). Mars’ orbit is inclined 1.850° to the ecliptic plane. Its orbit is among
the most elliptical of the planetary orbits, with an eccentricity of 0.0934. This high
Table 1.2 Orbital properties of Mars
Semimajor axis 2.2792·108 km

1.52371034 AU
Eccentricity 0.0933941
Inclination 1.84969142°
Longitude of ascending node 49.55953891°
Longitude of perihelion 336.0563704°
Sidereal orbital period 686.98 days
Synodic orbital period 779.94 days
Mean orbital velocity 24.13km s− 1
Maximum orbital velocity 26.50km s− 1
Minimum orbital velocity 21.97km s− 1
Obliquity 25.19°
Source: JPL Solar System Dynamics page: ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/

and NSSDC Mars FactSheet: nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/
factsheet/marsfact.html
eccentricity causes a noticeable difference in Mars’ perihelion and aphelion dis-

tances. The equation of an ellipse in polar coordinates is
að1 e2 Þ
r¼ (1:2)
ð1 þ e cos hÞ
where a is the semimajor axis of the orbit, e is the eccentricity, and h is the true
anomaly (the angular distance from perihelion to the planet’s location, in the dir-
ection of orbital motion). Since Mars’ average distance from the Sun is its semi-
major axis (a ¼ 2.279·108 km) and we know its orbital eccentricity (e ¼ 0.0934),
we can calculate the distance of Mars at perihelion (h ¼ 0°) and aphelion (h ¼ 180°).
At perihelion (q), the above equation reduces to
q ¼ að1 eÞ, (1:3)
giving a value of 2.066·108 km (1.381 AU). At aphelion (Q), we get
Q ¼ að1 þ eÞ: (1:4)
Mars’ aphelion distance is thus 2.492·108 km (1.666 AU). A summary of Mars’
orbital properties for equinox 2000 is provided in Table 1.2.
From Kepler’s third law of planetary motion
4p2 a3
P2 ¼ (1:5)
GðMSun þ MMars Þ
we can determine the orbital period (P) of Mars from its semimajor axis (a) (G is the
universal gravitational constant ¼ 6.67·10−11 N m2 kg−2, MSun is the mass of the
Physical properties of Mars 21
Sun, and MMars is the mass of Mars). The result is 686.98 Earth days. Mars’ mean
orbital velocity around the Sun is 24.13km s−1, giving rise to a mean orbital
motion of 0.52405° per day. Its maximum orbital velocity, achieved at perihelion, is
26.50km s−1, while its minimum orbital velocity is 21.97km s−1 at aphelion.
Mars’ equator is inclined relative to its orbital plane due to the tilt (obliquity) of
the rotation axis. Currently the obliquity of Mars is 25.19°. However, as noted in
Section 7.4.2, Mars’ obliquity (as well as its orbital eccentricity and inclination)
vary with time due to gravitational perturbations from the other planets, particularly
Jupiter. Currently the position of Mars’ north celestial pole is near right ascension
21h 8m, declination þ52° 53′, close to the star Alpha Cygni (Deneb).
1.3.2 Mars’ orbital properties with respect to the Sun and Earth
The vernal equinox on Mars is offset about 85° from Earth’s vernal equinox. The
longitude of the Sun (LS) as seen from Mars ranges from 0° through 360°. For the
vernal equinox, the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere, LS ¼ 0°. Northern
hemisphere summer solstice occurs at LS ¼ 90°, northern autumnal equinox is at
LS ¼ 180°, and northern winter solstice occurs at LS ¼ 270° (Carr, 1981). Mars’
perihelion occurs near LS ¼ 250°, close to summer solstice in the southern hemi-
sphere. Mars’ high orbital eccentricity results in the seasons having different lengths.
Northern spring (southern autumn) lasts for 199.6 Earth days, northern summer
(southern winter) is 181.7 Earth days in length, northern autumn (southern spring) is
145.6 Earth days long, and northern winter (southern summer) lasts 160.1 Earth days.
Mars and Earth reach opposition (when the two planets are aligned on the same side
of the Sun) approximately every 779 Earth days. The two planets are closest near this
time, although the orbital eccentricities and inclinations can separate the date of closest
approach from opposition by a few days. The Earth–Mars distance at opposition varies
between 56·106 km and 101·106 km, depending on where Earth and Mars are in their
orbits. The closest approaches occur at perihelic oppositions, when Earth is near
aphelion and Mars is near perihelion. These happen approximately every 17 years. The
furthest distances occur at aphelic oppositions when Earth is near perihelion and
Mars near aphelion. A list of all Mars oppositions between 2000 and 2020 is given in
Table 1.3. Mars’ apparent diameter as seen from the Earth ranges from over 25
arcseconds (00 ) at perihelic oppositions to just under 1400 at aphelic oppositions.
1.4 Physical properties of Mars

1.4.1 Rotation
Mars’ physical properties are listed in Table 1.4. Mars’ sidereal rotation period is
24h 37m 22.65s, slightly longer than the terrestrial period of 23h 56m 4.09s. The
Table 1.3 Mars oppositions (2000–2020)
Opposition date Closest approach Closest distance Apparent diameter

date (106 km) (arcseconds)
2001 June 13 June 21 67.34 20.79
2003 August 28 August 27 55.76 25.11a
2005 November 7 October 30 69.42 20.19
2007 December 24 December 18 88.17 15.88
2010 January 29 January 27 99.3 14.1
2012 March 3 March 5 100.8 13.9b
2014 April 8 April 14 92.4 15.2
2016 May 22 May 30 75.3 18.6
2018 July 27 July 31 57.6 24.3
2020 October 13 October 6 62.2 22.6
a
Perihelic opposition.
b
Aphelic opposition.
Source: Students for the Exploration and Development of Space (SEDS) website:
www.seds.org/∼spider/spider/Mars/marsopps.html
Table 1.4 Physical properties of Mars
Mass 6.4185×1023 kg
Volume 1.6318×1011 km3
Mean density 3933kg m−3
Mean radius 3389.508km
Mean equatorial radius 3396.200km
North polar radius 3376.189km
South polar radius 3382.580km
Sidereal rotation period 24.622958 h
Solar day 24.659722 h
Flattening 0.00648
Precession rate −7576 milli-arcseconds yr−1
Surface gravity 3.71 m s−2
Escape velocity 5.03km s−1
Bond albedo 0.250
Visual geometric albedo 0.150
Blackbody temperature 210.1 K
Source: Data from Smith et al. (2001a) and NSSDC Mars Fact Sheet:
nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/marsfact.html
direction of rotation is the same as on Earth, counterclockwise as seen from above

the ecliptic. The Earth’s solar day is defined to be exactly 24h; Mars’ solar day is 24h
39m 35s and is called a “sol.” In the remainder of this book, we will use the term
“days” to refer to Earth days and “sols” to refer to Mars days.
Martian moons 23
Mars’ rotation axis undergoes precession due to the gravitational influences of the
other planets. From observed changes in the martian rotation rate measured by the
Viking landers in the 1970s and the Mars Pathfinder mission in 1997, the precession
rate is –757635 milli-arcseconds per year (Folkner et al., 1997). The rate of
change of right ascension in the martian equatorial coordinate system due to pre-
cession is −0.1061° per century and the rate of change of declination is −0.0609°
per century (Folkner et al., 1997).
1.4.2 Size
A detailed discussion of Mars’ shape as revealed from geophysical measurements is
given in Chapter 3. The current best estimate of the equatorial radius of Mars as
measured from the center of figure of the planet is 3397km (Smith et al., 1999). The
radius measured through the poles is slightly less, as is typical for rapidly rotating
planets which display an equatorial bulge. Mars’ polar radius is 3375km. The
flattening ( f ) of Mars is obtained by comparing its equatorial radius (Requatorial) and
its polar radius (Rpolar):
ðRequatorial Rpolar Þ
f ¼ : (1:6)
Requatorial
This gives a value of 0.00648. The mean radius of Mars, which is used in most
discussions, is 3390km.
1.4.3 Mass and density

Mars’ mass has been determined from analysis of the orbits of its two moons and the
multitude of orbiting spacecraft. The planet has a mass of 6.4185·1023 kg, about
11% of the Earth’s mass. The shape of Mars will be discussed in Chapter 3, but from
geophysical analysis the volume is calculated to be 1.6318·1011 km3. That gives a
mean density of 3933kg m−3, indicating a rocky body with a small iron core.
1.5 Martian moons

Mars’ two small moons were discovered during the 1877 perihelic opposition.
Asaph Hall of the US Naval Observatory discovered the outermost moon (Deimos)
on 12 August 1877, followed by the inner moon (Phobos) six nights later. Hall was
becoming frustrated in his attempts to discover any satellites of Mars and was ready
to give up. His wife, Chloe Angeline Stickney Hall, convinced him to keep
searching a little longer, which led to the moons’ discovery. In honor of his wife’s
persuasion, the largest crater on Phobos is named Stickney (the second largest crater
on Phobos is named Hall after Asaph). Hall named the two moons after the
Figure 1.9 Phobos as seen from HRSC. Mars’ largest moon, Phobos, displays a
heavily cratered and fractured surface. Stickney crater (left) and the fractures
radiating from it are visible in this image taken by HRSC on Mars Express. (Image
SEMPVS1A90E, ESA/DLR/FU Berlin (G. Neukum).)
mythological sons of the Greek war god Ares: Phobos, the personification of fear or
fright, and Deimos, representing dread or terror.
1.5.1 Phobos
Phobos is the larger and innermost of the two moons. It has a very irregular shape
(Figure 1.9) with best-fit triaxial ellipsoid radii of 13.3·11.1·9.30.3km (Batson
et al., 1992). The moon has a mass of 1.06·1016 kg and a density of 1900kg m−3.
This low density suggests that Phobos is either very porous, perhaps with large
amounts of ice in its interior, or is a rubble-pile object similar to many asteroids,
where the solid pieces are weakly held together by the moon’s gravity.
The semimajor axis of Phobos around Mars is 9378.5km. At this distance it
takes Phobos 0.31891 days to orbit Mars – thus, Phobos makes almost three
complete orbits in the span of one Martian sol. Its orbit has an eccentricity of
0.01521 and an inclination of 1.08° to Mars’ ecliptic plane. Phobos is in syn-
chronous rotation about Mars, so its sidereal period equals its orbital period of
0.31891 days.
Because Phobos orbits inside the geosynchronous point above Mars (i.e., it orbits
faster than Mars rotates), tidal interactions between Phobos and Mars are stealing
energy from Phobos’ orbit. As a result, the moon is slowly spiraling inward towards
Mars at a rate of 1.8 meters per century. In about 50·106 years, Phobos will either
impact the surface of Mars or be torn apart into a ring system as it passes through
Mars’ Roche limit.
Phobos is a very dark body, with a geometric albedo of only 0.07. The moon is
very heavily cratered, indicating that no internal geologic activity has occurred since
its formation. Phobos also displays numerous grooves up to 20km long across its
Martian moons 25
Figure 1.10 Mars’ smaller moon, Deimos, is revealed in this mosaic of images from
the Viking 1 orbiter. Deimos displays craters, but its surface is subdued because of
a thick regolith layer. (NASA/JPL.)
surface, which may be the surface expressions of deeper fractures associated with
the porous interior (Thomas et al., 1992a). Many of these grooves are near the crater
Stickney, indicating that the formation of this large crater violently shook and
stressed the moon, creating new fractures and widening pre-existing ones. Large
blocks ejected during crater formation can also be seen on Phobos’ surface (Thomas
et al., 2000a).
1.5.2 Deimos
Deimos is the smaller and more distant of the two martian moons. Like Phobos, it is
irregular in shape (Figure 1.10), with best-fit triaxial ellipsoid radii of 7.6·6.2·
5.40.5km (Batson et al., 1992). The mass of Deimos is 2.4·1015 kg and its
density is 1750kg m−3, suggesting another porous or rubble-pile body just like
Phobos.
Deimos orbits Mars at a distance of 23458.8km, giving it an orbital period of
1.26244 days. The orbit is close to circular, with an eccentricity of 0.0005. The
orbital inclination is 1.79°. Deimos is also in synchronous rotation about Mars, with
a sidereal rotation period of 1.26244 days.
Deimos is another very dark body, with a geometric albedo of 0.08. It also
displays a heavily cratered surface, but the surface is much more muted than that of
Phobos where craters and grooves appear relatively sharp. Deimos’ subdued
appearance likely results from a thick regolith layer covering the surface. This
regolith is composed of the fragmented material produced by impact cratering on the
moon. The lack of a thick regolith on Phobos may be the result of the violent shaking
of the moon during the impact which created Stickney – Phobos’ escape velocity is
only 0.0057km s−1 so it would not take much energy to launch material into space.
Alternately, Deimos may have different surface properties that preferentially

produce large amounts of regolith during crater formation.
1.5.3 Origin of Phobos and Deimos

The small, irregular shapes of Phobos and Deimos combined with their very dark
surfaces and spectral similarities to C-class asteroids have led many scientists to
propose that the two moons are actually asteroids which were captured by Mars.
However, dynamic considerations cannot easily reproduce the observed orbits of
the two satellites if they are captured asteroids, suggesting instead that the two
moons may have formed in the vicinity of Mars.
The asteroidal origin of Phobos and Deimos is supported by the physical and
chemical characteristics of the two moons. Both display spectral characteristics
similar to those of C-class asteroids. Hartmann (1990) argues that the two moons
formed at ∼3 AU, within the region dominated by C-class asteroids, and were
subsequently scattered inward by gravitational perturbations from Jupiter. The low
densities of both moons are similar to those of the most volatile-rich carbonaceous
chondrites, which are believed to originate from C-class asteroids. However, if
the moons are rubble-pile objects or contain large quantities of water ice in their
interiors, their observed densities may not be diagnostic of their compositions.
Spectral reflectance studies of Phobos and Deimos show a very low geometric
albedo, similar to the black, neutral objects seen in the outer parts of the main
asteroid belt. However, Phobos displays at least four discernible spectral units, one
of which is comparable to anhydrous, optically darkened ordinary chrondrites
(sometimes called black chondrites), which tend to have higher densities than
Phobos. Phobos has a heterogeneous surface, with up to 10% variation in albdeo,
which results from either compositional variations due to impact cratering processes
or differences in grain size distribution (Murchie and Erard, 1996; Simonelli et al.,
1998). Deimos is spectrally similar to C- and P-class asteroids.
The major argument against the asteroidal origin of Phobos and Deimos is the
difficulty of capturing objects into the near-circular equatorial orbits they display
today. Gravitational capture of bodies usually results in orbits with high eccentri-
cities and inclinations. The other problem with the capture model is how to capture
the two objects into orbits on opposite sides of the synchronous point. Integrating
backwards in time suggests that Phobos could have originated in a much more
elliptical orbit at ∼5.7 Mars radii (R<) – this would be consistent with an origin as a
captured asteroid. However, similar integrations for Deimos show it to remain close
to its present position and in a near-circular orbit throughout the history of the Solar
System, indicating it is most likely not a captured asteroid. In addition, if Phobos’
orbit was larger and more eccentric early on, it would have crossed Deimos’ orbit,
Martian moons 27
leading to collisions between the two objects. A few models avoid this problem
by suggesting that Phobos and Deimos originated as a single body near the syn-
chronous point which was destroyed by an impact event, leaving the two major
fragments just inside and just outside the synchronous location (Burns, 1977).
A possible mechanism that would allow Phobos and Deimos to originate as
asteroids and eventually be captured into the orbits we see today involves not tidal
capture but aerodynamic capture within the early solar nebula (Pollack et al., 1979). In
this model, Phobos and Deimos form near ∼3 AU in the asteroid belt, are perturbed
into Mars-crossing orbits by Jupiter, and then experience aerodynamic drag through
interactions with the solar nebula, causing the two bodies to be captured by Mars.
Aerodynamic drag causes the orbital semimajor axis, eccentricity, and inclination to
decrease, which could produce the observed orbital characteristics of the two moons.
1.5.4 Possible other satellites?

Are Phobos and Deimos the remains of a once larger swarm of small satellites orbiting
Mars? Schultz and Lutz-Garihan (1982) suggested that the large number of elliptical
craters observed on the martian surface resulted from a swarm of small moons which
orbited Mars. The orbits of these moons lay within the synchronous point, causing
their orbits to decay over time and resulting in the moons crashing obliquely into the
surface to produce the elliptical craters. However, Bottke et al. (2000) determined that
Mars does not have an anomalously high fraction of elliptical craters compared to the
Moon, suggesting that heliocentric, not areocentric (Mars-centered), impactors are
primarily responsible for the population of elliptical craters seen on Mars.
1.5.5 Trojan asteroids at Mars orbit

Although Trojan asteroids in Jupiter’s L4 and L5 Lagrange points have been known
since 1906, Trojan asteroids in terrestrial planet orbits were not discovered until
recently. The first Mars Trojan was discovered in 1990 and five more have been
discovered as of 2006. Five of the Trojans are located at the L5 point, the other at the
L4 point. Spectroscopic analysis of three of the Mars Trojans shows that two are
similar to Sr/A asteroids while the third is classified as an X-class asteroid (Rivkin
et al., 2003). All three of these asteroids appear to have silicate compositions, based
on their spectroscopic classifications, quite different from the carbonaceous compos-
itions of Phobos and Deimos. Numerical models suggest that these Trojan asteroids
were captured by Mars early in Solar System history when planetesimals were still
abundant (Tabachnik and Evans, 1999). Once the objects are captured into the L4 and
L5 points of Mars’ orbit, they are dynamically stable over the age of the Solar System
(Scholl et al., 2005).
2
Formation of Mars and early planetary evolution
2.1 Formation of Mars

2.1.1 Accretion
Mars, along with the rest of the Solar System, formed ∼4.5 ·109 years (109
years¼1Ga) ago out of a cloud of gas and dust called the solar or protoplanetary
nebula. The direction of orbital and rotational motions for Mars and most of the
other planets and moons indicates that this nebula was slowly rotating in a
counterclockwise direction as seen from above the ecliptic plane. The cloud
underwent gravitational collapse when it was perturbed by an external event,
possibly the explosion of a nearby star, interaction with galactic molecular
clouds, or passage through a spiral density wave. Because of the cloud’s initial
spin motion, the cloud collapsed to a flattened disk with a central bulge. Collapse
of the central bulge produced the Sun.
The formation of Mars and the other terrestrial planets is typically divided into
three stages: formation of kilometer-sized planetesimals, formation of planetary
embryos, and collisional formation of larger planets (Canup and Agnor, 2000;
Chambers, 2004). Rotational motion within the flattened disk caused small dust
grains (∼1–30 micrometers [μm] diameter) to collide and stick together, building up
larger objects (Weidenschilling and Cuzzi, 1993), although gravitational instabil-
ities causing fragmentation of the cloud into clumps might also have contributed
(Ward, 2000; Youdin and Shu, 2002; Chambers, 2004). Gas drag and gravity cause
these increasingly larger and more massive particles to settle towards the disk’s
midplane, explaining why the planetary orbits are approximately coincident with
the ecliptic plane. The smaller orbits within the inner Solar System increase the
probability of collisions in these areas, allowing inner Solar System bodies to grow
faster than objects in the outer Solar System. When these bodies reach a diameter of
approximately 1km, they are called planetesimals.
28
Formation of Mars 29
Planetesimal orbits begin to assume their final characteristics due to a combination

of gas drag (causing the orbits to become co-planar and nearly circular) and mutual
gravitational interactions (which increase the eccentricity and inclination). The
planetesimals have enough mass that their gravity attracts more material to them, a
process called accretion. Accretion occurs rapidly, within a time period of ∼108 years,
and leads to planetesimals growing into planetary embryos (Kokubo and Ida, 1998;
Kortenkamp et al., 2000). Planetary embryos have masses similar to that of present-
day Mars (∼1023 kg). Mars was likely prevented from growing larger by the gravi-
tational influence of already-formed Jupiter, which deflected material that could have
contributed to Mars’ growth into other parts of the Solar System (Chambers and
Wetherill, 1998; Chambers, 2001; Lunine et al., 2003). Based on its size and density,
Mars probably reached its present size within approximately 105 years (Wetherill and
Inaba, 2000).
The subsequent evolution of a planetary embryo into the final planet is largely
dictated by late-stage impact events. These impacts can either increase the embryo’s
size and mass through accretion or decrease the size and mass through erosion,
depending on the impact parameters (Canup and Agnor, 2000; Chambers, 2001).
Collisions such as that which formed the Earth’s moon were common during this
period (Hartmann and Davis, 1975; Benz et al., 1989; Cameron, 1997, 2000; Agnor
et al., 1999; Kokubo et al., 2000). The planet’s final characteristics, such as mass
and rotation rate, are largely determined by this late accretionary phase (Agnor
et al., 1999; Lissauer et al., 2000; Canup and Agnor, 2000). Mars’ high concen-
tration of volatiles (Section 2.3) and small size suggest that it was not strongly
affected by this large impact stage (Chambers, 2004).
Temperature and pressure varied throughout the solar nebula, resulting in dif-
ferent elements condensing in different locations. Equilibrium condensation
diagrams show that the decrease in temperature outward from the Sun causes
elements which cannot be easily vaporized (refractory elements) to condense near
the Sun while easily vaporized elements (volatile elements) condense at greater
distances. Iron oxides should be present in the solar nebula near Mars’ distance
while water ice condenses closer to Jupiter. The equilibrium condensation
sequence provides insights into what elements should have been present in the
material which formed each of the planets.
Although the “ice line” for water ice occurs close to Jupiter, hydrated minerals
can form closer to the Sun (Drake and Righter, 2002). These hydrated minerals
have H2O or hydroxyl (OH) molecules attached to their basic unit. Although many
scientists believe that much of the water seen in the inner Solar System was
provided by asteroid and comet impacts (Morbidelli et al., 2000), some hydrated
minerals could have been incorporated into the growing terrestrial planets directly
from the solar nebula.
30 Formation of Mars and early planetary evolution
2.1.2 Heavy bombardment

Not all of the material present in the solar nebula was immediately accreted into
the planets. A significant amount of material still remained after the planets had
formed. This material underwent gravitational and collisional perturbations which
caused it to cross the orbital paths of the newly formed planets. Occasionally this
debris from planetary formation collided with the newly formed planet, creating
impact craters on bodies with solid surfaces. The impact rates during this time
are estimated to be between 100 and 500 times what they are today and this
period of higher impact cratering rates is therefore called the Period of Heavy
Bombardment.
The Period of Heavy Bombardment is divided into an early and a late period.
The Early Heavy Bombardment Period includes the period from planet formation
until the surface solidifies. No cratered surfaces remain from this time period. The
Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) Period is the period from when the surface
solidified until the impact rate declined to the current level. Scars of the LHB
are still seen on the heavily cratered surfaces of the Moon, Mercury, and Mars
(Figure 2.1). Based on analysis of lunar samples returned by the Apollo and Luna
missions, the end of the LHB is estimated to have occurred about 3.8Ga ago in the
Earth–Moon system and probably close to this time elsewhere in the inner Solar
System (Section 5.1.3).
Traditionally the LHB has been envisioned as an exponential decline in impact
rates over the period between ∼4.5 and ∼3.8Ga ago (Figure 2.2). However, analysis
of lunar highland rocks, lunar impact melt rocks, and lunar meteorites found that none
of these samples displayed an age older than ∼4.0Ga, suggesting that the LHB was
actually a short, intense period of bombardment (Tera et al., 1974; Dalrymple and
Ryder, 1993, 1996; Cohen et al., 2000; Culler et al., 2000; Stöffler and Ryder, 2001;
Kring and Cohen, 2002). This idea of a lunar cataclysm around 3.9Ga ago has
recently received additional support from dynamical modeling, which suggests that
the LHB in the inner Solar System was triggered when an outer planetesimal disk was
destabilized during migration of the giant planets ∼0.7Ga after the Solar System
formed (Gomes et al., 2005). Others, however, argue that the lack of lunar samples
with ages >4.0Ga simply results from destruction of such material by later impacts
and that the sampled material is largely derived from the Imbrium impact event
(Hartmann, 2003). Whether comets or asteroids were the dominant impactors during
the LHB is unclear (Gomes et al., 2005), although lunar sample geochemical analysis
(Kring and Cohen, 2002) and comparison of the crater size–frequency distribution
curves with the size–frequency distribution of main belt asteroids (Strom et al., 2005)
suggests that asteroids may have dominated the LHB populations of impacting bodies
in the inner Solar System.
Formation of Mars 31
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 2.1 Heavily cratered surfaces are seen on Mercury, the Moon, and Mars in
the inner Solar System. These regions display high crater densities, indicating they
retain the scars of impacts occurring during the Late Heavy Bombardment Period.
(a) Mariner 10 image of Mercury near the planet’s south pole. (Image PIA02937;
NASA/JPL/Northwestern University.) (b) This image of the region near the
Moon’s south pole was obtained from Lunar Orbiter images. (Image C2435 from
the Consolidated Lunar Atlas [Kuiper et al., 1967], courtesy of Lunar and
Planetary Institute.) (c) This mosaic from Viking Orbiter images shows a heavily
cratered region of Mars centered near 37.5°S 148.5°E. (NASA/JPL.)
10–2
Typical highlands
Well-dated surfaces
= average values
A = Apollo L = Luna
CUMULATIVE CRATERS >4 km (n km–2)

Surface age not well
10–3 A16
known
A14 A11
L16
A17 A12
10–4 Constant Copernicus

production L24 A15
rate Tycho
10–5
Terrestrial craters
5 4 3 2 1 0
TIME BEFORE PRESENT (Ga)
Figure 2.2 The lunar crater chronology curve compares the cumulative crater
density to age of the surface as derived from Apollo sample analysis. It allows
one to estimate the age of a surface based solely on the crater density. (Reprinted
by permission from Cambridge University Press, Heiken et al. [1991],
Copyright 1991.)
2.2 Differentiation and core formation

2.2.1 Planetary heating
Early modeling of planetary formation assumed that planets formed cold and heated
up through later decay of radioactive elements (Toksöz and Hsui, 1978; Solomon,
1979). However, the realization that accretionary processes dominate planetary
formation led astronomers to realize that planets are formed hot and gradually cool
over time (Grossman, 1972; Benz and Cameron, 1990; Boss, 1990). The heat comes
from two main sources: the kinetic energy of impacting bodies is transformed in
part into heat during accretion (accretionary heating), and radioactive elements,
particularly short-lived radioisotopes, generate heat during decay. Complete melt-
ing of a Mars-sized object requires approximately 2·1030 joules (J) of energy. For
Mars, accretionary heating likely produced ∼4·1030 J (e.g., Wetherill, 1990).
Among the short-lived radionuclides, 26Al likely contributed the most heat, with
estimates around 2·1030 J (Elkins-Tanton et al., 2005). Thus, accretional heating
and short-lived radionuclide decay can easily produce enough energy to melt Mars.
This semi-fluid state of the planet allows materials to segregate into layers, a
process called differentiation. Differentiation occurs because of density variations
and differing chemical affinities of the elements. The variation in density among
different elements causes the denser material to sink towards the planet’s center
while less dense materials rise to form the surface. In particular, iron tends to sink
Differentiation and core formation 33
towards the center to form a core while oxygen compounds rise towards the surface
to create the crust. Certain elements, called siderophile elements, have a chemical
affinity for iron and will follow iron (Fe) to the core. Examples of siderophile
elements include nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), iridium (Ir), and platinum (Pt). Elements
that follow oxygen (O) are called lithophile elements; examples include potassium
(K), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and aluminum (Al). Elements
that tend to form compounds with sulfur (S) are called chalcophile elements and
include zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and lead (Pb). The combination of density and
chemical affinities explains why iron and sulfur compounds are typically found
deep in planetary interiors while planetary crusts are largely composed of oxides.
Information about Mars’ early evolution comes from analysis of radioactive
elements and their decay products in martian rocks. None of the spacecraft missions
to Mars has yet returned soil or rock samples which can be analyzed in terrestrial
laboratories. The lander/rover missions are beginning to supply mineralogic
information which can provide some insights into the planet’s bulk composition, but
instrument capabilities limit the amount of information obtained by these missions.
However, nature has provided scientists with samples of the martian surface in the
form of martian meteorites. Geochemical analysis of the 37 martian meteorites
currently in our collections provides important insights into the early history of
the martian interior. The thermal evolution of Mars is constrained through both
geochemical analysis and geophysical modeling.
2.2.2 Geochronology
Many elements have isotopes that are unstable, decaying to a stable isotope in a
well-defined period of time. The radioactive element is called the parent element
while the stable decay product is called the daughter element. The amount of
daughter element at any point in time depends on the original amount of the
daughter element, the original amount of the parent element, the rate at which the
parent decays into the daughter element (given by the decay constant, k), and
the amount of time that has elapsed. If N is the number of parent atoms in the sample,
then the change in the number of those atoms over time (dN/dt) is given by
dN
¼ Nk: (2:1)
dt
Integrating this gives
Nt ¼ N0 ekðtt0 Þ (2:2)
in which N0 is the number of parent atoms at t ¼ t0 and Nt is the number of parent
atoms remaining after time (t – t0). Nt is related to N0 and the amount of daughter
element (Dr) which has been produced by the decay:

Nt ¼ N0 Dr : (2:3)
If the entire daughter element present in the sample is from the decay of the parent,
then Nt and Dr will be the measurable amounts of the parent and daughter in the
sample, respectively. The value of N0, the original amount of the parent, cannot
be directly determined from the sample analysis, so we substitute Eq. (2.3) into
Eq. (2.2) to eliminate N0:
Nt ¼ ðNt þ Dr Þekðtt0 Þ : (2:4)
We can rewrite Eq. (2.4) as a ratio of the daughter and parent concentrations at time t:
Dr
¼ ekðtt0 Þ 1: (2:5)
Nt
The amount of time for half of the original amount of the parent radioisotope
to decay into the daughter is called the half-life (t1/2). It is obtained by setting
Nt ¼1/2 N0 in Eq. (2.2), which then reduces to
kt1=2 ¼ lnð1=2Þ: (2:6)
Thus, the decay constant, k, and the half-life, t1/2, are related to each other by
0:693
k¼ : (2:7)
t1=2
Igneous rocks typically contain small amounts of radioactive elements and are
therefore the most useful rocks for geochronologic purposes. Some of the common
radioisotope systems used in geologic analysis are given in Table 2.1.
Equation (2.5) can provide the age of an individual sample for which the con-
centrations of the daughter and parent elements are measured. However, the
uncertainties in ages based on a single measurement are typically quite large.
Geochemists therefore determine a rock’s age from measurements of several min-
erals within the sample. The resulting age is the crystallization age of the sample,
which indicates the amount of time that has elapsed since the rock solidified.
The amount of the daughter element at some time t (Dt) is the sum of the original
amount of daughter at t ¼ t0 (D0) and the amount which has been produced by the
decay of the parent (Dr):
Dt ¼ D0 þ Dr : (2:8)
Thus, we also need to know the initial (non-radiogenic) amount of daughter

to uniquely determine the crystallization age of the sample. While absolute
Table 2.1 Geologically important radionuclides
Parent Daughter Half-life (yrs)

147 143
Long-lived radionuclides Sm Nd 106×109
87 87
Rb Sr 48.8×109
187 187
Re Os 46×109
232 208
Th Pb 14×109
238 206
U Pb 4.47×109
40 40
K Ar 1.25×109
235 207
U Pb 7.04×108
146 142
Short-lived radionuclides Sm Nd 103×106
244 240
Pu U 82×106
129 129
I Xe 17×106
182 182
Hf W 9×106
53 53
Mn Cr 3.6×106
26 26
Al Mg 7.2×105
concentrations are impossible to determine, the ratio of the daughter isotope to

another isotope of the same element which is not produced by radioactive decay is
typically a constant for material formed from a particular region of the solar nebula.
If we represent this stable isotope of the daughter element by X, the left side of
Eq. (2.5) becomes
Dt D0
X X
:
ðNt =XÞ
The ratio D0 /X is constant for all mineral samples and will drop out when comparing
the concentrations of Dt /X and Nt /X among the different samples. Therefore,
crystallization ages are determined using these ratios rather than absolute concen-
trations of parent and daughter elements.
Crystallization ages are determined using isochron diagrams, such as that shown
for the rubidium (Rb)–strontium (Sr) system in Figure 2.3. Strontium-86 (86Sr) is
the non-radiogenic isotope of strontium to which the 87Rb and radiogenic 87Sr are
compared. Assume that at time t0 we have magma solidification occurring. Three
minerals in this melt (A, B, and C) have specific 87Rb/86Sr concentrations, as shown.
While the reservoir is molten, any 87Sr produced by the decay of 87Rb is free
to migrate through the reservoir. Hence the concentration of 87Sr in the magma
reservoir will be homogeneous. At time t0 when the magma reservoir solidifies, the
concentration of 87Sr/86Sr is therefore constant, as shown in Figure 2.3. Once the
reservoir solidifies, the concentration of 87Sr/86Sr increases and that of 87Rb/86Sr
decreases within each specific mineral due to the decay of 87Rb. The concentrations
of these elements for our three minerals changes as shown by the arrows in Figure 2.3.
t = present
87Sr/86Sr
t = t0
A B C
87Rb/86Sr
Figure 2.3 Isochron diagram, showing how rubidium (Rb) decays into strontium
(Sr) in three minerals (A, B, and C) over a time period t0 to t.
At time t, we can measure concentrations of 87Rb/86Sr and 87Sr/86Sr and compare

them among the three minerals. From the graph and Eq. (2.5), the slope of the
isochron (“equal time”) line at time t is given by
Dð87 Sr=86 SrÞ

¼ ekðtt0 Þ 1 (2:9)
Dð87 Rb=86 SrÞ
where D indicates the difference in concentrations between two minerals. This

equation gives the crystallization age (t – t0) of the sample from which the minerals
were obtained.
The above technique only provides accurate crystallization ages if the system has
been “closed” since the reservoir solidified. A closed chemical system is one where
there has been no addition or subtraction of parent and/or daughter elements. Open
chemical systems are often seen when either the parent or daughter element is very
volatile – an increase in temperature can cause the volatile component to readily
escape from the system. To determine whether the system has been open or closed,
geochemists look at the whole rock age. The isochron graph for a whole rock age
uses the average 87Rb/86Sr–87Sr/86Sr value for the entire rock. The initial value of
87
Sr/86Sr is the second point on the graph, allowing the isochron line to be drawn
between these two points. The initial 87Sr/86Sr value is determined from the oldest
age measurements of Solar System material. This measurement comes from basaltic
achondrite meteorites, which formed 4.5Ga ago when the Solar System formed. The
87
Sr/86Sr value from the basaltic achondrites is called the Basaltic Achondrite Best
Initial (BABI) value and is equal to 0.69899 0.000 04 (Birck and Allègre, 1978).
The model age which results from the whole rock analysis fixes the time of origin of
the initial materials comprising the rock, without regard to the rock’s subsequent
history. If the model age equals the age of the Solar System (4.5Ga), the system is a
Figure 2.4 EETA 79001 is one of the shergottite martian meteorites. It was the first
martian meteorite in which gas from the martian atmosphere was identified.
(NASA/Johnson Space Center [JSC].)
closed system. If the model age is not equal to the age of the Solar System, the
system has been an open system during at least some part of its lifetime. A model
age less than the age of the Solar System indicates that the parent-to-daughter ratio
(N/D) has increased while an age greater than the age of the solar system indicates
that N/D has decreased.
2.2.3 Martian meteorites

Most meteorites have crystallization ages of 4.5Ga and are believed to represent
material which formed directly from the solar nebula. By 1979, however, three
meteorites were known with younger formation ages and distinct mineralogic
properties. These three meteorites were seen to fall in 1865 near Shergahti, India, in
1911 near El-Nakhla, Egypt, and in 1815 near Chassigny, France. These three
meteorites are now called Shergotty, Nakhla, and Chassigny, respectively, and are
the representative samples of the meteorites called the shergottites, nakhlites, and
chassignites (SNC) (Figure 2.4).
By 1979, scientists began to speculate that the SNC meteorites are pieces of Mars
ejected off the planet during meteorite impacts. All of the SNC meteorites are
volcanic rocks and all but one have formation ages <1.35Ga. The young ages and
volcanic textures indicate that these rocks come from a body where volcanism has
been occurring up to at least 0.16Ga ago (age of youngest SNC). Analysis of the
oxygen isotopes in these rocks revealed that they are distinct from terrestrial, lunar,
and most meteoritic rocks (Clayton and Mayeda, 1996). By 1980, the circumstantial
evidence strongly suggested that Mars is the parent body of the SNC meteorites. The
1982 discovery that the isotopic composition of trapped noble gases within the SNC
38
Table 2.2 Martian meteorites
Meteorite name Year found Type Crystallization age (yrs)a

Chassigny 1815 Chassignite 1.3·109
Shergotty 1865 Basaltic shergottite 165·106
Nakhla 1911 Nakhlite 1.3·109
Lafayette 1931 Nakhlite 1.3·109
Governador Valadares 1958 Nakhlite 1.3·109
Zagami 1962 Basaltic shergottite 180·106
ALHA 77005 1977 Lherzolitic shergottite 185·106
Yamato 793605 1979 Lherzolitic shergottite 170·106
EETA 79001 1980 Olivine–phyric and basaltic 180·106
shergottite
ALH 84001 1984 Orthopyroxenite 4.1·109
LEW 88516 1988 Lherzolitic shergottite 180·106
QUE 94201 1994 Basaltic shergottite 320·106
Dar al Gani 476, 489, 670, 735, 1997–1999 Olivine–orthopyroxene shergottite 474·106
876, 975b
Yamato 980459 1998 Olivine–phyric shergottite 472·106
Los Angeles 001, 002 1999 Basaltic shergottite 165·106
Sayh al Uhaymir 005, 008, 051, 1999–2004 Olivine–phyric shergottite N.d.
094, 060, 090, 120, 150b
Dhofar 019 2000 Olivine–phyric shergottite 525·106
GRV 99027 2000 Lherzolitic shergottite N.d.
Dhofar 378 2000 Basaltic shergottite N.d.
Northwest Africa 480, 1460b 2000–2001 Basaltic shergottite 340·106
Yamato 000593, 000749, 000802b 2000 Nakhlite 1.3·109
Northwest Africa 817 2000 Nakhlite 1.35·109
Northwest Africa 1669 2001 Basaltic shergottite N.d.
Northwest Africa 1950 2001 Lherzolitic shergottite N.d.
Northwest Africa 856 2001 Basaltic shergottite 186·106
Northwest Africa 1068, 1110, 2001–2004 Olivine–phyric shergottite 185·106
1183, 1775b
Northwest Africa 998 2001 Nakhlite 1.3·109
Northwest Africa 1195 2002 Olivine–orthopyroxene N.d.
shergottite
shergottite
MIL 03346 2003 Nakhlite 1.02·109
Northwest Africa 2737 2004 Chassignite 1.3·109
shergottite
YA1075 ?? Lherzolitic shergottite N.d.
GRV 020090 2005 Lherzolitic shergottite N.d.
Northwest Africa 2646 2005 Lherzolitic shergottite N.d.
a
N.d., no data available.
b
Fragmented meteorites.
Source: Data from Mars Meteorite Compendium: curator.jsc.nasa.gov/antmet/mcc/index.cfm
39
meteorites was statistically identical to the martian atmosphere clinched the case for
a martian origin of the SNC meteorites (Bogard and Johnson, 1983).
As of 2006, 37 martian meteorites are known (Table 2.2). Of these meteorites
27 are classified as shergottites, seven are nakhlites, and two are chassignites. The
last meteorite is ALH84001, an orthopyroxenite which is an apparent sample of
the ∼4-Ga-old cumulate crust of Mars.
Shergottites are subdivided into four classes, based on composition: basaltic,
lherzolitic, olivine–orthopyroxene, and olivine–phyric. Nakhlites are rich in olivine
while chassignites are dunites. ALH84001 is the only orthopyroxenite among the
known martian meteorites. These 37 meteorites have been shocked to various degrees
(pressure range from 30 to 50GPa) and have apparently been ejected off Mars in five
to eight different impact events (Nyquist et al., 2001). The timing of these ejection
events can be estimated by the cosmic ray exposure ages of the meteorites – all are
<16·106 years (106 years¼1Ma). Many different craters have been proposed as the
sources of these meteorites, based on geologic analysis (Wood and Ashwal, 1981;
Mouginis-Mark et al., 1992a; Barlow, 1997; Tornabene et al., 2006). Comparison of
meteorite mineralogies with information from MGS TES and Odyssey THEMIS
instruments has been difficult since much of the surface is covered by dust which
masks the underlying mineralogy, but a few intriguing areas have been identified by
this technique (Hamilton et al., 2003; Harvey and Hamilton, 2005).
One of the perplexing issues related to martian meteorites is why 97% of the
meteorites come from geologically young terrains when such surfaces are believed to
constitute <40% of Mars’ surface area. This martian meteorite paradox was of par-
ticular concern when it was thought that all martian meteorites were ejected from a
single large impact crater (Melosh, 1984) – such large impact craters are rare on
younger surfaces. Although multiple impact sites are now proposed (Treiman, 1995;
Nyquist et al., 2001) and smaller impacts are capable of launching the martian
meteorite material (J.N. Head et al., 2002), the primary difference in surface ejection
capability appears to be that the thicker regolith cover on older surfaces likely inhibits
ejection of the martian meteorites from those regions (Hartmann and Barlow, 2006).
2.2.4 Differentiation and core formation on Mars

Martian meteorite analysis provides important constraints on the early evolution of
Mars, particularly in regard to the planet’s differentiation and core formation. Most
of the results are based on analysis of the shergottites, which, due to their volcanic
textures, provide information about mantle conditions.
Based on martian meteorite analysis, Wänke (1981) proposed that Mars accreted
from two major reservoirs of material, both with chondritic (C1) abundance
ratios. Component A consisted of highly reduced, volatile-poor materials while
Bulk composition of Mars 41
Component B was oxidized and volatile-rich. Dreibus and Wänke (1985) argued for
homogeneous accretion of these two components in a ratio of 60% Component A to
40% Component B. Planetary formation models suggest that accretion of Mars
occurred rapidly, within ∼0.1Ma (Wetherill and Inaba, 2000), and that Mars was
largely spared from late-stage large impact events (Chambers and Wetherill, 1998)
which affected the interior geochemistry of other bodies.
The addition of heat from accretion, large impacts, and short-lived radioactivity
melted the planet and caused differentiation. Evidence for an early differentiation of
Mars comes from analysis of 182W, the daughter product resulting from decay of
182
Hf (Hf: hafnium). Tungsten (W) behaved as a siderophile element early in
martian history, following iron (Fe) to the core during core formation. Any 182W
produced after core formation will remain in the mantle. Since the half-life of 182Hf
is 9Ma, the detection of radiogenic 182W in mantle materials provides constraints on
the timing of differentiation and core formation. The Hf/W ratio is approximately
five times lower on Mars than in terrestrial materials, but some radiogenic 182W has
been detected. The W analysis suggests that accretion and differentiation on Mars
was complete within 10 to 15Ma after Solar System formation (Lee and Halliday,
1997; Kleine et al., 2002). This is supported by a correlative relationship in the
behavior of neodymium (Nd) and W, suggesting that both underwent fractionation
from the mantle material within the first 15Ma of Solar System history (Halliday
et al., 2001). Early core formation is likewise indicated by the observation that the
lead (Pb) isotopes (206Pb and 207Pb) follow the U/Pb geochron at 4.5Ga ago (Chen
and Wasserburg, 1986), and that Re/Os analysis suggests early fractionation of
rhenium (Re) from osmium (Os) (Brandon et al., 2000).
2.3 Bulk composition of Mars

The bulk composition of Mars can be estimated from its density (3933kg m−3) and
surface composition. More detailed determination of the bulk composition requires
analysis of martian rocks. Although analysis of crustal materials by surface missions
(Viking, Mars Pathfinder, and MER) and orbital spacecraft (MGS TES, Odyssey
THEMIS and GRS, and Mars Express OMEGA) provides some information, most
of our current understanding of the bulk composition of Mars comes from the
martian meteorites.
Analysis of martian meteorites, particularly the basaltic shergottites, provides
information on both major and minor elemental abundances on Mars, which gives
insights into the bulk composition of the planet and how it has evolved over time
(Wänke, 1981; Dreibus and Wänke, 1985, 1987; Lodders, 1998). Comparisons
between the martian meteorites and terrestrial rocks suggest that while the overall
evolution of the two planets shows similarities, there are several important
differences. Some of these differences result from the smaller size and higher
volatile concentration of Mars (Bertka and Fei, 1997) while others relate to the
lack of active plate tectonics throughout most if not all of martian history (Breuer
et al., 1997).
Martian meteorite analysis indicates that the planet’s mantle is approximately
twice as rich in iron as Earth’s mantle (Longhi and Pan, 1989; Halliday et al., 2001).
Iron in the mantle is expected to exist primarily as FeO, while in the core it is
expected to occur in metallic form and to interact with sulfur to form FeS. The
absolute concentration of FeO in the martian mantle is ∼17.9 (0.6wt%, compared to
the terrestrial value of ∼8wt% [Halliday et al., 2001]). The higher Fe content on
Mars likely resulted from more oxidizing conditions during core formation. Mars
also exhibits higher concentrations of moderately volatile elements than the Earth;
for example, Rb/Sr and K/U concentrations are approximately twice as high on
Mars (Longhi et al., 1992). The higher volatile concentrations and more oxidizing
conditions on Mars may have resulted from the lack of large impacts during the final
stages of accretion, allowing Mars to retain its accreted volatiles.
The higher FeO and volatile concentrations in the martian mantle help to explain
many of the unusual isotopic behaviors observed in the martian meteorites. For
example, moderately siderophile elements on Earth such as phosphorus (P) become
more lithophilic under the oxidizing conditions found on Mars and thus typically
show less depletion in martian meteorites than in terrestrial rocks. Because P is not
depleted in the martian mantle, phosphates dictate much of the behavior of large ion
lithophilic (LIL) elements such as the rare earth elements (REE), uranium (U),
thorium (Th), and samarium (Sm), concentrating such elements within phosphate
deposits. Analysis of the soil and rock compositions from the Opportunity landing
site (Squyres et al., 2004b) and remote sensing of surface mineralogy from OMEGA
(Bibring et al., 2006) suggest that acid weathering may have been common on Mars
at least periodically throughout its history. Phosphates easily dissolve in slightly
acidic solutions, allowing the LIL elements to become mobile and affecting
radiometric age dating that utilizes these elements. The presence of phosphates may
also help explain the fractionations of Zr/Nb, Lu/Hf, and Sm/Nd observed in the
martian meteorites (Blichert-Toft et al., 1999).
Oxygen isotopes are distinctly different between the martian meteorites and rocks
from elsewhere in the Solar System. The three major isotopes of oxygen used in
these analyses are 16O, 17O, and 18O. The ratio 17O/16O is normalized to standard
mean ocean water (SMOW) on Earth and is designated by d17O:
" #
ð17 O=16 OÞrock
d O
17
1 ·1000: (2:10)
ð17 O=16 OÞSMOW
Bulk composition of Mars 43
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
d18 O
3.5
Earth–Moon
3
2.5
Mars
2
1.5
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
d17 O
Figure 2.5 Generalized oxygen isotope plot for terrestrial rocks, lunar samples, and
martian meteorites. The martian meteorites have a distinct oxygen isotopic pattern,
indicating they originated from a region of the Solar System that was more volatile-
rich than that found near 1 AU. (Data from Clayton and Mayeda, 1996.)
Similarly, 18O/16O is designated by d18O. A plot of d18O vs. d17O reveals distinct
differences among rocks from Earth, Moon, Mars, and various meteorites (Clayton,
1993) (Figure 2.5). These results represent differences in oxygen mass fractionation
within the solar nebula. Thus, the oxygen isotopes provide information about
where specific material formed within the Solar System. The coincidence of oxygen
isotopes for terrestrial and lunar rocks is one of the indications that the Moon formed
primarily of terrestrial material ejected in a large impact event. Oxygen data from the
martian meteorites lie above and parallel to the Earth–Moon line and suggest that the
planetesimals which formed Mars were more volatile-rich than those near 1AU.
The SNC meteorites also provide insights into the water content of the martian
mantle. Comparing the abundance of water to that of other volatile species and
assuming the two component accretionary model of Mars, Dreibus and Wänke
(1987) found that the martian mantle contains only 36 parts per million (ppm) of
water. Accretionary models suggest that Mars was probably more water-rich when
it first formed. The excess water would be removed by reactions with metallic iron
early in martian history (Fe þ H2O ! FeO þ H2), creating the oxidized (FeO-rich)
mantle and releasing hydrogen, which would dissolve in the core (Zharkov, 1996)
or be lost through outgassing and hydrodynamic escape from the atmosphere
(Hunten et al., 1987). The dry mantle model of Dreibus and Wänke (1987) initially
appears inconsistent with the geologic evidence of substantial amounts of surface
water in the martian past (Chapters 5 and 7), but can be explained through a
combination of a late-stage volatile-rich veneer emplaced on the planet’s surface
and lack of plate tectonics that would prevent recycling of surface water into the
interior (Carr and Wänke, 1992). Higher water concentrations have been proposed
from direct analysis of water contained in the SNCs (Karlsson et al., 1992), analysis
of melt inclusions in the SNCs (McSween and Harvey, 1993), and geophysical
modeling of a martian magma ocean (Elkins-Tanton and Parmentier, 2006),
although the uncertainties associated with these techniques are quite large.
Martian meteorite studies together with results from the Viking, Mars Pathfinder,
and MER surface missions indicate that martian rocks contain large amounts of sulfur
(S) (Longhi et al., 1992; McSween et al., 1999; Gellert et al., 2004; Klingelhöfer
et al., 2004; Rieder et al., 2004; Ming et al., 2006). Sulfur solubility in a silicate melt
depends on the iron concentration of that melt (Wallace and Carmichael, 1992). With
the higher FeO content of the martian mantle, it is not unexpected that the mantle
would also contain large quantities of sulfur. The oxidizing and S-rich conditions
within the martian interior cause moderately siderophile elements to display litho-
philic behavior, concentrating such elements in the crust and mantle rather than the
core. Core formation should have drawn siderophile elements away from the mantle
and crust, but martian meteorites show a lower depletion of P, manganese (Mn),
chromium (Cr), and W compared to terrestrial rocks, indicating that these elements
displayed lithophilic characteristics because of the oxidized and S-rich mantle con-
ditions (Wänke, 1981; Halliday et al., 2001). Only the highly siderophile elements
show strong depletions consistent with core formation.
2.4 Thermal evolution of Mars

Early thermal models suggested that Mars accreted cold and took up to 2Ga to
complete differentiation and core formation (Johnston et al., 1974; Toksöz and
Hsui, 1978). Improved understanding of the dynamics of accretionary processes
have led to the realization that Mars formed hot due to rapid accretion (within ∼5Ma
[Wetherill and Inaba, 2000]), with differentiation and core formation completed
within ∼20Ma after Solar System formation (Lee and Halliday, 1997). Accretional
heating, core formation, and decay of radioactive elements produced sufficient
energy to melt Mars, leading to a magma ocean (Elkins-Tanton et al., 2005). The
combination of geochemical information about the bulk composition of Mars,
geophysical modeling, and geological constraints from surface features produces
thermal evolutionary models of the martian interior.
2.4.1 Isotopic and geologic constraints on thermal models

Several isotopic results indicate that the martian mantle became heterogeneous
within the first 50Ma of Solar System history and retains that heterogeneity to the
present. Isotopic ratios of many short-lived radioactive elements (including
182
Hf/182W, 129I/129Xe, 244Pu/240U, and 146Sm/142Nd) suggest that the martian
mantle preserves an early isotopic heterogeneity which is not seen on Earth. Nobel
Thermal evolution of Mars 45
gases, particularly xenon (Xe), indicate an early degassing of the martian atmos-
phere from the mantle (Hunten et al., 1987; Jakosky and Jones, 1997; Swindle and
Jones, 1997; Mathew and Marti, 2001). Strontium (Sr), a lithophile element, shows
very little evidence for remixing throughout the history of Mars since its bulk rock
values define an approximate 4.5Ga isochron (Shih et al., 1982; Jagoutz et al.,
1994; Borg et al., 1997). The fact that the mantle has not been homogenized during
the past ∼4.5Ga indicates that the martian interior has not undergone vigorous
convection, unlike Earth where mantle convection drives plate tectonic activity.
Although the isotopic data suggest little to no mantle convection, the long-lived
volcanic activity displayed on the surface (Section 5.3.2) argues for mantle
convection for most if not all of martian history. While many of the radioisotopes are
LILs and concentrate in the crust during differentiation, heating from accretion and
core formation are localized within the deep interior. Convection transports heat
between regions of differing temperatures. A hot parcel of material is less dense than
the surrounding cooler material and, because pressure decreases outward in plan-
etary interiors, will rise, expand, and cool until its temperature and density match the
surroundings. Convection removes the heat from the interior and deposits it near
the surface where it can escape to space. It is a very efficient mechanism for cooling
the interior of a planet.
Volcanic and tectonic activity is primarily centered on the Tharsis Province, an
extensive rise covering much of the western hemisphere of Mars (Mouginis-Mark
et al., 1992b). Early models suggested that the Tharsis rise resulted from uplift and
dynamic support from underlying convection (Banerdt et al., 1992), but MOLA
analysis suggests that most of the elevation is the result of accumulation of volcanic
materials erupted throughout martian history (Solomon and Head, 1981; Phillips
et al., 2001; Smith et al., 2001a), although some mantle support is still required
(Kiefer, 2003). Analysis of deep layers exposed in Valles Marineris suggest
that volcanism throughout this region peaked early in martian history (McEwen
et al., 1999), but crater counts suggest that volcanic activity has occurred until
geologically recent times in Tharsis (Hartmann et al., 1999; Neukum et al., 2004).
Tharsis also is a major tectonic center, with over half of the features having formed
during the earliest period of martian history (Anderson et al., 2001). Models for
the long-term maintenance of Tharsis volcanism and tectonism include active
convection and mantle plume/superplume activity.
Mantle convection is also suggested by the presence of the martian hemispheric
dichotomy. Mariner 9 and Viking Orbiter observations revealed that most of
the northern hemisphere is lower and younger than the southern hemisphere (Mutch
et al., 1976; Carr, 1981). Explanations for this hemispheric dichotomy included
enhanced convection under the northern plains (Wise et al., 1979; Breuer et al.,
1993), early plate tectonic activity (Sleep, 1994; Anguita et al., 1998), a single
gigantic impact (Wilhelms and Squyres, 1984), or multiple large impacts (Frey and
Schultz, 1988). Crustal thickness and topographic information provided by MOLA
reveal no correlation between crustal thickness and the topography of the crustal
dichotomy nor is the dichotomy boundary circular in form, as would be expected
from a single large impact (Zuber et al., 2000). Although buried large impact craters
have been revealed by MOLA (Frey et al., 2002) and MARSIS (Watters et al.,
2006), their distribution does not reproduce the crustal thickness and topography of
the northern plains and dichotomy boundary (Zuber et al., 2000). Impact craters also
would be expected to produce an observable gravity signature, which is not
observed. Crustal thickness data suggest that the northern hemisphere was thinned
by high heat flow early in Mars’ history, supporting the theory that differences
in mantle convection patterns (perhaps including an early stage of plate tectonic
activity) were established early in martian history which gave rise to the hemi-
spheric dichotomy (Zuber et al., 2000; Smith et al., 2001a).
Mars today does not exhibit a magnetic field produced by an active dynamo, but
results from the MGS MAG experiment reveal remnant magnetization within ancient
crustal rocks (Section 3.5.2), suggesting that Mars had an active dynamo early in its
history (Acuña et al., 1998, 1999; Connerney et al., 1999). More recently, weak
magnetic signatures have been identified within the buried ancient crust in the
northern hemisphere, particularly along the dichotomy boundary (Lillis et al., 2004).
The lineated appearance of the magnetized regions suggests possible formation by
crustal spreading, similar to the lineated magnetization seen adjacent to ocean rift
systems on Earth (Connerney et al., 1999). Cooling of long dike swarms (Nimmo,
2000), accretion of terrains at a convergent boundary (Fairén et al., 2002), and
hydrothermal metamorphism (Scott and Fuller, 2004) have also been suggested as
explanations for the lineated appearance of these features. Thickness estimates of
the magnetized crust range from 18km, requiring a magnetization of ∼25A m−1, to
40km, with a more reasonable magnetization of ∼12A m−1 (Langlais et al., 2004).
Regions surrounding the youngest large impact basins (Utopia, Isidis, Hellas,
and Argyre) show no evidence of remnant magnetization, suggesting that shock
pressures (>1–2GPa) associated with the impact process have demagnetized the
surrounding ancient materials (Hood et al., 2003; Rochette et al., 2003). This impact-
induced shock demagnetization places constraints on the timing of the magnetic
dynamo since the basin ages can be estimated from crater counts (Section 5.1.3). Such
analysis suggests that Mars’ dynamo operated for no more than the first 500Ma of the
planet’s history. Temperature differences between the core and the outer parts of the
planet are the likely driving mechanism for the dynamo. Mechanisms proposed for
cessation of the dynamo activity include changes in mantle convection (Nimmo and
Stevenson, 2000), solidification of the core (Stevenson, 2001), and reduction in core
heat production (Williams and Nimmo, 2004).
2.4.2 Thermal models for Mars

Thermal evolutionary models of the martian interior are obtained by combining
information from isotopic analysis, geologic history, and geophysical modeling.
Often the initial data appear contradictory, such as the result from isotopic analysis
suggesting little mantle convection over martian history versus the geologic data
suggesting long-lived volcanic activity on the planet. The thermal models must be
able to explain such contradictions and often evolve over time as new data are
acquired and advances in numerical modeling occur.
Accretionary heating, core formation, and decay of short-lived radionuclides
provide almost twice as much heat as is necessary to melt the entire planet (Elkins-
Tanton et al., 2003, 2005). Thus all current Mars thermal models begin with
a magma ocean phase. Core formation appears to require a magma ocean since
melt–silicate separation in the FeO-rich martian mantle can only be accomplished
when the silicate mantle is molten (Terasaki et al., 2005). One of the early argu-
ments against a martian magma ocean was the lack of a plagioclase-rich crust, as is
seen with the anorthositic lunar highlands. However, the mantle of Mars is more
water-rich than that of the Moon and water in silicate melt tends to suppress the
formation of plagioclase. Also, Mars is larger than the Moon and pressures near the
base of the magma ocean could produce majorite and garnet phases, which will
sequester the aluminum that would otherwise form a plagioclase-rich crust (Borg
and Draper, 2003; Elkins-Tanton et al., 2003; Agee and Draper, 2004).
The depth of the martian magma ocean is not well constrained. Righter et al.
(1998) used isotopic abundances in melt inclusions from the martian meteorites to
estimate a shallow magma ocean of 700–800km depth while Elkins-Tanton et al.
(2003) argue that extrapolating terrestrial magma ocean depths (Rubie et al., 2003)
would produce a martian magma ocean of at least 1500km depth. A deep magma
ocean requires an insulating atmosphere, presence of a stable solid lid at the surface,
or rapid heat production to be maintained against the cooling effects of space (Abe,
1997). Convection, driven by temperature differences within the planet, will
homogenize this magma ocean.
Fractional crystallization occurs as the temperature drops and/or pressure increases,
causing minerals to crystallize out of a homogeneous melt and produce cumulate
layers. Modeling of a 2000-km-thick martian magma ocean (Elkins-Tanton et al.,
2003) indicates that majorite and γ-olivine (ringwoodite) crystallize near the bottom
of the magma ocean at pressures between 14 and 24GPa. Garnet crystallizes between
12.5 and 14 GPa, followed by olivine and pyroxene crystallizing at lower pressures.
However, the cumulate stratigraphy produced by fractional crystallization is not
stratified according to density – high-density iron-rich and incompatible element-rich
minerals form after low-density minerals have crystallized. This unstable density
Whole-mantle magma ocean: Whole-mantle magma ocean:
Before overturn Afer overturn
Volume percent Bulk Volume percent Bulk
0 20 40 60 80 100 Mg# 0 20 40 60 80 100 Mg#
0 0 89
<25
olivine pyx
84
1 2
1 2 84 83
(gamma-olivine)
500 500
ringwoodite
majorite
olivine
olivine pyx
pyx
Depth (km)
81 78
1000 89 1000 78
garnet 85 olivine pyx
81
60
garnet 85
59
1500 gamma- majorite 1500
olivine pyx
olivine
84 <25
2000 2000
Figure 2.6 The stratigraphy of a mantle-wide magma ocean is shown in this model
from Elkins-Tanton et al. (2005). The original stratigraphy is not stratified by
density, resulting in mantle overturn and a different post-overturn stratigraphy
based on density. (Reprinted by permission from American Geophysical Union,
Elkins-Tanton et al. [2005], Copyright 2005.)
structure causes overturn of the mantle cumulates (Figure 2.6). The rate of overturn is
inversely proportional to cumulate layer thickness, with layers >1800km thick
overturning within 105 years (Elkins-Tanton et al., 2005). As solidification proceeds,
the time required for overturn decreases, thus the fastest overturn occurs near the end
of mantle solidification. The time for complete crystallization of Mars’ magma ocean
has been extrapolated from terrestrial magma ocean calculations and is on the order of
a few tens of millions of years (Tonks and Melosh, 1990; Abe, 1997; Solomatov,
2000). The timescales for core formation (10–30Ma: Kleine et al., 2002), mantle
differentiation (∼30Ma: Harper et al., 1995; Shih et al., 1999), and isotopic het-
erogeneity of the mantle (∼50 Ma: Section 2.4.1) are consistent with the timescales
for magma ocean crystallization. Cool layers from near the surface will descend to
the core–mantle boundary during cumulate overturn, removing heat from the core
and shutting off the early magnetic dynamo within 15 to 150Ma after the overturn
(Elkins-Tanton et al., 2005).
Whether plate tectonic activity occurred early in martian history is still debated.
Early heating and magma ocean formation would favor vigorous mantle convection
which could lead to plate tectonic activity once the crust formed. Sleep (1994)
proposed that the ancient crust in the northern hemisphere was subducted under the
southern highlands and that the current low-lying northern plains were produced by
seafloor spreading. The Tharsis volcanoes, in this model, were an island arc volcanic
chain produced by subduction. Sleep proposed that plate tectonics operated through
the early Hesperian (∼3.7Ga ago, according to Hartmann and Neukum, 2001), but
obvious geologic evidence of plate tectonic activity during this period is lacking
(Pruis and Tanaka, 1995; Zuber, 2001) and the detection by MOLA and MARSIS of
an ancient cratered crust buried beneath the northern plains indicates that any plate
tectonic activity must have ceased long before 3.7Ga ago (Frey et al., 2002; Watters
et al., 2006). The martian meteorite isotopic data indicating establishment of mantle
heterogeneity by ∼50Ma after Solar System formation also argue against vigorous
mantle convection operating until ∼3.7Ga ago.
Current discussion of martian plate tectonics places this activity much earlier,
during the period when Mars’ magnetic field was active. The lineated pattern of
the crustal remnant magnetization in Terra Cimmeria and Terra Sirenum (see
Figure 3.8) has been suggested to be direct evidence of plate tectonic activity,
forming by crustal spreading similar to that seen on Earth (Connerney et al., 1999,
2005), although other mechanisms also have been suggested (Nimmo, 2000; Scott
and Fuller, 2004). Nimmo and Stevenson (2000) find that high surface heat flow,
such as would be expected during plate tectonics, helps to drive core convection
believed responsible for the magnetic dynamo. Lenardic et al. (2004) suggest that
formation of the crustal dichotomy directly contributed to the cessation of plate
tectonics since formation of the thick southern highlands crust would have insulated
the mantle, decreasing the temperature gradient driving mantle convection, and
shutting off plate tectonic activity. However, negative buoyancy, necessary for
subduction, appears to occur at mantle temperatures much cooler than expected
during the early martian history (van Thienen et al., 2004). In addition, Williams
and Nimmo (2004) propose that the convection required to drive the magnetic
dynamo could have been produced simply by the core being at least 150K hotter
than the mantle immediately after core formation. This hot core scenario is con-
sistent with rapid core formation and mantle isotopic heterogeneity indicated by
martian meteorite analysis. It does not require plate tectonics, but predicts that the
martian core is still liquid since core solidification would have produced a longer-
lived dynamo than is observed. A liquid core is consistent with moment of inertia
analysis of the present-day martian interior (Section 3.2.1).
Today Mars is a single-plate (or stagnant lid) planet. If Mars had active plate
tectonics during its early history, the thermal evolution must have changed from
plate tectonics to stagnant lid at some point. Plate tectonics cools the interior of a
planet by transporting that heat to the surface, where it quickly radiates to space
through a thin lithosphere. The outer layers of a planet with a stagnant lid are cooled
by lithospheric growth, but cooling of the deep interior is inefficient and the lower
mantle can remain warm. Crustal thickness, therefore, varies considerably between
the two models. The thickness of the current martian crust is estimated to range
between 50km (Zuber et al., 2000) to 200km (Sohl and Spohn, 1997), with ∼100km
being a typical value. A crust no thicker than ∼30km can form even after cessation of
plate tectonics according to thermal models of early plate tectonic activity (Breuer and
Spohn, 2003). This requires another mechanism to add material to the base of the crust
after plate tectonics stops (Norman, 2002) and still produce the geochemical signa-
tures observed in the martian meteorites. Thus, plate tectonics does not seem to be
able to explain the observed crustal thickness of present-day Mars.
Breuer and Spohn (2003) have conducted parameterized mantle convection
models of stagnant lid versus early plate tectonic scenarios for Mars. Their plate
tectonic model predicts a peak in volcanic activity around 2–2.5Ga ago, which is not
supported by the geologic evidence. In addition, their plate tectonic model cannot
produce both an early magnetic dynamo and the minimum estimated thickness of
the current martian crust. Even adjustments to the temperature and water content of
the mantle cannot produce the estimated crustal thickness using the plate tectonic
model. Long-lived mantle plumes, such as that proposed for the Tharsis volcanic
region, are difficult to produce and maintain in the mantle conditions resulting from
early plate tectonics. Breuer and Spohn’s models indicate that the present-day
crustal thickness, timing of the active magnetic field, geochemical data, declining
rate of volcanism, formation of the crustal dichotomy, and prevalence of volcanism
in Tharsis are best explained by assuming that Mars has been a one-plate planet
throughout its history.
3
Geophysical measurements and inferred
interior structure
Geophysical measurements allow scientists to remotely determine the interior

structure of a planet (Hubbard, 1984). Gravity deviations from those expected for a
homogeneous spherical body provide information about a planet’s shape, core,
topography, and distribution of subsurface mass. Heat flow measurements provide
insights into the thermal history of the planet and the current distributions of
radioisotopes. Seismic data reveal the detailed internal structure of the planet and
magnetic field data provide information on the core. Thus, geophysical studies
provide important constraints on regions of the planet inaccessible to in situ study.
3.1 Shape and geodetic data

3.1.1 Shape of Mars
The shape of Mars is derived from detailed MOLA topography combined with gravity
measurements from MGS Doppler tracking data (Lemoine et al., 2001; Smith et al.,
2001a). The shape is defined relative to the planet’s center of mass (COM). Mars’
equatorial radius is 3396.200km as measured from the COM. COM is offset slightly
to the north (primarily because of the Tharsis Bulge), resulting in a north polar radius
of 3376.189km, compared to the south polar radius of 3382.580km. Because of its
rotation, Mars is slightly flattened (Section 1.4.2), with a value of 0.00648.
The shape of Mars is best approximated as a triaxial ellipsoid (Smith et al.,
2001a). We can define a Cartesian coordinate system centered at the COM, with the
z-axis corresponding to the rotation axis and the x- and y-axes passing through the
equatorial region (Figure 3.1). Usually, but not always, the x-, y-, and z-axes are
chosen to correspond to the principal moments of inertia, A, B, and C, respectively.
The maximum moment of inertia, C, lies along the rotation axis for planets with
stable rotation. The moments of inertia are typically selected such that C > B > A.
The distances between the center and the surface of the reference ellipsoid along
each of the principal moments of inertia are designated a, b, and c, respectively, and
51
52 Geophysical measurements
Table 3.1 Mars geodetic parameters from MOLA
Triaxial ellipsoid axes lengths

a 3398.627km
b 3393.760km
c 3376.200km
Directions of principal axes
a 1.0°N 72.45°E
b 0.0°N 324.4°E
c 89.0°N 252.4°E
Source: From Smith et al. (2001a).
z
C
Rotation axis
c
b B
y
a
A
x
Figure 3.1 Cartesian coordinate system utilized in geophysical analysis. The

body’s rotation axis corresponds to the z-axis in this system. Principal moments of
inertia A, B, and C are typically chosen along the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively.
Distances from the center to the surface of the reference ellipsoid along each of the
three axes are indicated by a, b, and c.
are called the principal axes of the ellipsoid. The lengths and surface intersection
points of Mars’ principal axes are given in Table 3.1. The center of the best-fit
ellipsoid (center of figure, or COF) is offset from the COM along the polar (c) axis
by 2.986km in the direction of the south pole and along the b-axis by 1.428km in the
direction of the Tharsis Bulge.
3.1.2 Coordinate systems

Locating a feature on the surface requires defining a coordinate (or geodetic) grid.
Latitude is measured in two ways because of Mars’ oblate shape: aerographic
latitude () and aerocentric latitude (′). To obtain , one draws a best-fit reference
sphere centered on the planet’s COM (Figure 3.2). A horizontal line tangent to the
Shape and geodetic data 53
North
P
Local horizon
f9 f
Equator (E)
C G
Figure 3.2 Martian coordinate systems are based on both aerographic and
aerocentric systems. The reference sphere is the best-fit sphere centered at the
planet’s center of mass. The aerocentric latitude (′) is the latitude measured
relative to the center of the reference sphere (C). Because of the oblate shape of the
planet, the normal to the local horizon at any point on the surface will not
necessarily intersect C, but rather be offset to some point G. The angle PGE is the
aerographic latitude ().
reference sphere is drawn through the point of interest on the surface. The angle
between the equator (E) and the normal to this tangent surface is the aerographic
latitude (). Because of Mars’ oblate shape, this is not the same as the aerocentric
latitude (′), which is the angle between P, the center of the reference sphere (C),
and E. Gravity and topography calculations typically use aerocentric latitude while
imaging and mapping (cartography) teams have traditionally used aerographic
latitude. However, the coordinates of surface features have been tied to the aero-
centric position since MOLA results were first reported. Thus, one must be aware
that the coordinates of surface features on Viking-based maps are offset from their
positions on recent, MOLA-based maps.
Terra Meridiani, a dark feature easily visible in Earth-based telescopes, was first
designated as the martian prime meridian on Beer and Mädler’s 1830 map. Subse-
quent maps refined the location of the 0° longitude line within this region. Following
Mariner 9 imaging of Mars, the prime meridian was defined as passing through a
500-m-diameter crater called Airy-0 (de Vaucouleurs et al., 1973).
The 1970 International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted the convention that
longitude, measured from 0° to 360°, should increase in the direction of rotation.
For planets rotating directly, like Mars, this would result in longitude being
measured eastward from the prime meridian. However, early telescopic observers
drew their maps with longitude increasing toward the west so that longitude
increased as they observed throughout the night. The west-longitude system,
although contrary to that adopted by the IAU, continued to be used through the
Viking missions. Starting with MGS data, however, one has to be careful to note
the coordinate system in use, particularly when comparing datasets. MOC imagery
utilizes the west-positive coordinate system, but most other datasets use longitude
increasing towards the east.
3.2 Gravity and topography

If Mars were a homogeneous sphere, the trajectories of orbiting spacecraft could be
accurately predicted and would suffer no deviations from the predicted orbit. Not
only is Mars differentiated and thus heterogeneous but it also displays variations in
topography and mass near the surface. The gravitational effects of these mass
anomalies lead to deviations in the expected orbital paths of spacecraft. Analyses
of these gravity anomalies provide important insights into the interior structure
of Mars.
3.2.1 Gravity analysis

The gravitational acceleration (g) experienced by a spacecraft orbiting a planet of
mass M at a distance of r from the planet’s center is
GM^r
~
g¼ ð3:1Þ
r2
where G is the universal gravitational constant. The gravitational acceleration is the
integral of the gravitational potential (U), therefore:
GM
U¼ : ð3:2Þ
r
Since all of the planet’s mass lies inside the surface, the gravitational potential
exterior to the planet satisfies Laplace’s equation:
r2 Uext ¼ 0: ð3:3Þ
The general solution to Laplace’s equation in spherical coordinates is (Hubbard, 1984):
X
1 X
l
Uðr; h; kÞ ¼ ½alm r l þ blm rðlþ1Þ Ylm ðh; kÞ: ð3:4Þ
l¼0 m¼l
This equation gives the gravitational potential at a particular spot on the planet,
where r¼distance from center, h is the colatitude (¼90°-latitude), and k is the
longitude; alm and blm are constants. In planetary physics applications, alm is set to
zero so that the potential vanishes at infinity. The index, l, is the degree of the
harmonic and indicates the rate at which the gravitational potential varies in latitude.
Gravity and topography 55
Zonal Sectoral Tesseral
Figure 3.3 The expansion of the gravity potential produces three types of
harmonics. Zonal harmonics provide information on the mass distribution parallel
to the equator while sectoral harmonics provide the longitudinal distributions of
mass. Tesseral harmonics subdivide the planet into small blocks to determine the
localized distributions of mass.
The index, m, is the order and indicates how rapidly U varies in longitude. Ylm are
spherical harmonics, defined by
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffisffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð2l þ 1Þ ðl mÞ! m
Ylm ¼ P ðcos hÞeimk : ð3:5Þ
ð4pÞ ðl þ mÞ! l
The Legendre polynomials, Plm, are defined by
ð1Þm ð1 x2 Þm=2 d lþm ðx2 1Þl

l ðxÞ ¼
Pm : ð3:6Þ
2l l! dxlþm
The coefficients blm are associated with the mass distribution inside the planet. Since
the potential is measured outside of the planet, the Legendre polynomials are related
to the spherical harmonics, and Eq. (3.4) is typically rewritten as
( X n X l l
)
GM R
U¼ 1þ Pml ðcos hÞ½Clm cosðmkÞ þ Slm sinðmkÞ : ð3:7Þ
r l¼2 m¼0
r
The radius of the reference sphere or ellipsoid is R and n is the limiting degree of the
expansion. Here Cl0 are the zonal harmonics, which provide information on mass
distributions parallel to the equator (Figure 3.3). The sectoral harmonics, Sl0, define
the mass distributions perpendicular to the equator. Tesseral harmonics (Clm and
Slm, m > 0) further subdivide the planet into smaller blocks, allowing localized
variations in mass to be discerned.
Geophysicists often use J instead of the Cl0 nomenclature for the zonal harmonics:
Jl ¼ Cl0 : ð3:8Þ
If the center of the reference figure coincides with the center of mass of the body,
J1 ¼C11 ¼S11 ¼0. Unfortunately for Mars, the COM–COF offset makes these
coefficients non-zero (Smith et al., 2001a). J2 is the zonal harmonic representing the
largest deviation from a perfect sphere, which results from the planet’s equatorial
bulge. The principal moments of inertia (A, B, and C) are related to the lower order
and degree harmonics by
ðA þ BÞ
MR2 J2 ¼ C ð3:9Þ
2
ðB AÞ cosð2DkÞ
MR2 C22 ¼ ð3:10Þ
4
ðB AÞ sinð2DkÞ
MR2 S22 ¼ ð3:11Þ
4
where Dk is the difference in longitude between the minimum moment of inertia, A,
and the x-axis.
For planets which rotate “sufficiently rapidly” (typically those which have not
been tidally despun), the B and A moments of inertia are much smaller than the
maximum moment of inertia, C. Thus,
jB Aj jC Aj and jB Aj jC Bj: ð3:12Þ
Equation (3.9) can then be rewritten as
MR2 J2 ffi C A ffi C B: ð3:13Þ
Thus, by determining J2 from the gravity analysis, one can determine the differences
of the principal moments of inertia. To obtain absolute values of the principal
moments of inertia, one uses the precession constant (H), which can be derived from
the rate of precession of the planet’s rotation axis:
CA
H¼ : ð3:14Þ
C
Combining Eqs. (3.13) and (3.14) allows one to determine C/MR2 and A/MR2.
C/MR2 is of particular interest since it indicates the amount of central condensation
in a planet. A homogeneous spherical body has C/MR2 ¼0.4. As a body becomes
more centrally condensed (i.e., forms a larger core), C/MR2 becomes smaller than
0.4. Mars’ J2 varies seasonally due to the sublimation/condensation cycles of CO2
between the polar caps and atmosphere, but the average value from MGS Doppler
tracking is 1.960.69·10−9 (Smith et al., 2001b). Comparison of Mars’ rotation rate
between Viking lander and Mars Pathfinder data gives a precession rate of −7576
35 milli-arcseconds per year, leading to a value of C/MR2 ¼0.36620.0017
(Folkner et al., 1997). This indicates that Mars has a small core, but there is still debate
as to whether it is solid (Smith et al., 2001b) or liquid (Yoder et al., 2003).
The primary contributor to J2 is the planet’s flattening, producing the equatorial
bulge. Since flattening primarily depends on how rapidly the planet is spinning, J2
can be related to the planet’s angular rotation rate (x) through a dimensionless
measure of the centrifugal potential (q):
x2 R3
q¼ ¼ 2J2 : ð3:15Þ
GM
Strictly speaking, Eq. (3.15) is only valid in planets where the interior density is
constant. For more realistic planets, where density increases with depth, the coef-
ficient before J2 becomes greater than 2. For bodies in hydrostatic equilibrium, J2
and q can be related to the flattening ( f ) by

3 1
f ffi J2 þ q: ð3:16Þ
2 2
3.2.2 Gravity anomalies, isostacy, and crustal thickness

The equipotential surface corresponding to a spherical planet’s mean radius (R) is
called the geoid. Geophysicists define the martian geoid at a radius of 3396km from
COM (Neumann et al., 2004). Variations in gravitational potential from the geoid
are called gravity anomalies and represent uneven mass distribution on the surface or
within the planet. Gravity anomalies are measured in gals, where 1 gal¼10−2 m s−2.
Most gravity anomalies are very small and are measured in milligals (mgal). Smaller
masses can be discerned as the order (l) and degree (m) increase in Eq. (3.7).
Detailed trajectory analyses of the various Mars orbiter missions have led to gravity
models up to order and degree 85 (Neumann et al., 2004).
Using Eq. (3.1), we find that the acceleration due to gravity (g0) at the geoid is
GM
g0 ¼ : ð3:17Þ
R2
At some height h above the geoid, this becomes
GM
gðhÞ ¼ : ð3:18Þ
ðR þ hÞ2
Using a Taylor series expansion, Eq. (3.18) becomes
GM 2GM 2GM
gðhÞ ¼ 2
3 h ¼ g0 3 h: ð3:19Þ
R R R
Thus, when a spacecraft is at some height h above the geoid, the gravitational
acceleration that it measures is less than that measured at the geoid. The difference
in gravity due to elevation above the geoid is called the free air anomaly and the
term ð2GM=R3 Þh is the free air correction, indicated by gFA.
The free air anomaly ignores any mass which exists between the geoid and the
spacecraft position at h. Thus, if the spacecraft passes over a mountain, it might
experience an additional gravitational acceleration due to the mountain’s excess mass.
In 1749 the French mathematician Pierre Bouguer applied Gauss’s law in a gravitational
field to an infinite slab of density q and thickness h to obtain the Bouguer correction:
gB ¼ 2pGqh: ð3:20Þ
One final correction occurs for latitudinal variations in g due to rotation and the
planet’s oblate shape. This latitudinal correction is indicated by γ0. The complete
description of gravity is called the Bouguer anomaly and is given by
GM 2GM
gðhÞ ¼ 3 h 2pGqh c0 ¼ g0 þ gFA gB c0 : ð3:21Þ
R2 R
Topography and the Bouguer anomaly are often correlated on Mars, providing
insights into how topographic features are supported. If the free air anomaly (Eq.
3.19) is approximately zero, the feature is isostatically compensated. Isostacy is the
balance between the weight of a crustal block and the buoyant force exerted on it. In
Figure 3.4a, we see a crustal block of cross-sectional area A and density (q−Dq)
resting in material of density q. The block straddles the reference surface, extending
a height h above the surface and a depth d below it. The upward buoyancy force (FB)
on the block is given by Archimedes’ principle:
FB ¼ qAgd: ð3:22Þ
FB must be balanced by the block’s weight for the block’s position to be stable:
ðq DqÞðh þ dÞAg ¼ qAgd: ð3:23Þ
Equation (3.23) reduces to the isostacy equation:
h Dq
¼ : ð3:24Þ
hþd q
A zero free air anomaly (Eq. 3.19) or a negative Bouguer anomaly (Eq. 3.20)
indicates complete isostatic compensation. There are two ways in which isostatic
compensation can be achieved. Topography which has a constant density but where
the depth of the below-surface root is greater than the height of the feature above the
reference surface is compensated through Airy isostacy (Figure 3.4b). Alternately,
Pratt isostacy (Figure 3.4c) assumes that the depth of compensation is the same for
all topographic features but that the density varies, with higher features having
lower density. Although Belleguic et al. (2005) find density variations across the
(a)
FB
Weight
h
r–Dr
A d
r
(b)
r–Dr
r
d
(c)
r1
r2
Figure 3.4 Surface mass distributions such as mountains extend below the surface to
a depth which depends on the difference in density between the block and underlying
material (q −Dq and q, respectively). (a) The height (h) and depth (d) of a block of
material (with cross-sectional area A) relative to the surface is determined by the
balance between the block’s weight and the buoyant force (FB) from the underlying
material. (b) Airy isostacy says that this balance occurs because mountain blocks
have roots that extend a greater depth than the mountain’s height above the surface.
(c) Pratt isostacy has all blocks reaching the same depth, but the above-surface height
varies because of variations in block density.
martian surface and suggest that Pratt isostacy might apply, most researchers argue
that Airy isostacy is the major compensation mechanism operating on Mars (Zuber
et al., 2000; McGovern et al., 2002).
Figure 3.5 shows a Bouguer anomaly map obtained from the MGS MOLA and
Radio Science investigations (Neumann et al., 2004). Comparison with the MOLA-
derived topography map of Mars (Figure 3.6) shows correlations between gravity and
topographic features such as volcanoes and impact basins. Large impact craters and
basins typically display a positive Bouguer anomaly because of post-impact uplift of
the underlying Moho (the boundary between the crust and the mantle) and infilling by
volcanic and sedimentary deposits. Isostatically compensated mountains such as Alba
Patera and the Elysium volcanic region display highly negative Bouguer anomalies.
Crustal thickness variations can be modeled using the gravity data, topography,
and assumptions about density variations in the crust and mantle (Zuber et al., 2000;
Neumann et al., 2004). Crustal thickness varies with latitude, being thicker in
the southern hemisphere than in the northern, but also varies with longitude
(Figure 3.7). Neumann et al. (2004) report an average thickness of 32km for
the northern plains crust versus 58km for the southern highlands crust. Interesting,
the transition in crustal thickness between the two hemispheres does not exactly
correlate with the hemispheric dichotomy, arguing against an impact origin for the
dichotomy (Zuber et al., 2000).
3.2.3 Topography
Resolution of the topographic variations on Mars has been greatly improved by the
MOLA experimental results. The laser altimeter provided a vertical accuracy of ∼1 m
relative to Mars’ COM and the topographic grid has a resolution of 1=64° in latitude
and 1=32° in longitude (Smith et al., 2001a). Zero elevation corresponds to the
geoid, the equipotential surface corresponding to a distance of 3396km from COM
at the equator. The highest point on Mars is the Olympus Mons volcano summit at
21.287km and the lowest point is in the Hellas impact basin at −8.180km. Figure 3.6
clearly shows the hemispheric dichotomy between the low-lying northern plains
and the elevated southern highlands.
3.3 Seismic data

Mean density and gravity data provide constraints on the interior structure of
a planet, but analysis of seismic energy propagation produces the most detailed
information on interior heterogeneities. The presence of volcanic and tectonic
features on Mars suggests that the planet has been, and may still be, seismically
active. Seismic activity likely peaked during the early period of Tharsis Bulge
180˚ 0˚
N S
0˚
0˚
12
60
˚
0˚
24
30
30
24
0˚
0˚
0˚
60
12
0˚ 180˚
mGal
1000
60˚
30˚
500
0˚
–30˚
0
–60˚
–500
180˚ 240˚ 300˚ 0˚ 60˚ 120˚ 180˚
Figure 3.5 Gravity anomaly map, as measured from the vertical accelerations of MGS. A strong positive gravity anomaly is seen
between 240°E and 300°E longitude which corresponds to the Tharsis volcanic province, while a strong negative anomaly in the
equatorial region between 300°E and 0°E correlates with Valles Marineris. However, many topographic features do not correlate with
gravity anomalies. (Image PIA02054, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC).) See also color plate.
61
62
–8 –4 0 4 8 12
Altitude [km]
Figure 3.6 MOLA revealed the large variations in topography visible across the martian surface. Topography ranges from a high at the
summit of Olympus Mons to a low in the bottom of the Hellas Basin. (Image PIA02820, NASA/JPL/GSFC/MGS MOLA team.) See
also color plate.
Seismic data 63
Figure 3.7 MOLA observations revealed the large variations in crustal thickness
across the planet. This image shows the crustal thickness variations (gray band)
across a transect from near the north pole across the Elysium volcanic region and
into the southern highlands. Thickness of the gray band corresponds to the crustal
thickness at each point. (Image PIA00957, NASA/GSFC.)
formation and has declined since then (Golombek et al., 1992). Nevertheless,
analysis of cooling rates (Phillips, 1991) and strain rates derived from slip along
surface faults (Golombek et al., 1992) suggests that Mars remains seismically active
at the present time, with perhaps 14 seismic events of equivalent magnitude 4 or
greater occurring each year. Meteorite impact is another source of seismic activity
on Mars (Davis, 1993).
Seismic energy is released during planetary response to stress and strain. Energy
is distributed both through the interior (body waves) and along the surface (surface
waves) of the body. Extremely large seismic events can cause the whole planet to
vibrate (free oscillations). Body waves are the most important for determining the
internal structure of the planet. The fastest of the body waves, and thus the first to
arrive at a seismic station after the event, are compressional waves called primary or
P-waves. Secondary or S-waves are distortional, or shear, waves. The velocities of
the P- and S-waves depend on the characteristics of the material through which they
pass. The bulk modulus (K ) is a measure of a material’s incompressibility and
the shear modulus ( μ) measures the rigidity of the material to an applied force. If q is
the density of the material, the P- and S-wave velocities (VP and VS, respectively) are
given by
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
u
uK þ 4= l
t 3 ð3:25Þ
VP ¼
q
rffiffiffi
l
VS ¼ : ð3:26Þ
q
K is always greater than zero, so VP is always greater than VS. Fluids have no rigidity
(μ¼0), thus S-waves do not travel through liquids.
Mars is differentiated, with denser materials such as iron comprising the core and
lower-density materials like silicates constituting the crust (Section 2.2.4). The
increase in pressure with depth causes phase transitions among minerals and the
increase in temperature towards the core can result in melting of some regions.
Thus, the values of K, μ, and q are constantly changing as one traverses the interior
of a planet. Seismic waves also refract as they encounter layers with different
material properties. By analyzing the arrival times of P- and S-waves at several
surface locations, geophysicists can reconstruct the path taken by and the velocities
of the seismic waves to obtain a detailed view of the interior structure of the planet.
Unfortunately, actual seismic data for Mars are non-existent. The Viking landers
both carried seismometers, but the Viking 1 instrument failed to deploy and the
Viking 2 seismometer was not adequately coupled to the ground, leading to large
amounts of noise from lander operations and the wind (Anderson et al., 1977). No
marsquakes larger than the magnitude 3 threshold of the seismometers were
detected during operation of the Viking 2 seismometer. Penetrators on Mars 96
carried seismometers, but as noted in Section 1.2.2, that mission failed to leave
Earth. Seismic network missions have been proposed several times by NASA and
ESA, but none of these proposals has been funded to completion (see review in
Lognonné, 2005). Until such a seismic network is established, our understanding of
the interior structure of Mars will be limited to less detailed information obtained
largely through gravity analysis.
3.4 Heat flow

Surface heat flow measurements provide constraints on the distribution of heat-
producing radioisotopes and the rate of mantle convection. Heat flux (Q) is the
amount of heat flowing through a particular area in a certain amount of time. The
two major mechanisms of heat flow in solid planets like Mars are conduction and
convection. Conduction transfers energy through crystal lattice vibrations while
convection involves the physical movement of materials at different temperatures.
Conduction is the primary mechanism of heat transport within the lithosphere, the
outer rigid layer of a planet composed of the crust and upper mantle. Convection
occurs in the warmer and more deformable lower mantle, also called the astheno-
sphere. Convection likely also occurs within the core, particularly if the core is still
molten. Convection occurs not only in fluids but also solids, which can deform
under high pressure and temperature conditions. Convection in solids is called solid-
state convection.
Heat flow 65
3.4.1 Conduction
The change in temperature (T) as a function of depth (z) measured towards the center
of the planet is called the thermal gradient (∂T/∂z). In regions where conduction
dominates, heat flow is related to the thermal gradient by Fourier’s law:
Q ¼ kð@T=@zÞ: ð3:27Þ
The thermal conductivity (k) is related to the density (q), specific heat at constant
pressure (cp), and thermal diffusivity (j) of the material:
k ¼ qcp j: ð3:28Þ
The rate at which layers gain (or lose) heat is given by

@T @Q
qcp ¼ : ð3:29Þ
@t @z
Combining this with Eq. (3.27) gives the thermal diffusion equation, also called the
heat conduction equation:
@T @2T
¼j 2: ð3:30Þ
@t @z
3.4.2 Convection
Convection is much more efficient than conduction at removing internal heat from a
planet and dominates in the deeper parts of a planet’s interior. Convection occurs
when the thermal gradient exceeds some critical value, causing hot material to rise and
cooler material to sink. This occurs when material is hotter and therefore less dense
than its surroundings, causing the hotter material to be buoyant. As the mass of hotter
material rises, it expands and begins to cool. Under adiabatic conditions, it will
continue to rise, expand, and cool until its temperature matches that of the sur-
roundings. Convective motions are governed by the conservation equations combined
with fluid dynamical equations (e.g., the Navier–Stokes equation). The full descrip-
tion of convection involves finite element modeling and is beyond the scope of this
discussion. Interested readers are referred to Turcotte and Schubert (2002).
The dimensionless Rayleigh number (Ra) is used to determine if convection will
occur. Assume we have a region of the mantle of thickness d which is warmer than
its surroundings by a factor of DT. If the mantle has a density qm, thermal expansion
coefficient a, thermal diffusivity j, and viscosity g, Ra can be computed from
qm gaDTd3
Ra ¼ ð3:31Þ
jg
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Convection will occur if Ra is greater than
some critical value, which is approximately 1000.
3.4.3 Martian heat flux

None of the landed spacecraft has measured surface heat flow on Mars, so all heat
flux estimates are based on modeling. While conduction is expected to be the
dominant mechanism of heat transport through the lithosphere, convection should
occur in the deep martian interior. Mantle convection can be driven by bottom
heating, where heat from the core drives the convection, or from internal heating
caused by the decay of radioactive elements within the mantle itself. Kiefer (2003)
argues that the broad topographic rises associated with Tharsis and Elysium result
from internal heating, which produces broad convective upwellings. Mantle
plumes, responsible for the individual volcanic constructs, can be embedded within
these broad upwelling zones.
McGovern et al. (2002, 2004a) used MGS gravity and topography data to
estimate the thickness of the elastic lithosphere at the time of surface loading and
from that determine the surface heat flux. They estimate that the oldest surface
units were emplaced when heat flux was >40 milliwatts per square meter (mW m−2)
and that Q has declined to values typically <20 mW m−2 in recent times (McGovern
et al., 2004a). These values are consistent with an estimated Q of ∼37 mW m−2 near
3.0–3.7 Ga ago based on the spacing of tectonic wrinkle ridges (Montési and Zuber,
2003). However, Grott et al. (2005) suggest Q between 54 and 66 mW m−2 between
3.5 and 3.9 Ga ago based on elastic thickness estimates in the Coracis Fossae region.
Heat flux likely varies with location on Mars, as it does on Earth, so the variations in
time and geographic position suggested by these different studies may not be
inconsistent. Improved constraints on heat flux will have to await emplacement of a
network of seismic and geothermal measurement stations across the martian surface.
3.5 Magnetics
Detection of an active magnetic field or remnant magnetization in crustal rocks
indicates that the planet contains an interior conductive layer. The conductive layer
in terrestrial planets is a metallic iron-rich core, probably mixed with some sulfur.
The core must be at least partially liquid for production of an active magnetic field.
As long as the core is composed of material which conducts electricity, it can
produce a time-varying electric field which induces a magnetic field. The area of
physics which studies how motions within a fluid core set up the electric currents
which produce planetary magnetic fields is called magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)
or magnetic dynamo theory (Stevenson, 2003).
Magnetics 67
3.5.1 Active dynamo

The basis of MHD analysis is Maxwell’s equations. Faraday’s law of inductance
relates the electric (E) field to a time-varying magnetic (B) field:
~ ·~ @B
r E¼ : ð3:32Þ
@t
Ampère’s law describes how currents (J) and time-varying electric fields produce a
magnetic field:
~ ·~ @E
r B ¼ l0 J þ l0 e 0 ð3:33Þ
@t
where μ0 is the magnetic permeability of free space (¼4p·10−7 N A−2) and ε0 is the
permittivity of free space (¼8.85·10−12 C2 N−1 m−2). In most planetary magnetic
fields, l0 e0 ð@E=@tÞ is very small and can be ignored. The current (J) induced by the
magnetic field is given by Ohm’s law:
~
J ¼ r½~ v ·~
E þ ð~ BÞ ð3:34Þ
where r is the electrical conductivity of the material and v is the velocity of the
conducting fluid. Combining Eqs. (3.32), (3.33), and (3.34) gives the induction
equation:

@~
B ~ · ð~ 1
¼ r v ·~
BÞ þ r2~
B: ð3:35Þ
@t l0 r
Equation (3.35) shows how the magnetic field B varies with time. The first term on
the right shows that the conducting fluid must be moving with velocity v in order to
maintain the magnetic field. The second term on the right is called the diffusion term
and 1=ð l0 rÞ is the magnetic diffusivity. In the absence of fluid motions (i.e., v¼0),
the magnetic field decays over some time period related to the magnetic diffusivity.
For terrestrial planets, this decay period is of order 104 years. Since this is much less
than the ∼4.5 Ga age of the Solar System, planets with active magnetic fields such
as Earth must be generating their fields at the present time.
During aerobraking, MGS’s Magnetometer/Electron Reflectometer (MAG/ER)
experiment became the first instrument to obtain magnetic field observations below
the planet’s ionosphere. The maximum magnitude of Mars’ dipole is ∼2·1017 A m−1,
corresponding to a magnetic field strength of 0.5 nT at the equator (Acuña et al.,
2001). This small value indicates that Mars does not currently have an active
magnetic dynamo.
3.5.2 Remnant magnetization

Rocks containing magnetic minerals can retain a remnant magnetization indicative
of the strength and polarity of the magnetic field that was present when the rock
solidified. Like a compass needle, magnetic minerals align with the direction of the
magnetic field lines. As long as the material remains molten, the minerals are free to
realign with any changes in the magnetic field direction. The motion of the magnetic
minerals is reduced as the temperature drops and the magma begins to solidify.
Once the temperature has dropped below a specific value, called the Curie tem-
perature (TC), the magnetic minerals can no longer move and the direction of the
magnetic field at that time is “frozen into” the rock, giving rise to thermal remnant
magnetization (TRM). Minerals that retain the ability to exhibit TRM over geo-
logically long time periods are called ferromagnetic minerals. Ferromagnetism
results from the spin and orbital angular momenta of the electron, which give rise to
a magnetic dipole for the electron. In atoms with filled electron shells, the spins of
the electrons are in up/down pairs resulting in a zero net dipole moment. However,
ferromagnetic minerals are composed of atoms with unfilled electron shells. In this
case the electrons can align along the direction of the external (planetary) magnetic
field and retain that direction after the temperature drops below TC. The Curie
temperature varies with mineral composition: TC of metallic iron is ∼1040 K while
that of magnetite (Fe3O4) is ∼850 K.
Crustal remnance also can be produced at low temperatures through chemical
remnant magnetization (CRM) of paramagnetic minerals. Paramagnetic minerals
display magnetic properties when subjected to an external magnetic field, but do not
retain this magnetization when the field is removed. Paramagnetic minerals must
grow to large grain sizes to obtain CRM, but have difficulty retaining a strong
magnetization after the magnetizing field is removed (Connerney et al., 2004).
Titanomagnetite and pyrrhotite in the martian meteorites retain small amounts of
remnance, but the long-term stability of this remnance is questioned (McSween,
2002). The best evidence of an ancient magnetic dynamo comes from the MGS
MAG/ER discovery of remnant magnetization in some regions of the martian crust
(Acuña et al., 1999; Connerney et al., 1999) (Figure 3.8). The strongest regions of
remnant magnetization are in the Terra Cimmeria and Terra Sirenum region of the
ancient southern highlands (30°–90°S 130°–240°E), with inferred crustal magnet-
izations of ∼10–30 A m−1 (Connerney et al., 1999; Langlais et al., 2004). This is an
order of magnitude higher than the strongest terrestrial magnetizations. Weaker
magnetizations exist throughout most of the southern highlands and in some places
under the northern plains (Acuña et al., 1999; Connerney et al., 2005). Regions
surrounding large impact basins are weakly magnetized or show no magnetic
remnance, probably resulting from demagnetization of rocks containing pyrrhotite
90°
60°
30°
0°
Latitude
–30°
–60°
–90°
180° 90° 0° 270° 180°
West Longitude
Figure 3.8 MGS’s MAG/ER experiment revealed remnant magnetization within ancient rocks across the martian surface. The areas of
the strongest magnetizations (red/blue colors) correspond to ancient rocks in the Terra Cimmeria and Terra Sirenum regions. Open
circles indicate impact craters and filled circles are volcanoes. The dichotomy boundary is indicated by the solid line. (Image
69
PIA02059, NASA/GSFC/MGS MAG/ER team.) See also color plate.
(Fe7S8), magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), and/or titanohematite (Fe2-xTixO3)

which are exposed to shock pressures >1GPa (Rochette et al., 2003; Kletetschka
et al., 2004). If these basins had formed while the magnetic dynamo was active,
these areas would have been remagnetized. The lack of such remagnetization
suggests that the dynamo ceased operation before the formation of these large basins
∼4 Ga ago (Acuña et al., 1999). Alternately Schubert et al. (2000) suggest that the
basins formed prior to the onset of the dynamo, with the magnetization resulting
from localized heating and cooling events after basin formation. However, most of
the evidence from both geochemical and geophysical arguments supports the idea of
an early dynamo (Connerney et al., 2004).
Figure 3.8 shows that crustal remnance appears in lineated patterns with alter-
nating polarities. Connerney et al. (1999) noted the similarities in magnetic pattern
to terrestrial seafloor spreading and proposed that the martian lineated magnetic
anomalies recorded ancient plate tectonic activity in a reversing dipolar field. Faults
running parallel to the directions of the magnetic anomalies have been interpreted as
transform faults that were active early in martian history (Connerney et al., 2005).
Alternately, the linear magnetic anomalies have been explained by magnetite-rich
dike intrusions (Nimmo, 2000), accretion of terrains along a convergent boundary
(Fairén et al., 2002), and thermal decomposition of iron-rich carbonates into
magnetite (Scott and Fuller, 2004). Reconstruction of paleomagnetic pole positions
from the magnetic anomalies suggests some clustering and evidence of a reversing
dipolar field (Arkani-Hamed, 2001). However, the positions of these poles vary
depending on the magnetic anomalies selected. Sprenke and Baker (2000) primarily
utilized the Terra Cimmeria and Sirenum anomalies to place the south magnetic pole
near 15°S 45°E. Arkani-Hamed (2001) modeled ten isolated magnetic anomalies
and found a south magnetic pole position near 25°N 230°E. Hood and Zakharian
(2001) used magnetic anomalies in the northern hemisphere to locate the south
magnetic pole near 38°N 219°E. All of these pole locations are >50° from the
current rotational pole. Most magnetic axes are offset <15° from the planet’s
rotation axis (Uranus and Neptune are exceptions), leading Sprenke and Baker
(2000) and Hood and Zakharian (2001) to propose that either plate motions or
reorientation of the planet due to the Tharsis uplift (“polar wander”) has moved the
paleomagnetic pole positions far from the current geographic poles.
3.6 Interior structure of Mars

The mean density of Mars combined with geochemical (mainly martian meteorite
analysis) and geophysical (particularly from gravity, topography, and magnetic
data) analysis have provided new constraints on the interior structure of Mars. Mars
is differentiated into a crust, mantle, and core (Figure 3.9). Gravity and topography
Interior structure of Mars 71
Figure 3.9 Mars’ interior structure is inferred from geophysical measurements. The
crust varies in thickness between ∼38 and 62km. The mantle is 1700–2100km
thick and the core has a radius of 1300–1700km. (Background image PIA00974,
NASA/MPF team.)
analysis indicates that the crust, composed primarily of basaltic materials (Zuber,
2001) (Section 4.3.2) with a mean density of 2900 kg m−3 (Zuber et al., 2000;
McGovern et al., 2002, 2004a), is thicker in the southern hemisphere than in the
north but also displays substantial regional variations (Zuber et al., 2000; Neumann
et al., 2004; Wieczorek and Zuber, 2004) (Figure 3.7). Various techniques have
been utilized to estimate crustal thickness on Mars, but all are consistent within the
range of 38 to 62km for the mean thickness (Wieczorek and Zuber, 2004).
The mantle, composed primarily of olivine ((Mg, Fe)2SiO4) and spinel (the high-
pressure polymorph of olivine) extends to a depth of ∼1700–2100km (Zuber,
2001). An FeS-rich core with a radius of ∼1300–1700km lies at the center of the
planet. The physical state of the core is uncertain: both solid (Smith et al., 2001a)
and liquid (Yoder et al., 2003) have been proposed. The lack of a presently active
magnetic dynamo indicates either that the core is not undergoing vigorous
convection (Stevenson, 2001) or that solidification of a liquid core is not occurring
(Schubert et al., 2000).
The crust and upper mantle constitute the rigid outer layer of the planet called the
lithosphere. Deformation in the lithosphere is dominated by brittle failure, creating
the tectonic features observed on the martian surface. The lower part of the mantle
comprises the asthenosphere, where ductile deformation dominates. The depth
where the brittle-to-ductile deformation transition occurs defines the lithosphere–
asthenosphere boundary. McGovern et al. (2004a) find that the lithospheric thick-
ness varies from <12km up to as much as 200km. Conduction is the major
mechanism of heat transfer within the lithosphere while convection is expected to
dominate in the asthenosphere.
4
Surface characteristics
The surface of Mars displays considerable variability in albedo, composition, surface

roughness, and physical properties. These surface characteristics are dictated largely
by Mars’ bulk composition (Section 2.3) and the geologic processes which have
operated over the planet’s history (Section 5.3). Spectroscopic observations, radar
reflection, and surface operations have provided constraints on martian surface
characteristics.
4.1 Albedo and color

4.1.1 Albedo
Albedo measures the fraction of sunlight reflected by a body. A perfectly reflecting
body has an albedo of 1.0 while a perfectly absorbing body has zero albedo. Two
common types of albedo which are used in planetary studies are the bond albedo
(Ab) and the geometric albedo (A0). The value of Ab depends on the incident solar
energy and how much of that flux the planet reflects. The solar flux (F) at some
distance r from the Sun is related to the Sun’s luminosity (Lsolar ¼3.9·1026 W):
Lsolar
F¼ : (4:1)
4pr2
Because only one side of the planet (radius¼R) receives this sunlight, the incident
flux (Fi) on the planet’s surface is
Lsolar Lsolar R2
Fi ¼ ðpR2 Þ ¼ : (4:2)
4pr 2 4r2
Ab is the ratio of the reflected flux (Fr) to the incident flux (Fi), therefore
Ab Lsolar R2
Fr ¼ Ab Fi ¼ : (4:3)
4r 2
72
Albedo and color 73
However, the amount of sunlight reflected by the body and received on Earth varies
with the phase angle Φ (the Sun–object–Earth angle). A0 is defined as the albedo at
Φ¼0°. Ab and A0 are related to each other through the phase integral (qph)
Ab A0 qph : (4:4)
The phase integral gives information on how Fr varies with Φ:

Zp
Fr ðUÞ
qph 2 sin UdU: (4:5)
Fr ðU ¼ 0 Þ
0
Average Ab ¼0.250 and A0 ≈ 0.150 for Mars, but the regional reflectivity of the
martian surface varies with location (Figure 4.1). The darkest regions have A0 ≈ 0.10
while A0 ≈ 0.36 in the brightest areas (exclusive of the polar caps). The albedo
contrast is greatest when Mars is observed through a red filter (centered near 0.6 μm
wavelength) and almost disappears when using a blue filter (centered near 0.4 μm).
This contrast varies seasonally as dust is redistributed by changing wind directions
associated with the alternating recession and expansion of the polar caps. The names
given to albedo features by Schiaparelli on his 1877 map are generally still used
today for the corresponding topographic features. For example, the high-albedo
feature called Hellas is a large impact basin called Hellas Planitia, and the low-
albedo feature Syrtis Major is now associated with the volcanic plateau of Syrtis
Major Planum.
4.1.2 Color
Mars displays a reddish-orange color to the naked eye, but detailed observations show
a range in color. The high-albedo surface regions (exclusive of the polar caps) appear
reddish-ochre in color while the lower-albedo regions appear grayish. Color views of
the planet (Figure 4.2) reveal three discrete units: bright red-ochre, dark gray, and
intermediate. The intermediate units appear to be a mixture of the material comprising
the bright and dark regions. Color contrast can be enhanced by ratioing the reflect-
ivities obtained using different color filters (James et al., 1996; Bell et al., 1997).
These color ratios indicate that the darker units can be subdivided into redder (red/
violet ratio ≈ 3) and less red (red/violet ratio ≈ 2) units. Redder dark units include the
Tharsis volcanic region and the southern hemisphere highland plateau regions, while
less red dark units are correlated with the intermediate-aged ridged plains (Soderblom,
1992). These color variations result from differences in both composition and grain
size. The brighter regions are generally correlated with dust deposits while the darker
regions correspond to basaltic-rich materials.
74
Figure 4.1 Mars displays variations in albedo across its surface, as revealed by MGS TES (Christensen et al., 2001a). (NASA/Arizona
State University (ASU).)
Surface roughness and structure 75
Figure 4.2 Mars displays slight variations in color, as demonstrated in this MOC
image taken at LS ¼211° (northern autumn/southern spring) in May 2005. The
bright south polar cap is visible at the bottom of the image. The dark feature in the
center is the volcanic province Syrtis Major Planum and the brighter circular
feature below Syrtis Major is the Hellas impact basin. (MOC Release MOC2-1094;
NASA/MSSS.) See also color plate.
4.2 Surface roughness and structure

The first radar echoes from Mars were obtained in 1963 and the technique has been
used during most subsequent oppositions (Simpson et al., 1992). The round-trip
echo flight time provides information on the distance between Earth and Mars and
topographic variations on the martian surface. The dispersion of the returned echo
provides an estimate of surface roughness and the strength of the echo constrains the
reflectivity of the surface. The polarization of the returned signal allows estimation
of small-scale surface structure. Thus, elevations, slopes, textures, and material
properties can be obtained through radar observations.
Ground-based radar observations revealed the diversity of terrains on Mars,
including the icy nature of the polar caps, large regions covered by dust mantles,
rough lava flows, and indications that lava flows have infilled at least some channels
(Simpson et al., 1992; Harmon et al., 1999). A region largely corresponding to the
76 Surface characteristics
Medusae Fossae Formation southwest of Tharsis displays almost no radar return

(Muhleman et al., 1995; Harmon et al., 1999). Radar data of this “Stealth” region
provide evidence that this region is covered by thick layers of fine-grained material
(Edgett et al., 1997). Radar data have been used to constrain surface material prop-
erties at proposed landing sites and complement the information obtained from
orbiting spacecraft on surface roughness, rock abundances, and dust coverings
(Section 4.4.2) (e.g., Golombek et al., 2003). These predictions are generally
consistent with the actual conditions encountered at the landing sites (e.g., Golombek
et al., 1999b, 2005).
Decimeter-scale roughness variations are obtained from ground-based radar
(Harmon et al., 1999), and are complemented by kilometer-scale surface roughness
estimates from MOLA (Figure 4.3). MOLA reveals that the southern highlands are
rougher than the northern plains, largely resulting from the southern hemisphere’s
heavily cratered nature. The smoothness of the northern plains reflects the sedi-
mentary mantle which overlies this region (Kreslavsky and Head, 2000).
Details about the subsurface properties and structure to a depth of 3–5km are
being revealed by the MARSIS ground-penetrating radar (Picardi et al., 2005;
Watters et al., 2006). Attenuation of the radar return provides constraints on the
dielectric constant of the subsurface materials, which allows mapping of compos-
itional variations. Preliminary results from the north polar cap are consistent with
H2O-ice comprising the summer (remnant) cap and much of the polar layered
deposits. MARSIS has revealed the thickness of these polar deposits with a sharp
contrast in radar reflectivity corresponding to the base of the layer near 1.8km
(Figure 4.4a). Smaller variations in subsurface properties and compositions are
being revealed by MRO’s higher-resolution SHARAD ground-penetrating radar
(Figure 4.4b) (Seu et al., 2004).
4.3 Crustal composition

The compositional diversity of the martian crust has been revealed through remote
sensing observations, analysis of martian meteorites, and in situ investigations.
Most of the compositional information has been obtained through various types of
spectroscopic analyses.
4.3.1 Methods of compositional analysis

Remote sensing data include observations from Earth-based telescopes, Hubble
Space Telescope (HST), and Mars orbiting spacecraft. All of these techniques utilize
reflection spectroscopy to determine compositional information. Sunlight consists of
a blackbody spectrum modified with absorption lines created by gases in the Sun’s
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 20.0
Point-to-Point Median Slope Roughness (deg), 35 km window
Figure 4.3 MOLA analysis provides estimates of the roughness of the martian surface. The southern highlands are rougher than the
northern plains. (Image PIA02808, NASA/GSFC.) See also color plate.
77
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.4 The ground-penetrating radars on MEx and MRO provide information
on compositional variations within the near-surface. (a) This MEx MARSIS profile
extends from the northern plains (left) to the north polar cap (right). The split in the
radar return on the right demonstrates the thickness of the polar cap. (ASI/ESA/
University of Rome.) (b) MRO’s Shallow Radar (SHARAD) reveals fine layering
within the south polar layered deposits. This profile is 650km long and the arrow
length corresponds to an 800m thick segment. The bottom of the arrow indicates
the base of the polar layered deposits. (NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASI/University of
Rome/Washington University in St. Louis.)
photosphere. As sunlight is reflected off of a planetary surface, minerals comprising

its surface will absorb additional wavelengths of energy due to vibrational motions
within the crystal lattices (Christensen et al., 2001a). The wavelengths of these
absorption lines are diagnostic of the minerals doing the absorbing. Removing the
solar spectrum and atmospheric absorptions from the reflected light provides us with
the absorptions due to the planet, which, when compared with laboratory spectra,
allow us to constrain the mineral composition of the surface (Figure 4.5). Many of the
important mineral and atmospheric absorptions occur in the infrared (IR) (Hanel et al.,
2003), where the energy has frequencies between 3·1011 Hz to 3·1014 Hz, or
wavelengths between 1 μm and 1mm. Infrared is subdivided into near-IR (∼0.7 to
5 μm), mid-IR (5 to ∼30 μm), and far-IR (∼30 to 350 μm). Infrared energy between 5
and 100 μm results from the body’s heat and is therefore called thermal IR. Infrared
observations are often reported in wavenumbers rather than wavelengths or fre-
quencies. Wavenumber is the inverse of wavelength and its units in planetary studies
are usually cm−1. Thus IR energy with a wavelength of 10 μm corresponds to a
wavenumber of 103 cm−1.
Earth-based IR observations are limited to the near-IR because our atmosphere
absorbs the longer wavelengths. The Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object
Spectrometer (NICMOS) instrument on Hubble Space Telescope (HST) also is
limited to the near-IR, observing in the 0.8 to 2.5 μm region. Mars-orbiting
spacecraft obtain observations over a wider range of wavelengths and produce
Crustal composition 79
Wavelength (␮m)
7 8 9 10 12 15 20
Feldspar
(Microcline)
Clay
Emissivity (Kaolinite)
Amphibole
(Hornblende)
Pyroxene
(Augite)
Olivine
(Forsterite)
1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400

Wavenumber (cm–1)
Figure 4.5 Laboratory spectra of several geologically important minerals are

shown in this image. Differences in band shape and the wavelengths of specific
absorptions distinguish one mineral from another and allow mineralogical analysis
from remote sensing platforms. (Reprinted by permission of the American
Geophysical Union, Christensen et al. [2000b], Copyright 2000.)
higher-resolution data due to their proximity to Mars. Table 4.1 lists the wave-
length ranges covered by spectrometers on several of the Mars missions. Many of
these spectrometers observe only specific bands within the wavelength range,
selected to enhance identification of minerals which are of particular interest. For
example, THEMIS investigates the martian surface using IR bands centered at
6.78, 7.93, 8.56, 9.35, 10.21, 11.04, 11.79, 12.57, and 14.88 μm (Christensen
et al., 2004a). These bands were selected because absorptions from various sili-
cates (including feldspars and pyroxenes), salts, and carbonates are located near
these wavelengths.
Reflection spectroscopy is the major technique utilized in remote sensing
observations (Clark and Roush, 1984), but it is not the only way to obtain com-
positional information. MO’s GRS system consists of a gamma-ray spectrometer
(GRS), a neutron spectrometer (NS), and a high-energy neutron detector (HEND)
(Boynton et al., 2004). GRS detects gamma rays emitted through decay of radioactive
elements such as potassium (K), uranium (U), and thorium (Th) as well as gamma rays
induced by cosmic rays interacting with non-radioactive elements such as chlorine
Table 4.1 Wavelengths of observations by selected spacecraft missions
Mission/instrument Wavelengths
Mariner 6/7
UV Spectrometer 110–430 nm
IR Spectrometer 1.9–14.3 μm
Mariner 9
UV Spectrometer 110–352 nm
IRIS (Infrared Interferometer 6–50 μm
Spectrometer)
Viking 1/2 Orbiter
IRTM 15 μm
Phobos 2
ISM 0.7–3.2 μm
KRFM 0.3–0.6 μm
Thermoscan
Visible 0.5–0.95 μm
Infrared 8.5–12 μm
Mars Global Surveyor
TES
Spectrometer 6.25–50 μm
Bolometer 4.5–100 μm
Albedo 0.3–2.7 μm
Mars Odyssey
THEMIS
Infrared 6.62, 7.78, 8.56, 9.30, 10.11, 11.03,
11.78, 12.58, 14.96 μm
Visible 423, 553, 652, 751, 870 nm
Mars Express
OMEGA
Near-IR 1.0–5.2 μm
Visible 0.5–1.1 μm
PFS 1.2–5 μm
SPICAM
Ultraviolet 118–320 nm
Infrared 1.0–1.7 μm
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
CRISM (Compact Reconnaissance 0.362–3.92 μm
Imaging Spectrometer for Mars)
(Cl), iron (Fe), and carbon (C). NS and HEND detect thermal (<0.4 eV), epithermal
(0.4 eV to 0.7 MeV), and fast (0.7–1.6 MeV) neutrons emitted through cosmic ray
interactions with surface minerals. These neutrons can pass through the surface
largely unaffected or can be absorbed, depending on surface composition. Com-
parison of thermal, epithermal, and fast neutron fluxes emitted from the surface
provides constraints on the composition within ∼1m of the surface. For example, the
n
MER-A Spirit APXS X-Ray
ico
S il
n
r
l fu
Iro
lciu
Su
Ca e
1
lo r in
Counts s–1
Ch
.1
el
ck
Ni
.01
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Energy (keV)
Figure 4.6 Data from Spirit’s APXS instrument reveal emissions associated with
specific elements. The elements identified in this spectrum have been determined
primarily from the X-ray analysis. (Image PIA05114, NASA/JPL/Max-Planck
Institute for Chemistry.)
presence of hydrogen (H) in the surface, typically found in the form of H2O in
terrestrial planets, will absorb epithermal neutrons but not thermal neutrons. Carbon
dioxide (CO2) ice will allow both thermal and epithermal neutrons to pass. Thus
the low flux of epithermal neutrons and high flux of thermal neutrons in
the martian polar regions during the summer suggest the presence of H2O rather
than CO2 ice.
The rovers on MPF and MER each carried an Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer
(APXS) to determine elemental compositions of surface rocks and soil (Rieder et al.,
1997a, 2003) (Figure 4.6). The APXS bombards a surface sample with alpha particles
and X-rays emitted from radioactive curium-244. The alpha particles are back-
scattered by the sample atoms with energies diagnostic of the atom. X-rays, whose
energies are again diagnostic of the sample atoms, are emitted by the sample as
ionizations caused by the initial bombardment recombine, a process called X-ray
fluorescence (the Viking landers also carried X-ray fluorescence spectrometers). The
two techniques are combined because the alpha backscattering technique is superior at
detecting lighter elements such as carbon and oxygen while the X-ray fluorescence
technique is sensitive to heavier elements (elements heavier than sodium). Iron
minerals are further investigated using the MER Mössbauer spectrometer, which
bombards samples with gamma rays emitted from a cobalt-57 source and measures
the amount of gamma-ray re-emission from the sample (Klingelhöfer et al., 2003).
4.3.2 Crustal composition from remote sensing observations

Earth-based telescopic observations cover a limited wavelength range and are of
relatively low resolution, but they provided the first insights into martian crustal
1.4
1.2
Reflectance
0.8
Bright
Dark
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0.89
0.68
1.22
1.59
2.03
2.24
0.78
1.11
2.43
0.57
1.4
1
0.33
1.79
Wavelength (mm)
Figure 4.7 Reflectance spectra of the bright versus dark regions of Mars show
important differences related to composition. These include variations in iron
oxidation state, presence of pyroxenes, and existence of H2O and OH. (Data from
US Geological Survey Spectral Laboratory, speclab.cr.usgs.gov.)
composition and allow long-term continuous monitoring of the planet (Singer,

1985; Bell et al., 1994; Erard, 2000). Figure 4.7 shows reflectance spectra of the
bright and dark regions of Mars. The reflectance increase between 0.3 and 0.75 μm
is attributed to ferric iron (Fe3þ) as is the shallow absorption near 0.86 μm in the
bright regions. The spectra are inconsistent with Fe3þ occurring in crystalline form,
leading to early suggestions of amorphous forms of iron oxides such as palagonite
(Singer, 1985). The peak at 0.75 μm in the dark region spectrum is indicative of
ferrous iron (Fe2þ), indicating differences in oxidation among the two regions.
Mafic (iron- and magnesium-rich) minerals such as pyroxenes are suggested by the
absorptions near 1 μm. Absorptions at 1.4, 1.9, and 3.0 μm are diagnostic of OH and
H2O, suggesting the presence of clays. The reddish color of the dark regions is
consistent with mafic materials covered with thin alteration coatings.
Hubble Space Telescope observations provide improved spatial resolution over
ground-based investigations but are limited in temporal coverage (Bell et al., 1997;
Noe Dobrea et al., 2003). Color-ratioing of HST data reveals regional variations in
composition, such as higher and/or fresher pyroxene concentrations in Syrtis Major
compared to Acidalia and Utopia Planitiae (Bell et al., 1997) and hemispheric
differences in the distribution of hydrated minerals (Noe Dobrea et al., 2003).
Orbiting spacecraft provide the highest resolution compositional information for
Mars. Early spacecraft, particularly the Phobos 2 mission, gave some insights into
surface compositional variations, but the first detailed mineralogic survey of the entire
martian surface was performed by MGS’s TES, which had a nadir surface footprint
Aram
Chaos
Meridiani
Planum
Figure 4.8 TES observations revealed a spectral signature indicative of coarse-

grained crystalline hematite in the Meridiani Planum and Aram Chaos regions. The
large hematite exposure in Meridiani led to the selection of this region for
Opportunity’s landing site. (Hematite mineralogy map courtesy of ASU/TES team.)
size of 3.15km at the nominal orbital altitude of 378km (Christensen et al., 2001a).
TES spectra are dominated by volcanic materials, particularly basalt (Christensen
et al., 2000a), consistent with Earth- and HST-based observations. Bright regions tend
to be dust-covered, providing sparse information about the composition of the
underlying bedrock (Bandfield, 2002). The dark regions comprise two distinct
mineralogies with the boundary between these two surface types approximating the
hemispheric dichotomy (Bandfield et al., 2000). The type 1 surface unit dominates
in the dark regions of the southern hemisphere and is apparently a plagioclase-
and clinopyroxene-rich basalt (Bandfield et al., 2000; Mustard and Cooper, 2005).
Surface type 2 covers the dark regions of the northern hemisphere and has been
interpreted as unaltered basaltic andesite or andesite (Banfield et al., 2000) or a
weathered basalt (Wyatt and McSween, 2002; McSween et al., 2003). TES revealed
outcrops of crystalline gray hematite (a-Fe2O3) in Terra Meridiani, Aram Chaos, and
scattered through Valles Marineris (Figure 4.8), which were interpreted as a chemical
precipitate from Fe-enriched aqueous fluids (Christensen et al., 2001b). TES also
detected regional concentrations of olivine (Hoefen et al., 2003) and orthopyroxenite
(Hamilton et al., 2003). Carbonates, which might be expected from interactions of the
CO2-rich atmosphere with past surface water, were not detected nor were sulfates
identified (Christensen et al., 2001a; Bandfield, 2002).
MO THEMIS and MEx OMEGA have expanded upon the TES results with
higher spectral and spatial resolutions (100m for THEMIS, 0.3–5km for OMEGA)
and find greater mineralogic diversity across the surface (Bibring et al., 2005,
2006; Christensen et al., 2005). Olivine-rich basalts occur in widely separated
regions, including Nili Patera, Ganges Chasma, and Ares Vallis (Christensen et al.,
2005; Mustard et al., 2005) and outcrops of olivine are associated with some impact
Figure 4.9 OMEGA observations have revealed localized outcrops of a variety of

minerals. This view of Marwth Vallis shows outcrops (dark regions) of hydrated
minerals. (Image SEMDVZULWFE, ESA/OMEGA/HRSC.)
craters and basins (Mustard et al., 2005). Quartz- and plagioclase-rich granitoid rocks
are exposed in the floors and central peaks of a few impact craters (Bandfield et al.,
2004). While much of the martian surface is composed of basalt, highly evolved high-
silica (dacite) lavas have been identified in small regions such as Nili Patera in Syrtis
Major (Christensen et al., 2005). High-calcium clinopyroxene dominates in low-
albedo volcanic regions, dark sand, and crater ejecta while low-calcium orthopyr-
oxene is found in moderate to bright outcrops within the ancient terrain (Mustard
et al., 2005). Hydrated minerals (clays), particularly phyllosilicates, are exposed in
many of the older terrain units (Bibring et al., 2005; Poulet et al., 2005) (Figure 4.9).
Carbonates continue to avoid detection (Bibring et al., 2005), but hydrated sulfates
have been detected in the north polar region (Langevin et al., 2005a) and within
layered deposits of probable sedimentary origin (Gendrin et al., 2005).
Bibring et al. (2006) noted an age correlation for specific mineralogies and
suggested a mineralogy-based evolutionary sequence for Mars. Their earliest period
(corresponding to early to middle Noachian (Section 5.2)) experienced large
amounts of aqueous alteration, producing the phyllosilicates observed in the ancient
terrains. Bibring et al. (2006) call this the “phyllosian period,” in reference to the
phyllosilicates. The phyllosian period was followed by the “theiikian period,”
characterized by acidic aqueous alteration processes which produced the sulfur
deposits found in localized regions of Mars. Bibring et al. (2006) propose that this
evolutionary change was produced by increased volcanic activity near the end of the
Noachian period. The theiikian period extended from the late Noachian through the
early Hesperian, when it transitioned into the “siderikian period.” This latter period
extends to the present day and is characterized by lack of liquid water on the global
scale and for long time periods, as indicated by the presence of ferric oxides.
180˚ 0˚
N S
12
0˚
0˚
60
24
30
0˚
˚
24
30
0˚
˚
60
0˚
0˚
12
0˚ 180˚
mGal
1000
60˚
30˚
500
0˚
–30˚
0
–60˚
–500
180˚ 240˚ 300˚ 0˚ 60˚ 120˚ 180˚
Figure 3.5 Gravity anomaly map, as measured from the vertical accelerations of
MGS. A strong positive gravity anomaly is seen between 240°E and 300°E
longitude which corresponds to the Tharsis volcanic province, while a strong
negative anomaly in the equatorial region between 300°E and 0°E correlates with
Valles Marineris. However, many topographic features do not correlate with
gravity anomalies. (Image PIA02054, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center
(GSFC).)
–8 –4 0 4 8 12
Altitude [km]
Figure 3.6 MOLA revealed the large variations in topography visible across the martian surface. Topography ranges from a high at the
summit of Olympus Mons to a low in the bottom of the Hellas Basin. (Image PIA02820, NASA/JPL/GSFC/MGS MOLA team.)
90°
60°
30°
0°
Latitude
–30°
–60°
–90°
180° 90° 0° 270° 180°
West Longitude
Figure 3.8 MGS’s MAG/ER experiment revealed remnant magnetization within ancient rocks across the martian surface. The areas of
the strongest magnetizations (red/blue colors) correspond to ancient rocks in the Terra Cimmeria and Terra Sirenum regions. Open
circles indicate impact craters and filled circles are volcanoes. The dichotomy boundary is indicated by the solid line. (Image
PIA02059, NASA/GSFC/MGS MAG/ER team.)
Figure 4.2 Mars displays slight variations in color, as demonstrated in this MOC
image taken at LS ¼211° (northern autumn/southern spring) in May 2005. The
bright south polar cap is visible at the bottom of the image. The dark feature in the
center is the volcanic province Syrtis Major Planum and the brighter circular
feature below Syrtis Major is the Hellas impact basin. (MOC Release MOC2-1094;
NASA/MSSS.)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 20.0
Point-to-Point Median Slope Roughness (deg), 35 km window
Figure 4.3 MOLA analysis provides estimates of the roughness of the martian surface. The southern highlands are rougher than the
northern plains. (Image PIA02808, NASA/GSFC.)
Lower limit of water mass fraction on Mars
2% 4% 8% 16% 32% >64%
+60
+30
–30
–60
–180 –90 0 +90 +180
Figure 4.10 Analysis from the neutron experiments on GRS has produced information on the water mass fraction within the upper
meter of the martian surface. This map shows that high water concentrations occur near the poles, which likely indicates the presence
of H2O ice within the upper meter. The high H2O concentrations seen in the equatorial regions may be due to ice or hydrated minerals.
(NASA/MO-GRS/Los Alamos National Laboratory.)
Thermal Inertia [J/m2K s½]
24 218 412 606 800
Figure 4.22 Thermal inertia provides information about particle sizes across Mars. This map, derived from TES data, shows the
variation in thermal inertia across the planet. Areas of low thermal inertia, such as Tharsis, are dust-covered while regions of high
thermal inertia, such as Valles Marineris and the rim of the Hellas impact basin, have high rock abundances. (Image PIA02818,
NASA/JPL/ASU.)
Alteration occurring during the siderikian period has been limited to oxidation from
atmospheric weathering and perhaps frost/rock interaction.
Information on the elemental concentrations of the martian crust comes from
GRS analysis. Figure 4.10 shows the distribution of H2O, as indicated by the
detection of H, within the upper meter of the surface based on thermal, epithermal,
and fast neutron analysis (Feldman et al., 2004a). Regions poleward of ∼50°
display high amounts of H2O, ranging in concentration from 20% to 100% water
equivalent by mass. Arabia and the highlands region south of Tharsis and Elyisum
show higher H2O concentrations than the rest of the highlands, with water-
equivalent concentrations of 2% to 10% by mass. While the high-latitude reservoirs
likely contain substantial concentrations of H2O ice, the high-H equatorial regions
could consist of either buried H2O ice or hydrated minerals.
GRS also has mapped the distribution of Cl, Fe, K, Si, and Th across the martian
surface (Taylor et al., 2006). Chlorine is highly mobile and can be affected by aqueous
processes. High concentrations of Cl are found covering much of Tharsis, perhaps
emplaced by volcanic outgassing. Older volcanic regions in eastern Tharsis and Syrtis
Major and younger volcanism in Elysium show moderate Cl, Fe, and H concen-
trations but low K, Si, and Th. Arabia Terra is unique among the highlands regions,
showing higher Th concentrations in addition to its high H signature. Most of the
southern highlands have higher Si and Th concentrations than Cl, Fe, H, and K. The
northern plains display high Si, Fe, K, and Th. The correlation between elemental
concentrations and geologic units suggests that the elemental analysis will provide
important insights into the evolutionary processes shaping the martian surface.
4.3.3 Crustal composition from martian meteorite analysis

The martian meteorites are geochemically subdivided into an orthopyroxenite
(ALH84001), basaltic shergottites, olivine–phyric shergottites, lherzolitic shergot-
tites (plagioclase-bearing peridotites), olivine-rich nakhlites, and dunites (chas-
signites) (Section 2.2.3) (McSween et al., 2003). ALH84001 samples the early
martian cumulate crust, but the other martian meteorites originated from young
volcanic regions. All of the martian meteorites have higher concentrations of pyr-
oxene than plagioclase, opposite of the TES results for the dark regions of Mars,
which led McSween (2002) to argue that the SNCs originated from the dust-covered
young volcanic regions of Tharsis and/or Elysium. If this is correct, the SNCs
represent a biased sampling of a small region of Mars, and extrapolation of SNC
crustal results to the entire planet is unjustified.
The compositional differences among the shergottites have been attributed to
contamination of the magma through inclusion of early crustal material (Borg et al.,
1997). Alteration products resulting from fluid–rock interactions have been detected
Lower limit of water mass fraction on Mars
86
2% 4% 8% 16% 32% >64%
+60
+30
–30
–60
–180 –90 0 +90 +180
Figure 4.10 Analysis from the neutron experiments on GRS has produced information on the water mass fraction within the upper
meter of the martian surface. This map shows that high water concentrations occur near the poles, which likely indicates the presence
of H2O ice within the upper meter. The high H2O concentrations seen in the equatorial regions may be due to ice or hydrated minerals.
(NASA/MO-GRS/Los Alamos National Laboratory.) See also color plate.
Figure 4.11 The round objects with thin rims are carbonate globules found in
ALH84001. The globules are about 200 μm in diameter and consist of calcium- and
iron-rich carbonates with magnesium carbonate rims. (Image courtesy of Monica
Grady, British Museum of Natural History.)
in several of the martian meteorites. ALH84001 contains large quantities of car-

bonates (Figure 4.11), which were deposited in rock fractures either by evaporation
of brines (Warren, 1998) or through reactions with hydrothermal fluids (Romanek
et al., 1994). Alteration products from rock–water interactions are found in several
of the martian meteorites (Treiman et al., 1993; Bridges and Grady, 2000). These
results indicate that the crustal regions sampled by the martian meteorites are pri-
marily composed of volcanic materials which have interacted with groundwater
and/or surface water throughout their histories.
4.3.4 Crustal composition from in situ analysis

In situ analyses can provide strong constraints on the elemental and mineralogical
compositions of the specific landing sites. Five missions have returned compos-
itional information from the surface of Mars: Viking 1 lander (VL1) in Chryse
Planitia, Viking 2 lander (VL2) in Utopia Planitia, Mars Pathfinder (MPF) in the
outwash region of Ares Valles, MER Spirit rover in Gusev Crater, and MER
Opportunity rover in Meridiani Planum. VL1, VL2, and MPF landed within the
younger, lower-elevation northern plains while Spirit and Opportunity are exploring
older regions of the planet. VL1 and VL2 analyzed the soil within reach of their
robotic arms using X-ray fluorescence spectrometers (Clark et al., 1977, 1982).
Those results suggested that the soil contained higher concentrations of Fe, S, and
Cl than terrestrial continental soils, but lower A1, suggesting creation from mafic to
ultramafic rocks. Soil composition was amazingly similar despite the 4500-km
separation of the two landers, likely due to deposition of airborne dust. Dust
sampled by MPF, Spirit, and Opportunity displays a similar composition to that
VOLCANIC ROCK CLASSIFICATION
Phonolite
12 Tephri- Trachyte
phonolite
Trachy-
Foidite Phono-
Na2O +K2O (weight %)

Trachy- dacite
9 tephrite
andesite
Basaltic
Tephrite- trachy-
basanite andesite
6 Trachy-
basalt Barnacle Bill
Basaltic Rhyolite
Dacite
Yogi andesite
Andesite
3 Basalt
Picro- Shergotty
basalt Zagami Yogi - Dust
EETA79001B
EETA79001A
35 45 55 65 75 85
SiO2 (weight %)
Figure 4.12 Compositions of several of the rocks and dust analyzed by MPF (stars)
and some of the martian meteorites (squares) are shown on this diagram of volcanic
rock classifications. The rocks analyzed by MPF tend to show higher andesitic
compositions compared to the martian meteorites which tend to be basaltic.
(NASA/JPL/MPF.)
observed at VL1 and VL2, suggesting that global dust storms homogenize the soil
across the planet (Rieder et al., 1997b; Yen et al., 2005).
MPF was able to identify elements that were below VL1 and VL2 detection limits
through use of the APXS and was the first mission to analyze rocks. The rocks were
covered with Fe3þ coatings of dust and some weathering rinds, making it difficult to
obtain actual rock compositions (McSween et al., 1999; Morris et al., 2000). The
MPF rocks appear to be of andesitic composition, formed by fractionation of tholeiitic
basaltic magmas during early melting of the martian mantle (Figure 4.12) (McSween
et al., 1999). Soil composition is not an exact fit to the adjacent rocks, leading to the
suggestion that the soils resulted from hydrous alteration of basalt mixed with material
derived from the andesitic rocks at the landing site (Bell et al., 2000).
Spirit and Opportunity have provided the best mineralogic analysis of surface
materials to date. The combination of the Mini-TES, APXS, and Mössbauer
instruments together with the Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT) to grind off surface
alteration rinds and the Microscopic Imager (MI) to investigate rock and soil tex-
tures has led to significant insights into the geologic evolution of these two sites.
Gusev Crater was selected as the Spirit landing site based on geomorphic analysis
suggesting that its floor was covered by paleolake sediments (Golombek et al., 2003).
Figure 4.13 Rocks investigated by Spirit in Gusev Crater display a wide range of
volcanic compositions ranging from basalts to andesites. Rocks analyzed by MPF
and remote sensing data from MGS TES are included for comparison. (NASA/
JPL-Caltech/University of Tennessee.)
Spirit operated on the plains surrounding its landing site for the first 157 sols of its
mission. The rocks and soil on the Gusev plains were discovered to not be
of sedimentary origin but are derived from olivine-rich basaltic lava flows
(Christensen et al., 2004b; Gellert et al., 2004, 2006; McSween et al., 2004, 2006;
Morris et al., 2004, 2006). The composition is similar to that of the olivine-phyric
shergottites, but is distinct from that of the basaltic shergottites and the andesite-rich
rocks studied at the MPF landing site (Figure 4.13). This suggests that the source
magmas of the Gusev plains originated from great depth in the mantle without
undergoing subsequent fractionation (McSween et al., 2006). Starting on sol 157 of
the mission, Spirit left the volcanic plains and climbed into the elevated region called
Columbia Hills (Figure 4.14). Rocks of Columbia Hills include basalts, ultramafic
sedimentary rocks cemented with sulfates, and clastic rocks of varying composition
(Squyres et al., 2006). The Columbia Hills rocks show varying degrees of aqueous
alteration and many of the rocks appear to be altered ejecta deposits from impact
craters. Spirit’s wheels revealed that bright material with high concentrations of salts
lies under the red dust (Figure 4.15). Squyres et al. (2006) propose that the earliest
history of these deposits was dominated by impact events and substantial amounts of
water. Flooding in Ma’adim Vallis (which empties into Gusev Crater) transported
Figure 4.14 Spirit has traversed from its landing site on the floor of Gusev Crater up
to Columbia Hills. This image shows the traverse path of the rover from its landing
on 3 January 2004, through its climb in Columbia Hills, to its position on 22
November 2006. (NASA/JPL/Cornell/MSSS/USGS/New Mexico Museum of
Natural History and Science.)
Figure 4.15 Spirit’s wheels dig trenches into the fine-grained martian soil as it
moves. This image looks back at the rover tracks within Columbia Hills as the rover
headed for McCool Hill. The trenches reveal bright material underlying the darker
surface dust. Compositional analyses of bright material exposed in several places
along Spirit’s traverse indicate these deposits contain salts, suggestive of water
activity within this region in the past. (NASA/JPL-Caltech/Cornell University.)
Sol 41 The Upper Dells
0 1 2
cm
Figure 4.16 Opportunity’s MI imaged hematite spherules (“blueberries”) and non-

horizontal layering in the Upper Dells segment of Eagle Crater’s wall. The layering is
suggestive of ripple patterns produced by moving water. The hematite spherules
likely formed from precipitation in iron-rich water. (NASA/JPL/Cornell University/
USGS.)
sand into this area which subsequently formed the observed sandstones. The water
eventually evaporated, the materials were uplifted prior to the basaltic flooding which
covered the surrounding plains, and the Columbia Hills region has undergone limited
geologic activity during the cold, dry conditions dominating in recent times.
Opportunity landed in Meridiani Planum, the largest outcrop of gray crystalline
hematite (alpha-Fe2O3) detected by TES (Golombek et al., 2003). Almost imme-
diately the rover discovered evidence that water had existed in this region (Squyres
et al., 2004c). The walls of 20-m-diameter Eagle Crater (in which Opportunity
landed) displayed cross-stratification and ripple patterns indicative of sedimentary
deposition (Figure 4.16). The unique compositional signature of this region is
caused by hematite-rich spherules (nicknamed “blueberries” because they are found
embedded in the sedimentary rocks like blueberries in a muffin) found in the rocks
and strewn over the surface. On Earth, hematite concretions, similar to the Meridini
spherules, are precipitated from Fe-rich fluids mixing with oxidizing groundwater
(Chan et al., 2004) and a similar process may occur on Mars (Morris et al., 2005).
Empty depressions within the rock, called vugs, are probably molds of salt crystals
which formed in the rock and subsequently fell out or dissolved (Figure 4.17)
(Herkenhoff et al., 2004). Compositional analysis discovered that most of the
fine-grained materials in this area were derived from basalt. The rocks contain high
concentrations of various salts (Cl, Br, S) (Figure 4.18) (Rieder et al., 2004) and
sulfur minerals including jarosite (NaFe3(SO4)2(OH)6) (Klingelhöfer et al., 2004).
Opportunity discovered similar mineralogies at larger craters as it traversed
Meridiani Planum (Figure 4.19), leading scientists to the conclusion that Meridiani
Planum hosted a salt-water acidic sea in the past. Acid–sulfate weathering in
Figure 4.17 Opportunity’s MI instrument revealed empty depressions within a rock

called El Capitan. These depressions, called vugs, are casts of salt crystals which
originally formed within the rock and subsequently dissolved or fell out. (NASA/
JPL/USGS.)
Figure 4.18 APXS analysis of the rocks exposed in Eagle Crater reveals high
concentrations of salts and sulfur. Concentrations often increase from the surface
into the rock interior, indicating the salts were incorporated into the rocks during
formation rather than being produced by later weathering. These results suggest
that Meridiani Planum was once covered by a salty sea. (NASA/JPL/Cornell
University/Max-Planck Institute.)
an aqueous environment can explain the mineralogies encountered in Meridiani

Planum (Golden et al., 2005).
4.3.5 Summary of martian crustal composition

Remote sensing, martian meteorite analysis, and in situ investigations by the
landed missions all suggest that Fe-rich volcanic materials dominate on Mars.
Compositions of the dust-covered bright regions are difficult to constrain, but the
presence of ferric oxides suggests that much of this material is weathered Fe-rich
Physical characteristics of surface materials 93
Figure 4.19 Opportunity descended part way into Endurance Crater and
investigated the layers exposed along a wall called Burns Cliff. Endurance
Crater is larger and deeper than Eagle Crater where Opportunity landed and shows
that the saltwater sea that produced the features at Eagle Crater existed for a longer
period of time. (NASA/JPL.)
volcanic materials. The low-albedo regions can be subdivided into basalt (southern
highlands) and andesite (northern plains). Andesitic materials could be either evolved
magmas resulting from fractionation within basaltic magma chambers, or the result of
weathering of basaltic materials. Water was abundant early in the planet’s history, as
evidenced by the presence of phyllosilicates in the old terrains and surface evidence
from the Spirit and Opportunity rovers. Intense volcanism interacting with surface
water near the end of the Noachian period may have led to the formation of the sulfate
deposits detected by TES, THEMIS, OMEGA, and Opportunity. Acid–sulfate wea-
thering has dominated at least in Meridiani Planum and perhaps over most of Mars.
This can explain the lack of carbonates detected on the surface since carbonates easily
disintegrate in acidic weathering conditions. For the last ∼3 Ga, martian weathering
has been dominated by dry processes, with only localized regions of surface water
activity, as indicated by the presence of minerals like olivine which is rapidly altered
by aqueous processes. Dust mixed into the soil at all five landing sites is similar in
composition, probably because of the homogenizing effect of global dust storms.
4.4 Physical characteristics of surface materials

Mars’ color and albedo variations are dictated not only by composition but also by
grain size. Terrestrial materials are classified based on size, ranging from dust to
rocks (Table 4.2). Martian materials are subdivided into rocks (pebbles, cobbles,
and larger material), drift material (fine-grained and cohesive material, primarily
composed of clay-sized particles), crusty-to-cloddy material (clay-sized grains
weakly cemented by salts), and blocky material (composed of sand-sized and
Table 4.2 Grade scale for small particles
Diameter (mm) Particle

<0.004 Clay
0.0004–0.00625 Silt
0.00625–0.125 Very fine sand
0.125–0.25 Fine sand
0.25–0.5 Medium sand
0.5–1.0 Coarse sand
1.0–2.0 Very coarse sand
2.0–4.0 Granule
4.0–64 Pebble
64–256 Cobble
smaller grains which are strongly cemented by salts) (Moore and Jakosky, 1989).
The sizes of surface materials at a specific location depend on the geologic processes
which have operated in that region. Bedrock is broken into rocks that are weathered
into the smaller materials.
Weathering processes are divided into physical and chemical weathering.
Physical weathering is the mechanical breakage of larger materials into smaller
pieces. For example, when water seeps into cracks in a rock and then expands upon
freezing, the forces it exerts on the rock during expansion can eventually fracture the
rock into smaller pieces. Chemical weathering is the alteration of one mineral into
another, which often weakens the chemical bonds holding the rock together.
Chemical weathering also includes the dissolution of minerals – thus, the vugs seen
in rocks at the Opportunity landing site indicate that dissolution of salt crystals, and
thus chemical weathering, has occurred.
4.4.1 Regolith
The uppermost layer of the surface, composed of the fragments produced by
weathering processes, is called the regolith. The terms “regolith” and “soil” are
often used interchangeably in planetary applications, although terrestrial geologists
argue that biologic activity is an important component of the composition and
mixing processes of “soil.” Fragment/clast size is expected to generally increase
with depth. The martian regolith likely contains mixtures of soil and ice, particularly
at the higher latitudes. A possible cross-section of the martian regolith is shown in
Figure 4.20.
The color of the martian regolith ranges from bright red dust to darker red and gray
material. The differences in color are primarily due to variations in iron mineralogy,
degree of alteration, and particle sizes and shapes. The darkest landing site yet
Crater ejecta
Volcanic lava flows
Weathering products
Sedimentary deposits
Increasing
depth
Fractured basement
Compacted material
Figure 4.20 Idealized cross-section of the martian crust. The upper level is the
regolith, composed of fragmented material from ejecta, volcanic flows,
sedimentary deposits, and weathering products. The middle layer is basement,
fractured by geologic processes such as impact cratering. At some depth, the
overlying pressure is great enough to cause self-compaction of the material. (After
Clifford, 1993.)
investigated is Meridiani Planum (albedo ∼0.12), which is largely covered by fine-

grained sand (≤150 μm) of Fe-rich basaltic composition and hematite spherules
(Figure 4.21). Meridiani Planum is less dusty than the other landing sites, probably
because of eolian deflation which leaves a dark cohesionless lag deposit on the
surface (Soderblom et al., 2004). This dark surface layer is underlain by higher-
albedo soils in many locations, as revealed by trenches excavated by the rover’s
wheels (Figure 4.15). The crests of small dunes and drifts encountered by Oppor-
tunity across the Meridiani plains are armored by millimeter-sized rounded granules.
In contrast, the regolith at the Spirit landing site in Gusev Crater generally consists
of five components (Greeley et al., 2006). The topmost layer is a thin deposit (<1mm)
of dust which has settled out of the atmosphere. This is underlain by a lag deposit of
coarse sand and granules, under which is a layer of subangular fragments larger than a
few millimeters in size. A cohesive crust (“duricrust”) several millimeters thick is
next, with a layer of dark soil forming the bottom of the regolith. Gusev Crater regolith
displays many of the same general characteristics as regolith at the MPF (Moore et al.,
1999) and Viking landing sites (Moore and Jakosky, 1989), although the VL1 and
MPF sites display more fine-grained drifts than either VL2 or Gusev. Martian soil-like
deposits are similar to moderately dense soils on Earth. Table 4.3 lists some of the
mechanical properties of soils at the three rover sites.
All five landers have carried experiments to investigate the magnetic properties of
the martian regolith. The Viking landers carried two magnets that were attached to the
sampling arm so they could be directly immersed into the soil. The magnets had
magnetic field strengths of 0.25 tesla (T) and 0.07 T. A third magnet with a field
Table 4.3 Soil properties at the three rover sites
MPFa Spiritb Opportunityc

Friction angle 30°–40° ∼20° ∼20°
Soil bearing strength 5–200 kPa ∼80 kPa
Cohesion 0–0.42 kPa ∼1–15 kPa ∼1–5 kPa
Angle of repose 32.4°–38.3° up to 65° >30°
Soil bulk density 1285–1581kg m−3 1200–1500kg m−3 ∼1300kg m−3
Grind energy density 11–166 Jmm−3 0.45–7.3 Jmm−3
a
Moore et al. (1999).
b
Arvidson et al. (2004a).
c
Arvidson et al. (2004b).
Figure 4.21 Opportunity has encountered several dune and drift fields during its
traverse. This navigation camera image shows dark drifts deposited by wind inside
Erebus crater. (NASA/JPL-Caltech/Cornell.)
strength of 0.25 T, attached to the lander, was passively exposed to atmospheric dust.
All of the magnets attracted magnetic particles – the sampler arm magnets were
essentially saturated with magnetic particles after immersion in the soil (Hargraves
et al., 1977, 1979). The Viking analysis suggested that the particles, probably a
ferromagnetic oxide, had magnetizations in the range 1–7 A m2 (kg soil)−1.
MPF carried ten magnets distributed between two arrays located on the lander. The
magnetic field strengths of these magnets ranged from 0.011 to 0.280 T (Madsen
et al., 1999). These magnets were passive collectors of airborne dust and the results
of this experiment were similar to those for the dust at the Viking landers (Section
4.3.3). The Viking and MPF results indicated that the soil and dust on Mars must
contain about 2% by weight of a ferrimagnetic mineral, suggested to be either
maghemite (gamma-Fe2O3) or magnetite (Fe3O4) with maghemite being the preferred

component.
Spirit and Opportunity each carry seven magnets, four of which are integrated
into the RAT, two on the front of the rover near the Pancam mast, and one on the
solar panels (Bertelsen et al., 2004). Magnetic particles in the soil and rocks are
analyzed using the three magnets on the RAT, which have magnetic field strengths
of 0.28, 0.10, and 0.07 T. The capture (0.46 T) and filter (0.2 T) magnets near
Pancam and the sweep magnet (0.42 T) on the solar panels attract magnetized dust
particles. Combined magnetic and Mössbauer spectroscopic analysis suggests that
magnetite is the most probable magnetic carrier rather than the maghemite which was
suggested from the Viking analysis (Bertelsen et al., 2004).
4.4.2 Thermal inertia and rock abundance

Viking IRTM, MGS TES, MO THEMIS, and MER Mini-TES experiments have
provided insights into the variation in grain size across the martian surface through
measurement of the thermophysical characteristics of the regolith. Thermal inertia
of the surface materials governs the daily thermal response of the surface to solar
heating. The surface temperature due to absorption of solar radiation is the equi-
librium temperature (Teq) and can be calculated by balancing the incoming (Fin) and
outgoing (Fout) radiation from the planet. Fin is the amount of the solar flux absorbed
over the planet’s surface area which is exposed to the solar radiation:

Lsolar
Fin ¼ ð1 Ab Þ pR2 (4:6)
4pr2
where Ab is the bond albedo (Eqs. 4.3 and 4.4), which measures the amount of radiation
reflected by the planet’s surface. Thus the amount of radiation absorbed is (1 Ab).
The remainder of Eq. (4.6) is the amount of radiation received over the hemisphere
in sunlight for a planet of radius R and distance r from the Sun. It is equivalent to
Eq. (4.2). A rapidly rotating planet like Mars reradiates this absorbed energy from its
entire surface; therefore the outgoing radiation emitted from the planet is
Fout ¼ 4pR2 erTeq

4
: (4:7)
The radiation emitted by a blackbody is proportional to the surface temperature of

the body and is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law:
F ¼ rTeq
4
: (4:8)
The Stefan–Boltzmann constant r¼5.6705·10−8 W m−2 K−4. Thus Eq. (4.7) is

the product of the surface area of the planet (4πR2) and the radiation emitted by that
4
surface (rTeq ). Because the planet is not a perfect blackbody, we must also include
the emissivity (ε), which is a measure of how closely the object approximates
blackbody emission (ε for a blackbody¼1). Fin ¼Fout for a planet in thermal
equilibrium, giving us the relationship for Teq:

Lsolar
Teq ¼ ð1 Ab Þ : (4:9)
16pr 2 er
Note that Teq depends only on the planet’s heliocentric distance (r), Ab, and ε, not its
size (R). The observed temperature (effective temperature, Tef) is often higher than
Teq; in the case of Earth and Mars, this is because of greenhouse warming by the
atmosphere (Section 6.1).
Daytime sunlight heats up the surface material on Mars, but that heat is reradiated
during the night. Large rocks can retain this heat longer than smaller material like
sand because of their larger volume compared to surface area (V/A). This ability for
materials to retain heat (thermal inertia, I) is related to the thermal conductivity (KT),
density (q), and specific heat (cp) of the material:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
I ¼ KT qcp : (4:10)
The value of q can vary by about a factor of four for most geologic materials com-
prising terrestrial planet surfaces and cp varies by only about 10–20%. The largest
changes in I result from KT, which can vary by up to three orders of magnitude
(Christensen and Moore, 1992). Porosity, cohesiveness, and grain size are the major
contributors to variations in KT and this is what dictates I for a particular region. Small
particles, such as dust and sand, have low I values while higher I values correspond to
rockier locations. Thermal inertia is sensitive to depths penetrated by a subsurface
thermal wave of period P. This depth is the thermal skin depth (d):
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffi
KT P I P
d ¼ : (4:11)
qcp p qcp p
Spectral and bolometric brightness temperatures derived from TES observations are
used to calculate I variations across the martian surface (Jakosky et al., 2000;
Mellon et al., 2000; Putzig et al., 2005). Figure 4.22 shows the global variation
in I calculated from nighttime observations. Values of I range between 24 and
800 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2 across the martian surface. Low I values typically correlate
with high-albedo regions, suggesting that these regions are dust-covered. Regions
of higher I are rockier, although the apparent high I values near the north pole are an
artifact resulting from measurements made near dawn when temperature variations
are large. High I is often correlated with low albedo, interpreted to be regions of
coarse-grained sediments, rocks, and bedrock exposures. A third region consists of
Thermal Inertia [J/m2K s½]
24 218 412 606 800
Figure 4.22 Thermal inertia provides information about particle sizes across Mars. This map, derived from TES data, shows the
variation in thermal inertia across the planet. Areas of low thermal inertia, such as Tharsis, are dust-covered while regions of high
thermal inertia, such as Valles Marineris and the rim of the Hellas impact basin, have high rock abundances. (Image PIA02818,
NASA/JPL/ASU.) See also color plate.
99
Cumulative Fractional Area Covered by Rocks

MPF
VL1 no o/c
VL2
0.100
MPF Far-Field
with Diameter >D 20% model

0.010
10% model
5% model
0.001
0.01 0.10 1.00
Rock Diameter, D (m)
Figure 4.23 Estimated rock abundances calculated from thermal inertia

considerations are compared to observed rock abundances at the VL1, VL2, and
MPF landing sites. The results for MPF rock abundance are consistent with landing
site predictions before launch. (Reprinted by permission of American Geophysical
Union, Golombek et al. [1999b], Copyright 1999.)
high I and intermediate albedo, interpreted as surfaces covered by duricrust inter-

spersed with rocks and bedrock exposures (Mellon et al., 2000; Putzig et al., 2005).
High I generally translates to a rockier surface in the ≥0.1–0.15-m rock size
range, so that I can be used to estimate rock abundances across the planet (Chris-
tensen, 1986). Rock abundance values range from 1% of the surface covered by
rocks to a maximum of ∼35% coverage, with a modal value of 6%. Predicted rock
abundance has been compared with actual values at the five landing sites and
generally the two are consistent (e.g., Golombek et al., 1999b, 2006) (Figure 4.23).
The size–frequency distribution (SFD) of rocks follows a simple exponential curve,
compatible with the distributions expected from the fracture and fragmentation of
rocks (Golombek and Rapp, 1997).
4.4.3 Dust
Dust comprises a substantial portion of the martian soil and coats most of the rocks
at the five landing sites. Winds often loft the dust into the atmosphere, transporting it
around the planet. Local, regional, and global dust storms (Section 6.3.2) are the
obvious manifestations of this dust transport, but the observation of dust devils
(Figure 4.24) (Greeley et al., 2006) and atmospheric dust (Smith et al., 2000)
indicates that transport of fine-grained particles occurs continuously. The dust
particles are estimated to typically be <40-μm diameter and composed of ferric
oxides.
Figure 4.24 Dust devils moving across the floor of Gusev Crater have been imaged
several times by Spirit’s Navigational Camera. This dust devil occurred on sol 486
of Spirit’s mission and is about 1km from the rover’s location. (Image PIA07253,
NASA/JPL.)
Adhesion of atmospherically deposited dust on the MPF and MER passive

magnets indicates that the dust contains a magnetic component similar to the soils
(Section 4.3.2). The global homogeneity of dust suggests a similar composition
regardless of location. MPF and MER magnetic investigations suggest that airborne
dust has a saturation magnetization of 2 to 4 A m2 (kg soil)−1 (Hviid et al., 1997;
Bertelsen et al., 2004). These magnetizations are too high for maghemite particles,
leading the investigators to propose magnetite as the dominant magnetic phase in
the dust (Bertelsen et al., 2004), a composition consistent with Mössbauer results
(Morris et al., 2006).
Atmospheric transport leads to electrostatic charging of the dust through colli-
sions, particularly in dust storms and dust devils (Ferguson et al., 1999; Zhai et al.,
2006). No discharges have been observed in martian dust devils (Krauss et al.,
2006), but electrostatic charging may be responsible for the accumulation of dust on
rover wheels. Ferguson et al. (1999) estimate that the wheels on MPF’s Sojourner
rover acquired a charging voltage of ∼60–80 V from dust buildup during its tra-
verses. Abrasion of Sojourner’s wheels suggests that martian dust has a hardness of
4.3 on the Mohs’ scale of hardness, similar to platinum (Ferguson et al., 1999).
5
Geology
Solid bodies have their surfaces affected by geologic processes. By studying the current
state of a planetary surface and applying our terrestrial experience of what features are
associated with the different geologic processes, planetary geologists disentangle
information about the geologic and thermal evolution of the body in question.
Geologic processes are divided into internal and external processes. Internal pro-
cesses originate from within the body and include volcanism, tectonics, and mass
wasting (caused by the planet’s gravity). External processes originate outside of the
planet’s interior and include impact cratering, eolian (wind-blown), fluvial, and glacial
processes. All of these processes have operated on Mars to varying extents.
5.1 Geologic terms and techniques

5.1.1 Rocks and minerals
Understanding a planet’s geologic history requires development of techniques to
read the record left by geologic processes. Solid bodies like Mars are composed of
rocks, which are made up of minerals. A mineral is a naturally formed substance
with a specific chemical composition. It can be composed entirely of one element or
it can be a compound consisting of two or more elements. Minerals usually have a
specific crystalline structure and changes in crystal structure, even when chemical
composition remains constant, result in a different mineral.
Rocks are composed of a mass of minerals. A rock can be composed of a single
mineral type or be a mixture of different minerals. Igneous rocks are rocks that
solidify from molten material. The molten rock is called magma when it occurs
underground and lava once it is extruded onto the planet’s surface. Intrusive igneous
(plutonic) rocks cool slowly underground and are characterized by large crystals.
Extrusive igneous rocks form on the surface and typically cool faster than intrusive
rocks, resulting in small crystals or amorphous (non-crystalline) structures.
102
Geologic terms and techniques 103
Weathering
Sedimentary Rocks Igneous Rocks
Melting
Heat/Pressure
Weathering
Heat/Pressure Melting
Metamorphic Rocks
Figure 5.1 Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks can be transformed into
each other through the rock cycle.
Sedimentary rocks are composed of small fragments of other rocks, produced

from weathering processes. Metamorphic rocks form when heat and/or pressure
change the characteristics of an original rock without melting it. Rocks can be
transformed from one type of rock into another, as demonstrated in the rock cycle
(Figure 5.1).
5.1.2 Stratigraphic techniques

Stratigraphy is the basic principle used by geologists to interpret the geologic
record. Stratigraphic analysis was first developed in 1669 by Nicolaus Steno, who
realized that recent geologic events deposit their materials atop older, pre-existing
layers of rock and soil. This is the principle of superposition, where the oldest layers
are the most deeply buried and the younger units are near the surface (Figure 5.2).
By analyzing rocks in these stratigraphic sequences, geologists can determine the
types and relative timing of the geologic processes that created the layers.
Superposition is often combined with the principle of transection to constrain the
relative timing of geologic events. Transection states that younger features cut older
features. Transection is often seen with tectonic, fluvial, and glacial processes,
which incise canyons or channels into pre-existing (and thus older) terrain. Later
events can infill these features – it is not uncommon to see evidence of an ancient
channel which has been filled in with later sedimentary or igneous deposits when
looking at a canyon wall or a highway roadcut.
Superposition and transection are the two major stratigraphic techniques used on
Earth. On Earth we have the additional advantage of being able to analyze rocks in
our laboratories. Igneous rocks often contain small amounts of radioactive elements
that can be used to date the time of solidification of the rock (Section 2.2.2). The age
104 Geology
Figure 5.2 Superposition is clearly seen in the layers exposed in Arizona’s Grand
Canyon. The older layers underlie younger layers. (Image by author.)
obtained by geochronologic techniques is the absolute age of the rock. If no datable

rocks are available, geologists can develop a relative chronology from the strati-
graphic positions of the rock layers. Absolute chronologies therefore provide actual
dates for the time at which events occurred while relative chronologies only tell you
whether something is older or younger than something else.
A third stratigraphic technique is commonly employed on other solid-surfaced
bodies in our Solar System. Since datable samples are limited or non-existent from
these bodies, planetary geologists use the number of craters as a key to determining
relative chronologies and approximate absolute chronologies. Crater density is the
cumulative number of craters per unit area, typically given as the number of craters
greater than or equal to some diameter per 106 km2. The probability that a surface
has experienced an impact increases with the age of that surface since impact
cratering has occurred throughout Solar System history. Thus older units will have
higher crater densities than younger terrains.
5.1.3 Crater statistical analysis

Age information from crater analysis is obtained through use of crater size–
frequency distributions (SFDs) (Crater Analysis Techniques Working Group, 1979).
SFDs compare the frequency of craters as a function of crater diameter. An initial
assumption of SFD analysis is that such distributions approximate a power-law
function for an incremental distribution:
N ¼ KDa ð5:1Þ
where N is the number of craters of diameter D and larger, K is a constant that
depends on the crater density, and a is the slope of the power-law function (also
(b)
Relative SFD Plot
0.0
(a)
–0.5
Cumulative SFD Plot
–2.0 –1.0
–3.0
log R
–1.5 Highlands
–4.0 Plains
log C
Highlands
–5.0 Plains –2.0
–6.0
–2.5
–7.0
–8.0 –3.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
log D log D
Figure 5.3 Crater size–frequency distributions (SFD) are studied using cumulative
and relative plots. (a) The cumulative SFD plots for craters on the martian
highlands and northern plains are shown. (b) Compare the relative SFD plots to
those in (a) for the same regions. Obvious differences in the shapes of the curves
are readily apparent in the relative plots.
called the population index). The cumulative SFD is an example of an incremental

distribution. Figure 5.3a shows a sample cumulative plot, where the number of
craters of a certain diameter and larger per unit area (C ) is plotted against diameter
on a log–log plot. Error bars are calculated from
C
r ¼ C pffiffiffiffi : ð5:2Þ
N
SFDs for craters larger than 5 to 8 km in diameter often show an approximately

straight line with a 2 slope, especially for younger surfaces. The negative slope
indicates that smaller craters are more abundant than larger craters. The values
of SFD for different surface units vary vertically on this plot depending on crater
density – higher crater densities lie above lower crater densities. Thus, the relative
positions of SFDs from two different terrains indicate that the surface corresponding to
the higher curve is older than the surface displaying the lower curve. The cumulative
plot suggests that SFDs for all terrain units can be approximated by a power-law
function with a slope of approximately 2 at all diameters. However, this may be a
reflection of the plotting technique because the cumulative nature of this technique
tends to smooth out frequency variations within a particular diameter range.
The relative or R-plot technique overcomes the smoothing problem of cumulative
plots. The R-plot is a differential plot of the form (Crater Analysis Techniques
Working Group, 1979)
dN ¼ CDb dD ð5:3Þ
106 Geology
where dN is the number of craters with diameters in the range dD, D is the mean
diameter of the range, C is a constant, and b is the differential population index.
Because this equation is derived by differentiating the incremental form given in
Eq. (5.1), b ¼ a þ 1. The R-plot differs from the cumulative plot in two ways: (1) it
only includes the number of craters within a particular size range, thus frequency
variations are not reduced as with the cumulative technique, and (2) it normalizes
the curves to a common slope index of 3 (corresponding to the cumulativepffiffiffi slope
index a ¼ 2). The sizes of the diameter ranges (or bins), dD, are set at 2 incre-
pffiffiffi
ments; hence dD may be 2 km to 2 2 km ( ¼ 2.8 km), the next bin will be from
pffiffiffi
2.8 km to 2.8 2 km ( ¼ 4.0 km), etc. The relative technique plots the geometric
mean diameter of the bin on the horizontal axis and the normalized parameter R on
the vertical axis of a log–log plot. R is given by
3
DN
R¼ ð5:4Þ
AðDb Da Þ
where N is the number of craters with diameters in the range Da (lower diameter
pffiffiffi
limit of bin) to Db (upper diameter limit, Db ¼ Da 2), D is the geometric mean of
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ Da Db ), and A is the area over which the craters are counted.
the diameter bin (D
SFDs following the 2 slope suggested from cumulative analysis will plot as a
horizontal line on the R-plot, while SFDs following other slopes will plot as
inclined lines. Error bars are calculated as

R
r ¼ R pffiffiffiffi : ð5:5Þ
N
Figure 5.3b shows the R-plot of the same terrain units displayed in the adjacent
cumulative plot. The lower curve (i.e., the younger terrain) approximates a hori-
zontal line on the R-plot, corresponding to a power-law function of 2 cumulative
slope. However, a single-sloped power-law function does not approximate the
upper (older) curve. The upper curve is representative of the SFDs seen on heavily
cratered regions of the Moon, Mercury, and Mars, while the lower curve is similar to
that seen on the lunar maria and martian northern plains.
A third type of crater plot combines properties of the cumulative and relative
plots. This is a log-incremental SFD, primarily used by W. Hartmann and colleagues
(e.g., Hartmann, 2005). In this technique, the number of craters within a particular
diameter bin per unit area is plotted on the ordinate while the diameter is plotted on
the abscissa (Figure 5.4). This plot is similar to the R-plot except the results are not
normalized to the 3 differential slope.
The cause of the multisloped highlands SFD curve is still debated. One sug-
gestion is that this curve represents the SFD of terrains saturated with craters
Rbolide = 2.6, Schmidt-Housen scaling 2004 Iteration 04-01-19
102
West Tharsis Older Background
101 MOC R0601151 Detail
MOC R0601151
MOC R1001183 Detail
100 MOC R1001183
THEMIS V02040007 Detail
THEMIS V02040007
10–1
HRSC 2987 post surface
HRSC 3042 post surface
10–2
No. Craters/km2
10–3
10–4
10–5
10–6
4
G
y
10
3.
10–7
10
5
0,0
G
10
,00
10
y
0
00
3 y
1
0y
M
M
G
G
y
y
y
y
y
10–8
16 31 63 125 250 500 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256
(m)(km)
Diameter
Figure 5.4 Isochron plots provide insights into the absolute ages of surface units
based on crater density. This plot of craters in a region west of Tharsis indicates that
the surface is approximately 100 Ma old. (Image courtesy of William Hartmann,
Planetary Science Institute.)
(Hartmann, 1984, 1997). Saturation refers to surfaces which are covered with so
many craters that any new impact erases an existing one, keeping the crater density
approximately constant. No age information (other than “very old”) can be obtained
from saturated surfaces. While ancient surfaces may display crater saturation in
some diameter ranges (particularly at the smaller crater diameters), other diameter
ranges appear to be largely unaffected. Observational evidence against saturation is
seen in places such as on the floor of the Moon’s Orientale Basin and on the martian
ridged plains. These terrains have lower crater density than the heavily cratered
regions, but still display the multisloped curve shape (Barlow, 1988; Strom et al.,
1992).
A second possible explanation for the multisloped curve of the highlands is that
erosion has preferentially destroyed the smaller craters, causing a change in slope at
the lower-crater-diameter end. While erosion definitely affects the SFDs, it does not
108 Geology
appear to be the total explanation for the frequency downturn in the 5 to ∼70 km
diameter range. Heavily cratered regions on the Moon, Mercury, and Mars all show
the same multisloped curve, but the three bodies have experienced very different
obliteration histories. In addition, the SFDs of relatively fresh impact craters (those
still retaining ejecta blankets; by definition, fresh craters have not experienced much
erosion) on heavily cratered martian terrains also show the downturn at smaller
diameters (Barlow, 1990).
The different SFDs could also indicate two crater-production populations with
different size–frequency distributions. The multisloped curve is seen on surfaces
believed to date from the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) period (Section 2.1.2)
while the flatter curve is seen on younger terrains. The current impactor population
in the inner Solar System is derived primarily from asteroids with some contribution
from comets (Bottke et al., 2002) and the crater SFD is consistent with the asteroid
SFD (Bottke et al., 2005). LHB impactors likely originated from the planetesimal
disk disrupted by the migration of the outer planets (Gomes et al., 2005), although a
source in the main asteroid belt also has been proposed (Strom et al., 2005). If the
SFDs reflect two different impactor populations, they imply that the LHB popula-
tion was enriched in mid-sized and large impactors and depleted in smaller objects
compared to the present-day asteroid SFD. The theory of different impactor
populations indicates that not only can the SFD curves tell us the crater densities and
thus the relative ages of the different terrain units but also whether the craters formed
during the LHB or post-Heavy Bombardment periods. Such an analysis applied to
Mars suggests that ∼60% of the planet’s surface dates from LHB while the
remaining 40% formed more recently (Barlow, 1988).
Crater statistical techniques provide the best chronologic information when the
number of craters per unit area is greatest, thereby reducing the uncertainties. For
craters larger than ∼5-km diameter, this requires performing the crater analysis over
relatively large areas to obtain statistically viable results. Geologic units are seldom
uniform over such large areas, resulting in the age information derived from such
analyses being averages of several incorporated units. Thus, planetary geologists
prefer using craters <5-km diameter, which are more abundant than the larger
craters and allow statistically significant results to be obtained for regions of small
areal extent (e.g., Hartmann et al., 1999; Neukum et al., 2004).
However, chronologic information derived from small-crater counts is affected
by two major processes. Erosion, as noted previously, preferentially destroys
smaller craters, leading to younger age estimates on surfaces where erosion has
dominated. The other problem is secondary crater contamination, which may be
responsible for a steepening of the SFD at 1-km diameter. Secondary craters are
small craters formed from material ejected during formation of a larger (primary)
crater. Secondary clusters and those close to the primary crater (“obvious secondaries”)
can be easily identified and avoided, but distant secondaries can be difficult to
distinguish from small primary craters. Inclusion of secondaries produces a higher
crater density and thus indicates an older age for the surface. Some researchers argue
that secondaries are a minor contributor to the SFD since fragmentation and
grinding of ejected debris eliminates material in the smallest diameter ranges
(Werner et al., 2006). Hartmann (2005) argues that the SFD is a combination of
primary and distant secondaries which approximates the primary production curve
over time. Clustering analysis suggests that the majority of small craters on Europa
are secondaries, a result which is probably applicable to other Solar System bodies
(Bierhaus et al., 2005). The 10-km-diameter martian crater Zunil displays thermally
distinct secondary crater rays extending over 300 crater radii away from the primary
crater (McEwen et al., 2005). The large number and wide distribution of Zunil
secondaries supports the assertion that most martian craters 1-km diameter are
probable secondaries. However, secondary crater production is enhanced on young
lava plains and occurs only in association with larger craters in regions with thicker
regolith (Hartmann and Barlow, 2006). This observation combined with the fact
that secondary craters are concentrated in non-uniformly distributed rays indicates
that secondary contamination is not evenly distributed across the entire planet.
The combined problems of erosion and secondary craters lead to considerable
uncertainty in chronologic information derived from small-crater analysis (McEwen
and Bierhaus, 2006).
Relative ages obtained from crater statistical analysis can be used to estimate
absolute ages of surface units. Radiometric dating of lunar samples returned by the
Apollo and Luna missions allows correlation of crystallization ages with the crater
density of the region surrounding the sample site. The resulting crater density versus
age plot is the lunar crater chronology (LCC) graph (Figure 2.2). The LCC can be
used to estimate absolute ages of non-sampled regions of the Moon based on the
crater density of those regions.
The LCC can be extrapolated to other Solar System bodies to obtain absolute age
estimates provided the following three conditions are met: (1) the population of
impacting bodies is the same between the Moon and body of interest; (2) the timing
of the LHB between the Moon and other body is known; and (3) the impact flux for
the body relative to the Moon is known. The similarity of the SFDs for the Moon
and Mars indicates that condition 1 is met. Recent numerical modeling suggesting
that the LHB resulted from disruption of a planetesimal disk by migration of
the outer planets (Gomes et al., 2005) indicates that the beginning and end of LHB
were approximately simultaneous throughout the inner Solar System, satisfying
condition 2. The Mars/Moon impact rate ratio can be estimated from SFDs of the
impacting objects and knowledge of impact probability for asteroids/comets
crossing the orbits of the Moon and Mars (Ivanov, 2001). The ratio of the impact
110 Geology
rate of projectiles of a certain size per unit area compared to that impact rate on the
Moon is called the bolide ratio (Rb). The current Mars/Moon Rb value is 4.93, but
because of orbital eccentricity variations experienced by Mars (Section 7.4.2), the
value can be as low as 2.58 (Ivanov, 2006).
The LCC can be extrapolated to Mars by utilizing the Mars/Moon impact rate
ratio and scaling relationships for converting impactor size to final crater diameter
(Section 5.3.1). Hartmann (2005) has produced isochron plots for Mars which allow
one to estimate the formation age of a surface from crater counts (Figure 5.4).
Variations in ages associated with different diameter ranges provide insights into
processes such as erosion and possible secondary crater contamination.
5.2 Martian geologic periods

Martian history is divided into periods based on stratigraphic relationships and
occurrence of certain geologic processes (Figure 5.5) (Tanaka et al., 1992). The
oldest period is the Noachian, named after the Noachis region in the southern
highlands. Noachian terrains formed during the LHB and are thus very heavily
cratered surfaces. The range of degradation associated with craters formed during
this period suggests high erosion rates due to geologic processes such as rainfall and
fluvial erosion (Craddock and Howard, 2002). The Noachian period is divided into
early (prior to ∼3.95 Ga ago), middle (between 3.95 and 3.8 Ga ago), and late (3.8–
3.7 Ga ago) periods based on crater densities (Hartmann and Neukum, 2001). The
Hesperian Period (named after Hesperia Planum) represents middle martian history
and is characterized by volcanic extrusions creating the ridged plains and a decline
in the high impact rates that occurred during the LHB. It is subdivided into early
(3.7–3.6 Ga ago) and late (∼3.6–3.0 Ga ago) periods. The Amazonian Period (from
Amazonis Planitia) covers the planet’s most recent history during which erosion
rates have been low and volcanic activity has been concentrated in the Tharsis and
Elysium regions. The Amazonian Period is divided into early (∼3.0–1.8 Ga ago),
middle (∼1.8–0.5 Ga ago), and late (∼0.5 Ga ago to present) periods.
5.3 Geologic processes

5.3.1 Impact cratering
Impact craters are the most common geologic features observed on most planetary
surfaces. The term crater, Latin for cup, was introduced by Galileo in 1610 to
describe the approximately circular depressions observed on the lunar surface. Most
early scientists believed that the lunar craters were of volcanic origin, primarily
because of their circular appearance and terrestrial experience with volcanic craters
180°E 240°E 300°E 0° 60°E 120°E 180°E
60°N 60°N
30°N 30°N
0° 0°
30°S 30°S
60°S 60°S
I-1802 Major Units

Scale 1:95,000,000
Amazonian 180°E 240°E 300°E 0° 60°E 120°E 180°E
Hesperian Robinson Projection 0 1,000 2,000 4,000
Noachian Center Longitude 0 km
Figure 5.5 Stratigraphic techniques provide insights into the ages of surface units. This map shows the distribution of units formed
during the Noachian, Hesperian, and Amazonian periods. (Image courtesy of Trent Hare, USGS.)
111
112 Geology
(calderas). Acceptance of the idea that craters could result from collisions of large
chunks of space debris with a planetary surface was gained only after (1)
laboratory experiments showed that circular craters could be produced during
high-velocity (hypervelocity) impacts (Ives, 1919; Gault et al., 1968), (2) nuclear
and chemical explosions provided insights into the physics of impact events
(cf. Roddy et al., 1977), and (3) identification of shock metamorphic features in
rocks surrounding Meteor Crater and Ries Crater (Shoemaker and Chao, 1962;
Shoemaker, 1963).
Impact crater formation is divided into three stages (Gault et al., 1968; Melosh,
1989): contact/compression, excavation, and modification. The projectile first
encounters the surface during the contact /compression stage, generating shock
waves which propagate through both the target and the projectile. The Hugoniot
equations, derived from conservation of mass, momentum, and energy, describe the
material characteristics on either side of the shock front:
qðU up Þ ¼ q0 U ð5:6Þ
P P0 ¼ q0 up U ð5:7Þ

ðP þ P0 ÞðV0 VÞ ðP þ P0 Þ q1 1q
E E0 ¼ ¼ : ð5:8Þ
0
2 2
The subscript 0 refers to the material properties – pressure P, density q, specific (per
unit mass) internal energy E, and specific volume V ( ¼ 1/q) – before passage of the
shock front, while those parameters without a subscript refer to the compressed
material (after passage of the shock wave) (Figure 5.6). The shock wave moves with
velocity U and, after the shock front has passed, the compressed material has a
particle velocity of up. The reference frame when using the Hugoniot equations is
the rest frame of the uncompressed material (up0 ¼ 0).
The shock wave pressure declines exponentially with distance from the impact
site (Figure 5.7) and the shock wave turns into a seismic (elastic) wave once the
pressure drops below 1 to 2 GPa. As the shock wave encounters a free surface (either
the surface of the target material or the back surface of the projectile), it is reflected
as a rarefaction or release wave back into the material. As rarefaction waves pass
through the highly shocked material, they unload some of the pressure, resulting in
melting and vaporization of some of the material. The contact and compression
stage ends when the rarefaction wave engulfs and destroys the projectile. The
projectile usually has traveled a distance equivalent to its diameter during the
contact /compression stage, corresponding to only a few seconds or less.
Geologic processes 113
Surface
up r P E
Shock wave
r0 P0 E0
U
Figure 5.6 The passage of the impact-induced shock wave alters characteristics of
the rock. Before the shock wave passes, the material is characterized by density
( q0), pressure (P0), and specific internal energy (E0). The shock wave travels with
velocity U. Once the shock front passes, the rock acquires new values of density
( q), pressure (P), and specific internal energy (E), as well as a particle velocity (up).
Relationships between these before-and-after values are obtained from the
Hugoniot equations.
Projectile
10 km/s
Ejecta
curtain Ejecta trajectories
Vapor
t
M Shock
el
50
20 metamorphism
10 zone
Excavation
flow paths Fracturing
5
and brecciation
Shock
pressure
contours 1 GPa
Figure 5.7 Shock-induced pressure declines with distance from the impact site.
Near the impact site, pressures are high enough to induce melting and vaporization.
Further from the impact, the passage of the shock wave produces fracturing of the
rock. (Reprinted by permission from Lunar and Planetary Institute, French [1998],
Copyright 1998.)
The excavation stage opens the crater. As the shock wave encounters the free
surface, part of it is converted into kinetic energy and the rest is reflected as a
rarefaction wave. The rarefaction waves will fracture the target material as long as
the stress of the rarefaction wave (a tensional wave) exceeds the mechanical strength
of the rock. The portion of the shock wave converted to kinetic energy will accel-
erate fragmented material outward. Some of this material is accelerated up and out
114 Geology
Projectile Uplifted TC rim
0.1 1 2 5 10 20 50
Original
ground level Excavated
zone
Displaced
zone Material
flow lines
T r a n si )
e n t c a v it y ( T C
Shock pressure
isobars (GPa)
Figure 5.8 The transient cavity (TC) forms during the excavation stage, as the
shock wave is converted into kinetic energy. Material can be either displaced
downward, or up and out of the crater. The material ejecta outward forms the raised
rim and ejecta blanket. (Reprinted by permission from Lunar and Planetary
Institute, French [1998], Copyright 1998.)
of the crater, forming the ejecta blanket and part of the uplifted rim (the rest of which
results from structural uplift from the shock and rarefaction waves) (Figure 5.8). The
rest of the material is displaced downward, resulting in a bowl-shaped cavity called
the transient crater. The transient crater has the greatest depth (dt) that the crater will
ever have and is between a third and a quarter of the transient crater diameter (Dt).
Scaling relationships are used to extrapolate results from laboratory experiments
to impact events (Melosh, 1989). The value of Dt is related to energy of the impact
(W), size of the projectile (L), acceleration of gravity (g), densities of the projectile
and target (qp and qt, respectively), and impact angle (measured from horizontal
surface) (h) through
0:33 0:22 0:13 0:22
Dt ¼ 1:8q0:11
p qt g L W ðsin hÞ0:33 : ð5:9Þ
Smaller craters tend to be bowl-shaped depressions, approximating the shape and

depth of the transient crater. These craters are called simple craters (Figure 5.9a).
Depth (d) of a simple crater is related to its rim diameter (Dr) by
Dr
d : ð5:10Þ
5
Larger craters display more complicated morphologies and are called complex
craters (Figure 5.9b). Complex craters are shallower compared to their size than
simple craters, typically about one-tenth of the rim diameter. The diameter where
craters transition from simple to complex structures is proportional to g–1, although
target characteristics also contribute. The simple-to-complex transition diameter
(a) (b)
Figure 5.9 Impact craters display morphologic differences as diameter increases.

(a) The smallest craters display a bowl-shaped appearance and are called simple
craters. This 2-km-diameter simple crater on Mars is located near 34.4°N 241.2°E.
(MOC image MOC2-1274, courtesy of NASA/MSSS.) (b) Larger craters, called
complex craters, display more complicated morphologies, including central peak
structures, shallower floors, and terraced walls. This complex crater is 27 km in
diameter and located at 28.6°N 207.0°E. (THEMIS image V17916017, NASA/
ASU.)
(DSC) on Mars is predicted to occur near 10 km, but observations place it closer to
8 km (Garvin and Frawley, 1998). The lower DSC probably results from substantial
quantities of ice in the near-surface material reducing the strength of the target
material. Variations in morphometric properties such a crater depth, volume, and
rim height with latitude also are attributed to higher concentrations of subsurface ice
near the poles (Garvin et al., 2000a). Table 5.1 provides morphometric relationships
for fresh martian impact craters.
Material ejected during crater formation forms the ejecta blanket surrounding the
crater. The ejecta blanket does not contain material from the entire cavity. The depth
of excavation (dex) for the ejected material is approximately one-third of the tran-
sient crater depth:
1 1
dex dt Dt : ð5:11Þ
3 10
Ejecta blankets are divided into continuous and discontinuous sections. The con-
tinuous ejecta blanket abuts the crater rim and is composed of a continuous blanket
of debris typically extending between one and three crater radii from the rim. The
discontinuous ejecta blanket extends beyond the continuous ejecta blanket in
discrete streaks radial to the crater. Secondary craters populate most of the dis-
continuous ejecta blanket (Figure 5.10).
116 Geology
Table 5.1 Impact crater morphometric parameters as function of crater

diameter (D)
Parameter Simple craters Complex craters

Depth (d ) d ¼ 0.21D 0.81
d ¼ 0.36D0.49
Rim height (h) h ¼ 0.04D0.31 h ¼ 0.02D0.84
Central peak height (hcp) — hcp ¼ 0.04D0.51
Central peak diameter (Dcp) — Dcp ¼ 0.25D1.05
Inner cavity wall slope (s) s ¼ 28.40D0.18 s ¼ 23.82D 0.28
Source: Garvin et al. (2003).
Figure 5.10 Ejecta blankets can be divided into continuous and discontinuous
parts. This image of the ejecta blanket associated with a 28.3-km-diameter crater
located at 23.2°N 207.8°E shows the layered continuous ejecta blanket extending
outward from the rim. Beyond the edge of the layered ejecta blanket, small
secondary craters are seen, which constitute the discontinuous ejecta blanket.
(THEMIS image V01990003, NASA/ASU.)
Most fresh martian impact craters are surrounded by a layered ejecta blanket with
one (single layer), two (double layer), or more than two (multiple layer) ejecta layers
(Figure 5.11) (Barlow et al., 2000). This ejecta morphology is distinct from the radial
morphology seen around craters on dry bodies like the Moon. Two models have been
proposed to explain this layered ejecta morphology: (1) impact into and vaporization
of subsurface volatiles (Carr et al., 1977; Stewart et al., 2001), and (2) interaction of
the ejecta curtain with the martian atmosphere (Schultz, 1992; Barnouin-Jha et al.,
1999a, b). While the atmosphere plays some role, most of the evidence suggests that
subsurface volatiles are the dominant contributor in the formation of the layered
ejecta morphologies (see review in Barlow, 2005).
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 5.11 Layered ejecta blankets are divided into single layer (SLE), double
layer (DLE), and multiple layer ejecta (MLE) based on the observed number of
ejecta layers. (a) SLE craters display one complete ejecta layer around the crater,
like this 9.9-km-diameter crater located at 19.54°S 277.01°E. (THEMIS image
V18738005.) (b) DLE craters, like this 12.0-km-diameter example at 55.59°N
268.68°E, display two complete ejecta layers. (THEMIS image I13646007.) (c)
MLE craters display three or more partial or complete ejecta layers. This MLE
crater is 29.4 km in diameter and is located at 23.15°S 281.35°E. (THEMIS image
I06994003.) (NASA/ASU.)
118 Geology
Table 5.2 Diameter ranges of specific interior morphologies
Interior feature Diameter range

Central peaks ∼6–175 km
Central pits 5–60 km
Peak ring basins ∼50–500 km
Multi-ring basins > 500 km
Source: Data from Barlow (1988).
The excavation stage ends when the transient crater reaches its maximum size.
For craters whose final shape and size are dictated by gravity rather than the strength
of the target material, the time for transient crater formation is related to Dt and g
(Melosh, 1989):
1=2
D
T ffi 0:54 : ð5:12Þ
g
The modification stage extends from the end of transient crater formation until
the crater is completely destroyed by subsequent geologic processes. During the
modification stage, simple craters usually undergo some sliding of debris from the
crater walls but most of the changes to simple craters result from infilling by other
geologic processes such as volcanic, eolian, and fluvial activity. Complex craters
display a wider variety of internal structures. As with ejecta structures, interior
features tend to transition to different types as a function of crater size and location
on the planet (Table 5.2). Martian complex craters often display a peak or pit in the
center of the crater. Central peaks (Figure 5.12a) result from uplift of the floor after
passage of the shock wave, with the uplift freezing into place to form the central
peak. Larger craters can display a mountainous ring (peak ring) rather than a central
peak complex (Melosh, 1989). The peak ring structure (Figure 5.12b) likely results
from collapse of the central peak and formation of a “ripple” which freezes into
place. The largest craters, such as Hellas and Argyre, may be multi-ring structures,
although their outer rings are not obvious. Central pits are seen on Mars and on
many of the icy moons in the outer Solar System. Martian central pits can
occur either directly on the crater floor or on top of a central rise (Barlow, 2006)
(Figure 5.12c). Central pits likely form from vaporization of ice under the central
part of the crater floor, resulting from shock heating of the material and explosive
release of the resulting gases (Wood et al., 1978; Pierazzo et al., 2005). The walls of
complex craters typically have slopes greater than the angle of repose when the
crater first forms, resulting in collapse of the walls to form terraces (Figure 5.12a).
Martian impact craters display a wide range of ejecta and interior morphologies,
indicating complexities in target properties during crater formation and modification
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 5.12 Interior morphologies vary with crater size and location. (a) Central
peaks, such as the one visible in this 30.1-km-diameter crater at 8.30°N 302.54°E,
are common features in complex impact craters. The collapse of the crater walls to
form wall terraces can also be observed. (THEMIS image V18886012, NASA/
ASU.) (b) Central peaks often expand into peak rings for larger craters. A peak
ring is clearly visible in 224-km-diameter Lyot Crater, located at 50.38°N 29.33°E.
(Viking mosaic image, NASA/JPL.) (c) Central pits are common in impact
craters on Mars and on icy moons of the outer Solar System. This floor pit occurs
in a 27.9-km-diameter crater located at 4.30°N 294.05°E. (THEMIS image
V17526014, NASA/ASU.)
120 Geology
Figure 5.13 Pedestal craters are perched above the surrounding terrain by removal
of fine-grained material by eolian and/or sublimation processes. These two
pedestal craters are each about 1.5 km in diameter and are located near 52.0°N
150.5°E. (THEMIS image V11541006, NASA/ASU.)
processes operating after formation. For example, many small craters at high lati-
tudes are elevated above the surrounding terrain (Figure 5.13). These “pedestal
craters” formed when surrounding material was removed either by eolian deflation
or ice sublimation (Barlow, 2006). Erosional processes have removed the elevated
rims and infilled the floors of many older craters, particularly those found on the
ancient Noachian surfaces. Computer simulations of the topography produced by
different erosional processes have been compared to the topographic profiles across
eroded craters. The results suggest that rainfall was a primary agent of erosion
during the Noachian period (Craddock and Howard, 2002). Crater degradation in
the Hesperian and Amazonian periods has been dominated by eolian and volcanic
activity, with only localized fluvial/glacial erosion (Bibring et al., 2006).
5.3.2 Volcanism
Volcanism can produce flat lava plains or a wide variety of topographic features
called volcanoes. The type of volcanic feature produced during a volcanic eruption
depends on the viscosity of the magma/lava involved. Viscosity depends on tem-
perature, composition, presence/absence of solid material in the melt, and amount of
gas dissolved in the magma. The most important factor influencing viscosity is the
amount of silicate (SiO2) in the magma – higher SiO2 concentrations result in
stickier magmas. High-viscosity magmas can contain more gas than lower-viscosity
magmas and are therefore more explosive. Explosive eruptions also can occur
when lower-viscosity magmas encounter water. Such eruptions are called phreatic
eruptions and usually produce large circular craters called maars.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 5.14 Magma viscosity and eruption rate determine the type of volcanic
feature produced during an eruption. (a) Low-viscosity magmas often form flood
basalts, as seen in this view of Lunae Planum, Mars, centered near 15.0°N 293.8°E.
(Viking mosaic image, NASA/JPL.) (b) Slightly more viscous flows form low-
relief constructs called shield volcanoes. Mauna Loa, Hawaii, is an example of a
shield volcano. (Image by author.) (c) Cinder cones form when the gas content of
the magma increases. The explosive release of this gas fragments the magma during
the eruption, with these fragments cooling into cinders which form a conical
structure. Sunset Crater in Arizona last erupted in AD 1064. (Image by author.) (d)
Mt. St. Helens in Washington displays the classic steep-sloped profile of highly
viscous composite volcanoes. (Image by author.) (e) This Space Shuttle radar image
shows the Yellowstone caldera region. The heat associated with this region is
revealed today through the area’s active geysers and hot springs. Large eruptions
occurred 2.0 Ma, 1.3 Ma, and 0.6 Ma ago, ejecting over 3700 km3 of material.
(NASA/Shuttle/SIR-C/X-SAR.)
121
122 Geology
(e)
(d)
Figure 5.14 (cont.)
The type of volcanic feature produced during an eruption depends on viscosity

and eruption rate. If two magmas have the same viscosity, the event with the higher
eruption rate will generally produce a flatter structure than the event with the lower
eruption rate.
Flat plains of lava flows are typically composed of basaltic rock (consisting
of the minerals plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine) and are called flood basalts
(Figure 5.14a). Flood basalts are produced from low-viscosity magmas with high
eruption rates. These eruptions have little to no associated explosive activity,
resulting in very little topographic relief. The source of these massive eruptions is
usually a vent or fracture. Flood basalts are a common form of volcanism, identified
on all of the terrestrial planets as well as Earth’s Moon.
Low-viscosity magmas produced by events with lower eruption rates result in
topographically low structures called shield volcanoes (Figure 5.14b). These
mountains have slopes typically <5° and are composed of basalt, although late-stage
eruptions can be slightly more silicic due to differentiation within the volcano’s
magma chamber. Eruptions emanate from the central crater (caldera) or from fissures
along the volcano’s flanks. Shield volcanoes can be extremely massive – the volume
of Mars’ Olympus Mons shield volcano is about 3 · 106 km3 (Smith et al., 2001a), or
about the same volume of basalt as is found in the entire Hawaiian–Emperor Sea-
mount chain. Shield volcano eruptions produce basaltic lava flows, which can be
rough (aa) or smooth (pahoehoe) (Figure 5.15). Maps of surface roughness derived
from MOLA analysis suggest that both pahoehoe and aa flows occur on Mars.
Fluid lavas producing flood basalts and shield volcanoes often move from one
location to another through either lava channels on the surface or underground in
lava tubes (Figure 5.16). Once the lava reaches a flat plains region, it will spread out
along the sides into a large flow. The amount of spreading depends on the properties
(b)
(a)
Figure 5.15 Low-viscosity lavas produce two types of lava flows. (a) Rougher
flows are called aa flows, as seen in this image of the Bonito Lava Flow at Sunset
Crater, Arizona. (b) Smoother flows, like these on Kilauea Volcano in Hawaii, are
called pahoehoe flows. Pahoehoe flows are characterized by a ropy texture.
(Images by author.)
Figure 5.16 Low-viscosity lavas often form lava channels and lava tubes. These
lava channels occur on the flank of Pavonis Mons. This is a perspective view of the
region taken by MEx’s HRSC camera. (Image SEMELC9ATME, ESA/DLR/FU
Berlin [G. Neukum].)
of the lava, especially the viscosity and the amount of solid material contained in the
flow. Lava flows are characterized by their aspect ratio (A):
t
A¼ ð5:13Þ
w
where t is the central thickness of the flow and w is the flow’s width. The value of A
depends on slope, g, and viscosity. As slope decreases, A decreases since the lava
flow spreads out, decreasing t and increasing w. Conversely, A increases as viscosity
124 Geology
increases since the increased stickiness of the lava will reduce spreading. Comparing
the aspect ratios of different lava flows provides important information about
topographic variations and the properties of the originating magmas.
Eruptions become more explosive as the silica content increases. The release of
gas trapped in the magma by the SiO2 causes lava fountains. Lava fountain activity
erupts small clumps of magma into the air, which then cool into cinders as they fall
back to the surface. The accumulation of cinders creates a cone whose flanks have
slopes close to the angle of repose (about 30° for cinders). These cinder cones
(Figure 5.14c) are primarily basaltic in composition with cinder formation from a
central caldera and lava flows often exuded from their base. Cinder cones commonly
form on the flanks and later in dormant calderas of shield volcanoes as the magma
chamber composition evolves.
Composite or stratovolcanoes are steep-sided volcanic constructs composed of
alternating layers of ash and lava flows (Figure 5.14d). They occur in association
with subduction zones on Earth, but have not been definitively identified on other
planets. Stratovolcanoes contain very viscous and volatile-rich magmas, resulting in
extremely explosive eruptions from the central caldera. Sticky lava domes often
form in the caldera, plugging the conduit used by the magma to reach the surface.
Pressure builds up under this dome until the gases can break through the surface,
producing a sudden release of gas and ash. Hot clouds of ash can travel down the
volcano flanks at speeds of hundreds of kilometers per second. These pyroclastic
flows are the cause of much death and destruction associated with stratovolcano
eruptions. However, stratovolcanoes can also experience quieter extrusions of lava
flows, giving rise to the stratified structure. After an eruption, a lava dome begins to
rebuild in the caldera, allowing the process to repeat itself.
The most explosive eruptions are ash flows called ignimbrites. The flow consists
of hot gas and ash particles which cover large areas. These eruptions result from
extremely viscous magmas with acidic compositions. On Earth they only occur in
continental regions, usually leaving behind a large caldera which can be mistaken
for a simple valley (Figure 5.14e).
Mars displays a range of volcanic features ranging in age from Noachian to late
Amazonian, with recent volcanic activity concentrated in the Tharsis and Elysium
regions (Hodges and Moore, 1994). Flood basalts are common as lava plains sur-
rounding the big volcanoes in Tharsis and Elysium and in the ridged plains. Large
expanses of intercrater plains seen between craters in the Noachian-aged southern
highlands are probably ancient flood basalts. Flood basalts appear to have occurred
throughout martian history (McEwen et al., 1999), although their areal extent has
decreased over time in conjunction with the overall decline in volcanic activity.
Mars displays a number of very large but extremely low-relief (average slopes <3°)
volcanoes called paterae (Latin for dish or saucer) (Figure 5.17a). Paterae are the
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 5.17 Various types of volcanic structures occur on Mars. (a) Tyrrhena
Patera is a very low relief, highly eroded, and heavily cratered volcano centered
near 21.5°S 106.5°E. (Viking mosaic image, NASA/JP.) (b) Olympus Mons is a
huge shield volcano, 21.3 km high and ∼800 km in diameter. (NASA/MSSS.) (c)
The Elysium Mons province contains three volcanoes, Hecates Tholus, Elysium
Mons, and Albor Tholus. (NASA/MSSS.)
126 Geology
oldest volcanic structures on Mars and are primarily concentrated around the Hellas
impact basin. Detailed analysis of Hadriaca, Tyrrhena, and Apollinaris Paterae
indicate the main edifices formed by explosive volcanism during the Late Noachian
and Early Hesperian periods, with subsequent effusive eruptions extending until the
Early Amazonian (Crown and Greeley, 1993; Robinson et al., 1993; Berman et al.,
2005). Paterae flanks are highly dissected by wind and/or fluvial activity. The ease
with which these flanks have been eroded suggests they are composed of fine-
grained pyroclastic deposits, either in the form of pyroclastic flows or air-fall ash
deposits. However, paterae compositions are consistent with low-viscosity basalt.
Mafic (iron-rich) pyroclastic deposits can be produced either by water–magma
interactions or by rapid ascent of deep-sourced magmas, and both mechanisms
have been proposed for the martian paterae (Crown and Greeley, 1993; Gregg and
Williams, 1996).
The low-albedo region of Syrtis Major is a low-relief (slopes <1°) volcano of
basaltic composition (Bandfield et al., 2000; Hoefen et al., 2003) rising up to an
elevation of ∼2.3 km (Hiesinger and Head, 2004). Schaber (1982) argued that
Syrtis Major is a shield volcano with two calderas (Nili and Meroe Paterae), but
Hodges and Moore (1994) and Hiesinger and Head (2004) argue that its low relief
makes it more akin to the highland paterae. The Early Hesperian age of Syrtis Major
places it in the same time period during which the highland paterae were forming,
suggesting that during this period eruptions were too temporally limited, lava vis-
cosities were too low, or the rate of eruption was too high to build larger edifices
(Hodges and Moore, 1994). The volume of lava comprising Syrtis Major is esti-
mated to be ∼1.6 to 3.2 · 105 km, comparable to estimated volumes of Amphitrites
Patera (Hiesinger and Head, 2004).
Mars’ big shield volcanoes were first revealed by Mariner 9 as circular depres-
sions atop high mountains which poked through the global dust storm. As the dust
settled, these features were recognized as the calderas topping the four massive
shield volcanoes in the Tharsis region: Olympus Mons (Figure 5.17b), Ascraeus
Mons, Pavonis Mons, and Arsia Mons. Olympus Mons rises to a height of 21.3 km,
while the elevations of the other three shields range between 14.1 and 18.2 km
(Smith et al., 2001a). Elysium Mons, the largest shield volcano in the Elysium
province (Figure 5.17c), rises to an elevation of 14.1 km.
Smaller volcanic edifices with slightly higher slopes (up to 12°) are called domes
or tholii (singular is tholus). These features appear to be small shield volcanoes
based on their large calderas and other geomorphic features (Plescia, 1994, 2000).
The large and small shields are concentrated in the Elysium and Tharsis regions
of Mars. The Elysium province contains three volcanoes: Albor Tholus, Hecates
Tholus, and Elysium Mons (Figure 5.17c). Albor Tholus, 160 km in diameter, is a
small shield probably composed of basalt. Crater analysis suggests a Noachian to
Hesperian age for this volcano (Hodges and Moore, 1994). Hecates Tholus is about
200 km in diameter, has a relatively small caldera, and displays a large number of
channels on its flanks (Gulick and Baker, 1990; Mouginis-Mark and Christensen,
2005). The volcano is primarily Hesperian in age (Hodges and Moore, 1994),
although HRSC crater data have been interpreted to indicate Amazonian activity on
the northwestern flank (Neukum et al., 2004). The western flank of Hecates Tholus
displays lower crater density and has been proposed to be a younger pyroclastic
deposit from either a summit (Mouginis-Mark et al., 1982) or flank (Hauber et al.,
2005) eruption.
Elysium Mons is the largest of the Elysium volcanoes, with a diameter of 400 km
and a height of 14 km. It has a single summit caldera from which emanate short lava
flows (<70 km long). Lava flows originating from flank vents are much longer, up
to 250 km long, and display large variations in aspect ratio (Mouginis-Mark and
Yoshioka, 1998). The flows likely originate as low-viscosity lavas, but viscosity
increases exponentially with distance as degassing occurs and temperature drops
(Glaze et al., 2003). Crater analysis suggests that Elysium Mons is the youngest of
the Elysium Province volcanoes with a Late Hesperian to Early Amazonian age
(Hodges and Moore, 1994).
The Tharsis region has the largest concentration of structures on Mars with 12
large volcanoes, many smaller features, and extensive lava flows (Figure 5.18). The
Tharsis Bulge occupies about 25% of the surface and rises about 6 km above the
mean planetary radius (Anderson et al., 2001; Phillips et al., 2001; Smith et al.,
2001a). Gravity data suggest that this bulge has been largely constructed from
voluminous lava flows, although some support by a mantle plume is also suggested
(Smith et al., 2001a; Phillips et al., 2001; Kiefer, 2003). Crater and tectonic data
indicate that much of martian volcanism was localized in the Tharsis region as early
as the end of the Middle Noachian period (Solomon et al., 2005).
The Tharsis Bulge is capped by the three shield volcanoes Ascraeus, Pavonis, and
Arsia Montes. Ascraeus, Pavonis, and Arsia are aligned along a northeast-to-
southwest rift zone about 700 km apart. Long, narrow lava flows, indicative of high
eruption rates, extend from these volcanoes. The three volcanoes are believed to
have originated during the Noachian period with slow accumulation of fluid lavas
from the summit calderas and surrounding concentric fissures. Multiple calderas
often seen on the martian shields suggest several episodes of filling and withdrawal
from the magma chamber. After the shields reached their maximum heights, the
eruptions shifted to the northeast–southwest rift zone, producing younger flank
eruptions. The low aspect ratios of the flow and presence of lava channels indicate
very fluid lavas. Smaller shield volcanoes are seen on the flanks and caldera of
Ascraeus Mons, suggesting the presence of large dike complexes within the larger
shields (Wilson and Head, 2002). Flood basalts formed throughout the Tharsis
128
225° 230° 235° 240° 245° 250° 255° 260° 265° 270°
30° 30°
Uranius
Uranius
Patera
Tholus
25° 25°
Olympus Jovis Ceraunius

20° Tholus 20°
Mons Tholus
15° Tharsis 15°

Ascraeus
Tholus
Mons
10° 10°
Ulysses
5° Patera 5°
Biblis Pavonis
Patera Mons
0° 0°
225° 230° 235° 240° 245° 250° 255° 256° 265° 270°
MOLA MC-09
mhc 03/14/02
Figure 5.18 This MOLA shaded relief map shows most of the volcanoes associated with the Tharsis region. (Image courtesy of
Michael H. Carr and MOLA Science Team.)
Figure 5.19 The Olympus Mons aureole consists of blocks, troughs, and ridges and
extends to the northwest of the Olympus Mons volcano. Both volcanic and tectonic
origins have been proposed for the aureole. (MOLA shaded relief image, NASA/
GSFC.)
region, originating from vents and fissures recently identified in MOC and THEMIS
imagery (Mouginis-Mark and Christensen, 2005). Ages based on crater counts
suggest long-lived activity among the Tharsis shield volcanoes, with some lava
flows perhaps as recent as 40 Ma ago (Hartmann et al., 1999; Neukum et al., 2004).
MOLA analysis reveals that Olympus Mons lies on the western edge of the
Tharsis uplift, so its evolution is largely separate from that of the Tharsis Bulge.
Both summit and vent eruptions contributed to the formation of this huge edifice
(Mouginis-Mark and Christensen, 2005). The shield has several calderas at its
summit, indicating multiple episodes of eruption and collapse. Ages of the calderas
are estimated to be between 100 and 200 Ma (Neukum et al., 2004). Olympus Mons
is 600 km in diameter and is partially surrounded by a scarp up to 10 km in extent.
The Olympus Mons aureole, a region of blocks, arcuate ridges, and deep extensional
troughs, lies about 300–700 km northwest of the scarp (Figure 5.19). Possible
origins for the aureole include failure of the volcano’s flanks and volcanic products
ranging from pyroclastic flows to eroded lava flows. Analysis of MGS and MO data
supports the idea that flank failure and mass movement produced the basal scarp and
aureole deposits (McGovern et al., 2004b).
The other large volcano in the Tharsis region is 1600-km-diameter Alba Patera,
located on the northern edge of the Tharsis uplift (Figure 5.20). Alba Patera is
surrounded by a circumferential system of extensional faults (graben). The summit
caldera rises to 6.8 km height and is offset to the southwest of the center of this
faulting. MOLA-derived slopes are <2°. Although most models suggest that Alba
Patera is composed of low-viscosity basaltic lava flows (Schneeberger and Pieri,
1991), possible pyroclastic deposits have also been identified on the volcano’s
flanks (Mouginis-Mark et al., 1988). Many models propose that the circumferential
130 Geology
Figure 5.20 Alba Patera is 1600 km in diameter and is surrounded by circumferential

graben. This three-dimensional view of the volcano is obtained by draping Viking
imagery over MOLA topography. (NASA/GSFC/MOLA Science Team.)
graben resulted from lithospheric stresses produced by the volcano’s surface load
(Comer et al., 1985; Turtle and Melosh, 1997). However, McGovern et al. (2001)
argue that sill complexes within the lithosphere are more consistent with the MGS-
derived topography and gravity of this region.
The remaining Tharsis volcanoes consist of small shields largely built by effusive
basaltic eruptions. Three lie on the western flank of the Tharsis Bulge (Jovis
Tholus, Ulysses Patera, and Biblis Patera) while the other four are grouped on the
northeastern flank (Ceraunius, Uranius, and Tharsis Tholii and Uranius Patera)
(Figure 5.18). The smaller sizes of these shields indicate lower volumes of erupted
material compared to the larger shields. The volcanoes are composed primarily
of basaltic flows, although late-stage pyroclastic activity has been suggested for
Ceraunius and Uranius Tholii (Plescia, 2000). Crater analysis suggests that all
seven small shields were formed within 104–105 years during the Hesperian (Plescia,
1994, 2000).
A thick deposit of fine-grained, easily eroded material is found southwest of the
Tharsis shields (Figure 5.21). The origin of this material, called the Medusae Fossae
Formation (MFF), is controversial, with dust deposits, ancient polar layered
deposits, and pumice rafted on an ancient ocean among the proposed origins. The
most widely accepted origin for these deposits is that they are ash deposits (Scott and
Tanaka, 1982; Edgett et al., 1997). The lower atmospheric pressure on Mars may
allow basaltic eruptions to be more explosive than is typically observed on Earth
(Wilson and Head, 1994), giving rise to basaltic ash deposits. The detection of high
concentrations of chlorine coincident with the MFF also is consistent with a volcanic
origin (Taylor et al., 2006). Layered deposits in Valles Marineris, Terra Meridiani,
and Arabia Terra also have been suggested to be pyroclastic deposits from explosive
volcanic eruptions in Tharsis (Hynek et al., 2003).
The youngest volcanic unit on Mars lies between the Tharsis and Elysium
provinces in the southwestern part of Amazonis Planitia, centered near 30°N 200°E
Figure 5.21 The Medusae Fossae Formation southwest of the Tharsis region is
composed of fine-grained materials, as indicated by the range of wind-eroded
features. It may be an ash deposit. (THEMIS image I00968002, NASA/ASU.)
Figure 5.22 Small cones are seen in several locations across Mars. These are
found in Amazonis Planitia near 24.8°N 188.7°E. The image is about 3 km across
and the diameters of the small cones are < 250 m. (NASA/JPL/MSSS/University of
Arizona.)
with an areal extent of ∼107 km2 (Plescia, 1990; Keszthelyi et al., 2000). Ages
derived from crater analysis suggest that flood volcanism occurred in this region as
recently as 10–100 Ma ago (Hartmann and Berman, 2000; Berman and Hartmann,
2002), although HRSC analysis suggests volcanism as recently as 3 Ma ago (Werner
et al., 2003). The source region(s) of these flows have been identified as the Cerberus
Fossae fracture system and/or small shields on the western side of Cerberus Planitia
(Plescia, 1990, 2003; Keszthelyi et al., 2000; Werner et al., 2003).
Many small cones (4–16-km-diameter) are seen on Mars (Figure 5.22). Hodges
and Moore (1994) proposed that these features were formed by water–magma
interactions, although MOLA analysis by Garvin et al. (2000b) led them to suggest
that these features are small shields built by effusive lava flows. Other small cones
132 Geology
around the planet have been attributed to phreatomagmatic interactions (e.g.,

Lanagan et al., 2001).
5.3.3 Tectonism
Tectonic activity includes any crustal deformation caused by surface motion.
Planetary tectonism is a result of stress and strain within the rigid lithosphere. Stress
(r) is the force per area exerted on material while strain (ε) is the measure of how
much the material deforms when the stress is applied. An elastic material deforms
when a force is applied to it, but returns to its original shape when the force is
removed. Elastic materials deform according to Hooke’s law:
r ¼ ee E: ð5:14Þ
Hooke’s law shows that the ratio of the stress r and the elastic strain εe is equal to a
property of the material called Young’s modulus (E) which measures the “stiffness”
of the material.
Alternately, viscous material remains deformed when the applied force is
removed. In a simple Newtonian fluid, the rate of change of fluid strain (εf) is
directly proportional to the applied stress:
def r
e_f ¼ ¼ : ð5:15Þ
dt 2g
The response of a viscous material to an applied stress depends on the viscosity (g)
of the material. Most geologically important materials are neither purely elastic nor
viscous, but a combination. Viscoelastic materials do not completely return to their
pre-deformation appearance but they also do not stay completely deformed when
the stress is removed. The viscoelastic strain (εv) is the sum of the viscous and
elastic terms:
ev ¼ ee þ ef : ð5:16Þ
Therefore

1 dr 1
e_v ¼ þ r: ð5:17Þ
E dt 2g
Viscoelastic materials can approach their initial shape over some period of
time called the viscoelastic relaxation time (sv). By setting e_v ¼ 0 and integrating
Eq. (5.17), we find that
Et
r ¼ r0 e 2g ð5:18Þ
Figure 5.23 The presence of near-surface ice weakens the crustal material,
allowing viscoelastic relaxation to occur. Features in the mid-latitude regions of
Mars often display rounded edges, like the rims of these two craters. This terrain
softening is indicative of near-surface ice which can become warm enough to
cause such topography to deform. The image is centered near 43.7°S 357.4°E and
the larger crater is approximately 36 km in diameter. (THEMIS image I07166004,
NASA /ASU.)
where r0 is the initial stress and t is the time. The stress relaxes to a value of 1/e times
its original value in sv:
2g
sv ¼ : ð5:19Þ
E
Viscoelastic behavior of the ice-rich martian crust leads to relaxation of mid-latitude
topography, including craters and mesas, in a process called terrain softening
(Figure 5.23) (Squyres and Carr, 1986).
A viscoelastic material responds elastically to a stress applied on a timescale
which is short relative to the viscoelastic relaxation time and viscously to a stress
applied on a timescale which is long compared to sv. The material’s temperature is
an important consideration when determining how it will respond to an applied
stress since the material can be brittle at low temperatures and ductile at high
temperatures. Planetary lithospheres behave elastically in response to typical
stresses. If the applied force is too strong, the material will fracture, creating a fault.
The deeper layers of the asthenosphere behave viscously to applied forces and will
exhibit ductile behavior.
The strength of the applied force determines whether lithospheric rocks will fold
(bend) or fault (fracture). Materials will experience ductile deformation up to some
level of r and e_ during which folding will occur. Once the stress and/or strain rate
become too large, the material experiences brittle deformation and faulting results.
If the crust is cracked because it moved in response to stresses in the crust, the cracks
134 Geology
Figure 5.24 Extensional stresses cause downdropped valleys called graben. These
graben occur south of the Alba Patera volcano. The crater at upper right is 2.7 km in
diameter and located at 36.1°N 255.8°E. (THEMIS image I11999006, NASA/ASU.)
are called faults. However, if the crust is cracked due to stresses but no crustal
motion occurred, the cracks are called joints.
In 1905 E. M. Anderson realized that tectonic features on Earth resulted from
variations in stress orientations. Faults are the mechanism by which the crust is
extended in one direction and compressed in the direction 90° from the extension.
Anderson’s theory of faulting notes that there are three principal stress directions
and that the type of tectonic features which results depend on the relative orienta-
tions of those principal stress directions. Two of the principal stress directions lie
horizontally within the lithosphere while the third is perpendicular to the planet’s
surface. The three principal stress directions correspond to the maximum (r1),
intermediate (r2), and minimum (r3) stresses.
Extensional stresses will pull the surface apart and produce normal faults, where
material on one side of the fault will be downdropped relative to the other side.
Normal faults occur when r2 and r3 lie within the lithosphere and r1 is vertical.
Many valleys in the Basin and Range Province of the southwestern United States are
the result of downdropped blocks (graben) bordered by normal faults. Grabens are
common extensional features seen around the Tharsis Bulge on Mars (Figure 5.24).
Compressional stresses push portions of the crust together, creating thrust faults
where material on one side of the fault is uplifted relative to the other side. Thrust
faults form when r1 and r2 lie within the lithosphere and r3 is vertical. Blocks
bounded by thrust faults which have been uplifted relative to their surroundings are
called horsts. Wrinkle ridges, common on the martian ridged plains (Figure 5.14a),
are compressional features which typically result from sagging of the crust under the
weight of large expanses of lava flows.
Strike-slip faults result when r1 and r3 lie within the lithosphere and r2 is
vertical. This results in the crustal blocks sliding past one another. If you stand on
one side of the strike-slip fault and look across to the opposite crustal block,
you classify the fault as a right-lateral fault if the opposite crustal block moves
to your right. The fault is a left-lateral fault if the opposite crustal block moves to
the left.
Planets with plate tectonics clearly display these three fault classes at plate
boundaries. Divergent boundaries, where two plates diverge, display extensional
faults while convergent boundaries, where plates converge, display compressional
faults. Strike-slip faults occur at transform boundaries where plates slide past each
other. Plate tectonics on Mars is still a controversial topic (Section 2.4.2), but such
activity would have been limited to very early martian history if it occurred. While
extensional, compressional, and strike-slip faults are observed on Mars, none of the
geologic features definitively indicate current plate tectonic activity. Localized
stresses and strains, rather than global plate tectonics, have dominated the tectonic
history of Mars.
The level of current tectonic activity on Mars is unknown because of the lack of
seismic data (Section 3.3). Indications of recent volcanism in the Amazonis Planitia
and Tharsis regions suggest that seismic activity should occur in those locations.
Transection relationships reveal that extensional and compressional tectonism has
occurred throughout martian history, with activity primarily concentrated around
Elysium and Tharsis (Anderson et al., 2001, 2006). Anderson et al. (2001) deter-
mined that tectonic activity in the Tharsis region has occurred throughout martian
history with the centers of the activity shifting over time (Figure 5.25). Tectonic
activity associated with Elysium has occurred only recently. Noachian-aged faulting
was centered in the Claritas region near 27°S 254°E while Late Noachian–Early
Hesperian faulting was concentrated along the margins of Syria, Sinai, and Solis
Plana. Early Hesperian graben and wrinkle ridges are centered on Syria Planum
and Tempe Terra. Extensional faults radial to Alba Patera dominate in the Late
Hesperian–Early Amazonian. The most recent tectonic activity in the Tharsis region
has centered on the large volcanic shields, with a center near the southern flank of
Ascraeus Mons (8°N 200°E). Elysium activity is concentrated in the Middle to Late
Amazonian.
The largest extensional feature on Mars is the Valles Marineris canyon system
(Figure 5.26), which stretches along the equator for ∼4000 km between 250°E and
330°E (Lucchitta et al., 1992). Parts of the canyon are up to 6 km below the 0-km
elevation contour and up to 11 km below the surrounding plains (Smith et al.,
2001a). The canyon is divided into three segments based on morphologic changes.
The western end of the canyon consists of a series of interconnected canyons called
Noctis Labyrinthus. The central portion consists of roughly east–west trending
canyons extending for ∼2400 km. The eastern section contains irregular depres-
sions which merge with the chaotic terrain and outflow channels.
136
Figure 5.25 This map shows all the tectonic structures visible on Mars. Map is centered at 0°N 270°E, near the Tharsis tectonic center.
(Image courtesy of Robert Anderson, JPL.)
Figure 5.26 Valles Marineris is composed of a series of smaller canyons. The Valles Marineris system extends over 4000 km near the
equator. (MOC image MOC2-144, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
137
138 Geology
(a) (b)
Figure 5.27 The interior of Valles Marineris shows layered rocks and landslides,
providing insights into its geologic evolution. (a) Layers of bright and dark rocks
are seen throughout the canyon. This exposure occurs in the western part of Candor
Chasma. The image is ∼3 km across and located at 5.7°S 284.2°E. (MOC image
MOC2-682, NASA/JPL/MSSS.) (b) Landslides are common within the Valles
Marineris canyons. This image shows the toe of a landslide in Ganges Chasma,
near 8.0°S 315.6°E. (MOC image MOC2-295, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
Valles Marineris originated during the Late Noachian or Early Hesperian either
from dike emplacement associated with Syria Planum (Mège and Masson, 1996) or
stresses associated with the uplift of Tharsis (Smith et al., 2001a). Subsequent
subsidence and normal faulting have continued into the Amazonian (Schultz, 1998).
MOLA analysis reveals that the canyon is deepest in Coprates Chasma near 300°E,
with the western and eastern sections dipping towards that location. The eastern
slope of ∼0.03° has existed since canyon formation. Water could only have flowed
eastward out of the main canyon if the water depth was >1 km to overcome the
observed topography (Smith et al., 1999).
The canyon exposes stratigraphic layers emplaced throughout martian history
(Figure 5.27a). Thin (tens of meters) strong layers are interspersed with thicker
(hundreds of meters) weak layers (Beyer and McEwen, 2005). The strong layers are
probably lava flows (McEwen et al., 1999; Williams et al., 2003), but the weaker
layers could be sedimentary (Malin and Edgett, 2000a), aqueously altered products
(Treiman et al., 1995), or thin/weak volcanic products (Beyer and McEwen, 2005).
The layers are the source of the numerous landslides displayed in the canyon
(Figure 5.27b). These landslides are examples of mass wasting processes caused by
the martian gravity exerting a downward force on precariously supported materials.
Quantin et al. (2004) use crater analysis to determine that the landslides have been
occurring since 3.5 Ga ago, with the youngest slides displaying ages of 50 Ma.
Both dry granular flows (Soukhovitskaya and Manga, 2006) and wet flows
(Harrison and Grimm, 2003) match the morphologies of Valles Marineris landslides,
Figure 5.28 Giant polygons are seen in Utopia and Acidalia Planitiae. They are
formed by extensional stresses resulting from uplift or compaction of overlying
sediments. These polygons are located in Utopia Planitia near 47.0°N 129.2°E.
Image is ∼30 km in width. (THEMIS image I10119010, NASA/ASU.)
suggesting both mechanisms have operated in different time periods and locations
throughout the canyon.
Extensional stresses also are implicated in the formation of giant polygons
observed in the northern plains, particularly in Acidalia and Utopia Planitiae
(Figure 5.28). These features range in diameter from 2 to 32 km and are bounded by
graben with widths between 0.5 and 7.5 km and depths between 5 and 115 m
(Hiesinger and Head, 2000). Although a variety of formation models have been
proposed for these features, the two dominate models are the tectonic and drape-
fold models. The tectonic model proposes that giant polygons result from uplift of
basins following removal of large bodies of liquid water (Hiesinger and Head,
2000; Thomson and Head, 2001). The drape-fold model argues that sedimentary
layers (of possible lacustrine origin) deposited over rough topography will lead to
differential compaction of sediments and produce polygonal features on scales
comparable to the underlying topographic variations (McGill and Hills, 1992;
Buczkowski and McGill, 2002).
MOLA analysis of the eastern hemisphere dichotomy boundary reveals both
normal and thrust faults, indicating that formation of the dichotomy boundary
involved both extensional and compressional stresses (Watters, 2003). Compres-
sional stresses occurred in many areas of Mars, as indicated by the widespread
distribution of wrinkle ridges. Wrinkle ridges are linear broad arches with a
superposed ridge (Figure 5.29). They are typically a few tens of kilometers in width
and are 80 to 300 m high (Golombek et al., 2001). Wrinkle ridges are now generally
accepted to be surface expressions of subsurface thrust faults (Schultz, 2000;
Golombek et al., 2001; Watters, 2004; Goudy et al., 2005), although buried impact
craters sometimes contribute to wrinkle ridge patterns. Wrinkle ridges are most
140 Geology
Figure 5.29 Wrinkle ridges form from compressional stresses and are often seen on
large expanses of flood basalts. This wrinkle ridge on Lunae Planum, near 13.8°N
296.6°E, exhibits the typical morphology of a broad arch with a superposed ridge.
The crater near the bottom is ∼1.9 km in diameter. (THEMIS image V14119007,
NASA/ASU.)
frequent on the Hesperian-aged flood basalts called ridged plains. Buried Hesperian-
aged volcanic flows, such as that under the northern Vastitas Borealis formation,
also show evidence of wrinkle ridges in MOLA analysis (J. W. Head et al., 2002),
indicating large-scale compressional folding and faulting of these units.
5.3.4 Mass movement

Mass movement features are produced when gravity causes collapse. The rate of
collapse can be rapid (as with avalanches) or slow (as in subsurface creep). Solid
rock is more stable than unconsolidated materials, but removal of underlying sup-
port (such as caused by erosion near the base of a cliff) can result in bedrock
undergoing collapse. Addition of water or ice to soils reduces the strength of the
material and enhances mass movement, such as happens when heavy rains cause
mudslides on Earth.
Pouring sand onto a surface results in the sand forming a conical pile. The angle
between the surface and the cone’s sides is the angle of repose and is related to the
slope of the cone’s sides. Fine-grained material has a lower angle of repose (typ-
ically around 30°) than coarser material. Angular fragments can form cones with
steep slopes.
Whenever the slope exceeds the angle of repose for a block of material, that block
will move downslope under the influence of gravity. Rocks along a cliff can
fall, producing a rock-fall. Large blocks of bedrock can slide along cracks and joints
to create rockslides. Unstable soil will produce landslides. The collapse of crater
walls to produce wall terraces (Figure 5.12a) and the landslides seen within
Figure 5.30 Dark slope streaks are caused by dust avalanches occurring on steep
slopes. The bright dust slides downslope, revealing the darker underlying material.
These dark streaks occur on buttes in the Aeolis region near 1.5°S 157.1°E. Image
is ∼3 km across. (MOC image MOC2-1439, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
the Valles Marineris canyons (Figure 5.27b) are examples of rapid mass movement
on Mars. Dark streaks (Figure 5.30) seen on features with slopes exceeding the
angle of repose are produced by avalanches of unconsolidated material (Sullivan
et al., 2001).
Mass movement rates can also be very slow, as exhibited in soil creep. Soil creep is
downhill movement of soil that occurs due to freeze–thaw, wet–dry, and thermal
expansion cycles. It is imperceptible over short time periods, but can affect topog-
raphy over long time periods. The rounding of sharp topography in the mid-latitudes
of Mars is an example of soil creep caused by the presence of ice (Figure 5.23)
(Squyres and Carr, 1986). Debris aprons at the base of bedrock escarpments also are
proposed to result from creep of ice-rich materials (Perron et al., 2003).
5.3.5 Eolian features

Planets with atmospheres show the effects of eolian or wind processes. Wind
transports material from one location to another and causes both deposition and
erosion. The physics of fluid dynamics is applied to material being transported by
the wind (Greeley and Iverson, 1985). Larger material is transported by traction, the
rolling of material along the surface. Slightly smaller material can bounce along the
surface, a process called saltation. Pebbles are sometimes moved by impact creep,
where saltating grains impart momentum through their impact on the pebble. The
smallest material is carried within the wind flow by suspension. Depending on the
wind speed and thickness of a planet’s atmosphere, suspension typically operates
on particles 60 μm in diameter (dust), saltation efficiently moves material in the
142 Geology
s r h
g FD
UT
Figure 5.31 A particle of diameter d and density r falling through an atmosphere of

density q and viscosity g experiences a downward force due to gravity g and an
upward drag force FD.
60–2000 μm size range (sand), and creep and traction move particles >2000 μm in
diameter (granules and pebbles).
A particle of diameter d and density r falling through quiescent air of density q
and viscosity g will feel a downward force due to gravity (g) and an upward force
due to aerodynamic drag (Figure 5.31). The downward gravitational force is
3
4 d 1
Fg ¼ mg ¼ p rg ¼ pd3 rg: ð5:20Þ
3 2 6
The upward drag force is obtained by using Stokes’ drag equation for a spherical
particle moving through a fluid:
FD ¼ 3pgUT d: ð5:21Þ
A particle dropped from rest will accelerate downwards under the influence of
gravity until the drag force equals its weight. After that it moves at a constant
velocity called the threshold velocity (UT). For small particles, the drag is propor-
tional to UT, while for large particles or in atmospheres with low g the drag
increases as UT2 .
Atmospheres, like fluids, can be gently flowing (laminar regime) or very turbu-
lent. Reynolds’ number (Re) dictates whether the particle is moving in the laminar or
turbulent regime:
qUT d
Re ¼ : ð5:22Þ
g
Laminar regimes have low Re, but turbulence dominates when Re

1000. Laminar
flow typically occurs close to the planet’s surface. Experiments find that Re ≈ 24/CD
in the laminar regime, where CD is the drag coefficient of the gas or fluid. Substi-
tuting this value for Re in Eq. (5.22) gives an expression of the viscosity of the
atmosphere:
CD qUT d
g¼ : ð5:23Þ
24
This can be substituted back into Eq. (5.21):
CD pqUT2 d 2
FD ¼ : ð5:24Þ
8
Equating the gravitational force (Eq. 5.20) and the drag force (Eq. 5.24) allows us to
determine the threshold velocity:

4rgd 1=2
UT ¼ : ð5:25Þ
3qCD
The force (Fs) that the atmosphere must apply to a particle to keep it suspended is the
weight of the particle reduced by the difference in particle and atmospheric density:

1
Fs ¼ pd 3 ðr qÞg: ð5:26Þ
6
To determine how a particle will be transported by the wind, UT is compared to

the friction speed (v*). The friction speed is not a true wind speed but is approxi-
mately equal to the vertical component of the particle velocity near the surface when
the particle is experiencing atmospheric turbulence. The friction speed is related to
the shear stress experienced by the atmospheric flow near the surface (s) and the
atmospheric density ( q):
rffiffiffi
s
v ¼ : ð5:27Þ
q
When UT < v*, turbulent eddies are capable of transporting particles upward and
suspension will dominate. When UT v*, the particle trajectory is unaffected by
turbulence and particles will be transported by saltation. Particles too large or heavy
to be lifted from the surface by the wind will be moved either by impact creep or
traction.
The static threshold friction speed (v*t) is the lowest value of v* at which particles
begin to move. Threshold speeds on Mars are about an order of magnitude higher
than on Earth because of the thinner martian atmosphere. Particles with diameters of
115 μm have v*t near 1 m s1 under current martian atmospheric conditions (Greeley
and Iverson, 1985). Larger particles require higher v*t to begin moving because of
144 Geology
Figure 5.32 Mars’ north polar cap is surrounded by an erg of saltated material. The
erg appears as the dark region circling the residual polar cap. Also visible are the
spiral troughs within the polar cap and layered deposits. The large entrant at left is
Chasma Boreale. (MOC image MOC2-231, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
their greater mass. Smaller particles also require higher v*t because of inter-particle
interactions and surface roughness.
Dust is transported by suspension while sand is transported largely by saltation.
These materials will be deposited when the wind velocity subsides, forming a
variety of eolian depositional features. Large deposits of saltated material form an
erg, or sand sea, surrounding the martian north polar cap (Figure 5.32). The largest
dunefield associated with this erg lies along the 180° longitude line in a region called
Olympia Planitia. Recent MOLA analysis indicates that Olympia Planitia is an
extension of the polar cap (Fishbaugh and Head, 2000). The thermal inertia of the
Olympia Planitia dunes indicates smaller particles than sand and likely originates
from erosion of a sulfur-rich volcanic layer within the adjacent polar layered
deposits (Herkenhoff and Vasavada, 1999; Byrne and Murray, 2002; Langevin
et al., 2005a).
Smaller deposits of saltated material form sand dunes. Crescent-shaped barchan
dunes (Figure 5.33a) form when the wind blows consistently from one direction.
Transverse dunes (Figure 5.33b) are the most common dune morphology on Mars.
They form in regions where sand is abundant and winds are strong. Longitudinal
dunes (Figure 5.33c) occur in regions with a moderate amount of sand and a
prevailing wind direction. MGS analysis suggests that some dunes are still actively
forming and migrating while others are currently inactive (Edgett and Malin, 2000).
Smaller deposits of sand, called ripples (Figure 5.33d), have been seen at all five
martian landing sites (Greeley et al., 1999, 2006; Sullivan et al., 2005).
Dust deposited in regions where the air flow is laminar can create thick loess
deposits. The layered deposits surrounding the polar caps are composed of ice-
cemented dust layers deposited during climate cycles (Sections 5.3.7 and 7.2.2).
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 5.33 Various types of sand dunes are seen on Mars. (a) These barchan dunes
are located near 73.8°N 319.2°E. (MOC image MOC2-1390.) (b) Transverse
dunes are commonly seen on the floors of impact craters, such as these examples
located at 51.8°S 254.5°E. (MOC image MOC2-1176.) (c) Richardson crater
displays these longitudinal dunes, located at 72.4°S 180.3°E. (MOC image MOC2-
1322.) (d) Ripple encountered by Opportunity during its traverse across Meridiani
Planum. (Images a, b, and c are all ∼3 km wide and courtesy of NASA/JPL/MSSS;
image d courtesy of NASA/JPL–Caltech.)
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.34 Wind streaks are often seen in the lee of martian impact craters. (a)
Bright wind streaks, like this one extending from a 600-m-diameter crater near
42.0°N 234.2°E, form when dust is trapped in the lee of the crater. (MOC image
MOC2-1489.) (b) Dark wind streaks form when turbulence scours dust from the
lee of the crater. Crater is 688 m in diameter and located near 11.7°S 223.6°E.
(MOC image MOC2-1298, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
Bright wind streaks are another example of features resulting from dust deposition
(Figure 5.34a). Bright streaks often form in the downwind direction of topographic
obstacles such as impact craters. These result when winds are strong enough to
remove surface dust from all regions except those protected by topography. Fine-
grained dust appears brighter than coarse-grained material, so the dust remaining in
146 Geology
Figure 5.35 Dust devils remove fine dust from the surface, leaving behind dark
streaks showing the track of the dust devil. These tracks occur south of the Hellas
Basin. Image is ∼3 km in width. (MOC image MOC2-1378, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
the lee of a topographic obstacle will appear brighter than the surroundings from
which the dust has been removed. Pelkey et al. (2001) find no strong thermal inertia
difference between the streaks and the surrounding area, suggesting thicknesses of
bright dust deposits between 1 μm and 3 mm. Bright wind streaks are one of the few
martian geologic features seen to change over the time period of detailed investi-
gations by orbiting spacecraft (i.e., since about 1970).
Dark wind streaks are also observed on Mars (Figure 5.34b). These features can
be either depositional (composed of dark materials) or erosional due to atmospheric
turbulence behind an obstacle which scours the dust from the surface. Thermal
inertia of erosional dark wind streaks is distinct from the surroundings, indicating
deposits of sand-sized particles thicker than a few centimeters (Pelkey et al., 2001).
Dark surface streaks also result when dust devils remove surface dust (Figure 5.35).
Surface dust lies within the laminar regime of wind flow, making it difficult to
remove (surface roughness increases the stability of surface dust). Dust devils
appear to be a major mechanism in raising the surface dust above the laminar flow
region for transport across the planet (Section 6.3.2).
Yardangs are tall ridges produced by wind erosion in areas of easily erodable
material (Figure 5.36). They are usually oriented parallel to the prevailing wind
direction, although resistant layers within yardangs can result in other orientations
(Bradley et al., 2002). The identification of yardangs within Mars’ Medusae Fossae
Formation was one of the first indications of the fine-grained nature of these deposits
(Ward, 1979). Yardangs are also seen within the martian polar layered deposits
(Howard, 2000).
Rocks often show the effects of eolian erosion by saltating sand particles through
grooves, pits, and smoothed sides (Figure 5.37). Ventifacts are common at the
martian landing sites and show that wind erosion is the major process affecting the
Figure 5.36 Yardangs are created by eolian erosion. These yardangs occur on
volcanic plains west of Olympus Mons near 13.2°N 199.9°E. Image is ∼3 km
wide. (MOC image MOC2-1455, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
Figure 5.37 Mars Pathfinder’s Sojourner rover took this view of the pits and
grooves produced by wind abrasion on Moe rock. (NASA/JPL.)
planet today. Laboratory experiments and numerical modeling indicate that kinetic
energies of these sandblasting particles are about an order of magnitude higher on
Mars than on Earth because of the higher wind velocities needed to initiate saltation
(Bridges et al., 2005).
5.3.6 Fluvial processes

Liquid water cannot exist on the martian surface under the current low temperature
and atmospheric pressure conditions. One of the biggest surprises from the
Mariner 9 investigations was the presence of channels of varying sizes on the
martian surface. Channels are classified as valley networks, outflow channels, and
fretted channels (Baker, 1982) (Figure 5.38). Channel morphology indicated that
148 Geology
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 5.38 Water and/or ice has produced several types of channels on Mars.
(a) Warrego Valles, located near 43°S 267°E, displays the dendritic nature
characteristics of valley networks. (Viking mosaic image, NASA/JPL.) (b) Ravi
Vallis (1°S 318°E), like many other outflow channels, originates from a region of
chaotic terrain. The channel is about 300 km long in this image. (Lunar and
Planetary Institute.) (c) Fretted terrain occurs along the hemispheric dichotomy,
particularly around Arabia Terra. This view of the Nilosyrtis Mensae area (32°N
61°E) is ∼248 km wide and shows the dissected nature of the fretted terrain. (MOC
image MOC2-885, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
liquid water was responsible for formation of the valley networks and outflow
channels. Ice combined with tectonic activity probably created the fretted channels
(Section 5.3.7).
All fluids move downhill at a velocity determined by the fluid’s viscosity, the
terrain, and the planet’s gravity. The flow usually transports solid materials, just like
the atmosphere transports small particles. Both atmospheric and fluvial transport are
described by the physics of fluid motions. Thus, the physics described in Section
5.3.5 for atmospheric transport by suspension, saltation, impact creep, and traction
also apply to transport of materials by fluids.
Gently flowing streams have laminar flow, which results in little erosion. Fast-
flowing streams tend to be turbulent (large Re) and erosive. The discharge (Q) of a
stream is the product of the cross-sectional area (A) of the stream and the average
flow velocity (v):
Q ¼ vA: ð5:28Þ
The average flow velocity (in m s–1) can be estimated from the Manning equation:
R2=3 S1=2
v¼ ð5:29Þ
n
where R is the hydraulic radius, which is the ratio of A to the extent of the wetted
perimeter, S is the slope of the water surface, and n is the Manning roughness
coefficient. Typical values of n for natural streams range from 0.025 for streams on
gentle slopes to 0.05 for streams with rough beds and high slopes. Irwin et al. (2005)
scaled the Manning equation to Mars and related Q to the width of the channel (W ):
Q ¼ 1:4W 1:22 : ð5:30Þ
Larger discharge rates (such as occur during flooding) can move larger objects as
well as transport much more material than lower discharge rates.
Morphologic variations between channels provide insights into the local topog-
raphy and surface characteristics. The dendritic appearance of many martian valley
networks (Figure 5.38a) indicates gentle slopes with water moving down small
channels to merge with larger river networks. Steeper slopes produce channels
where the tributaries are almost parallel to the main river channel. Regions with
strong tectonic control (faults, fractures, or joints) produce channels with sharp
angles rather than gentle meanders. Regions where channels form circular patterns
indicate either domes or basins, depending on the direction of flow.
Channels can form not only from precipitation or snowmelt but also from
groundwater. When the flow of groundwater stops, the overlying material can
collapse into the now-dry groundwater channel, producing a sapping channel on the
surface. Sapping channels often display amphitheater-shaped heads which helps
150 Geology
distinguish them from rainfall-produced channels (Baker, 1982), although recent

studies of terrestrial spring-fed rivers indicate that surface properties may dictate
whether such distinguishing morphologic features occur (Lamb et al., 2006).
The martian valley networks (Figure 5.38a) are integrated channel systems, with
individual channels up to a few kilometers wide and lengths up to a few hundreds of
kilometers (Baker, 1982). Valley networks are primarily found on Noachian units,
although younger networks are seen on the flanks of some volcanoes and in Valles
Marineris. These younger channel systems have been attributed to hydrothermal
activity (Gulick, 1998), local precipitation (Mangold et al., 2004a), snowmelt
(Fassett and Head, 2006), and precipitation from volcanic gases (Dohm and
Tanaka, 1999). The proposed origins of the Noachian-aged valley networks include
widespread precipitation (Craddock and Howard, 2002; Howard et al., 2005) or
groundwater sapping (Carr, 1995; Malin and Carr, 1999). A rainfall origin of the
Noachian-aged valley networks is supported by the highly integrated nature of the
valley networks and drainage areas (Grant and Parker, 2002; Irwin and Howard,
2002) and presence of interior channels, which tend to form by precipitation but not
by sapping (Irwin et al., 2005). Estimated discharge rates of valley network systems
are similar to terrestrial floods produced by rainfall (∼300–3000 m3 s1) (Irwin
et al., 2005). However, not all valley networks display the features indicative of
rainfall, indicating that both precipitation and sapping likely have contributed to
valley network formation.
Outflow channels (Figure 5.38b) are much larger than valley networks, with
channel widths up to several tens of kilometers and lengths of thousands of kilo-
meters (Baker, 1982). Outflow channels display morphologic similarities to huge
catastrophic terrestrial floods, such as that which formed the Channeled Scablands
of the northwestern United States (Baker, 1978). Such features include longitudinal
grooves and streamlined islands (Figure 5.39). Outflow channels are Hesperian to
Amazonian in age and originate from large depressions, often filled with jumbled
material called chaotic terrain (Figure 5.38b). These channels form from the sudden
melting of ground ice from volcanic or impact processes. The water floods across
the surrounding terrain, producing the channel and its associated morphologic
features. The surface material overlying the outburst area collapses into the voided
region, producing chaotic terrain. Discharge rates of outflow channels are in the
range of 106–107 m3 s–1 (Coleman, 2005).
MOC imagery has revealed other features suggestive of fluvial activity on Mars,
both in the past and perhaps even at present. Channels breach the rims of many
craters in the Noachian highlands and the floors of such craters are often very flat,
suggestive of paleolake deposits (Cabrol and Grin, 1999, 2001; Irwin et al., 2005)
(Figure 5.40a). Layered deposits are superposed on many crater and canyon
floors and have been interpreted as sediments deposited in lacustrine environments
Figure 5.39 Streamlined islands occur when water was forced around topography
such as impact craters. This streamlined island formed by water flow from Ares
Valles being diverted around an 8-km-diameter crater. Crater is located at 20.0°N
328.7°E. (THEMIS image V06305017, NASA/JPL/ASU.)
(Malin and Edgett, 2000a) (Figure 5.40b). Mineralogic investigations of the layered
deposits exposed at the Opportunity landing site in Meridiani Planum confirm that at
least some of these deposits were formed as water-lain sediments (Squyres et al.,
2004c). Distributary fans with characteristics of delta deposits are found within
craters with other indicators of paleolake activity and strongly suggest fluvial
activity in the martian past (Malin and Edgett, 2003; Bhattacharya et al., 2005;
Fassett and Head, 2005; Lewis and Aharonson, 2006) (Figure 5.40c). Alluvial fans,
formed when flowing water encounters a cliff and deposits its sediments in a fan-
like pattern at the base of the cliff, have been identified on the floors of several
impact craters (Moore and Howard, 2005) (Figure 5.40d). While all of these features
are of Noachian age, younger gullies, some of which might still be active, are seen
on steep slopes within impact craters and on canyon walls (Malin and Edgett,
2000b; Heldmann et al., 2005) (Figure 5.40e). While some have proposed that the
channels and gullies are formed by CO2 (Hoffman, 2000; Musselwhite et al., 2001)
or CH4 (Max and Clifford, 2001) fluids, the current conditions on Mars appear to
favor H2O as the fluid that carves these features (Stewart and Nimmo, 2002). The
implications of these features on the location and evolution of water on Mars will be
discussed in Chapter 7.
5.3.7 Polar and glacial processes

Mars’ polar regions consist of thick polar layered deposits (PLDs) composed of
water ice and silicate dust capped by ice-rich polar caps. Each polar cap is composed
of an extensive seasonal cap obvious from fall through spring and a permanent cap
152 Geology
(a)
Holden Crater
Uzboi Valles
(b) (c)
Figure 5.40 (a) A number of craters display rims breached by channels and smooth
floors. These attributes suggest that water in the channels has flooded the floors of
these craters, producing short-lived lakes. Uzboi Valles cuts the rim of 140-km-
diameter Holden Crater and may have produced a lake in the crater floor. Image
centered near 26°S 325°E. (HRSC image SEMSOYXEM4E, ESA /DLR/FU
Berlin [G. Neukum].) (b) Thick deposits of layered material are often found in
topographic depressions. This thickly layered deposit occurs within Galle Crater,
near 52.3°S 329.9°E. Image is ∼4 km across. (MOC image MOC2-1494, NASA/
JPL/ MSSS.) (c) This distributary fan in Eberswalde Crater (24.0°S 33.7°W)
displays features suggestive of fluvial deposition within this crater. (MOC image
MOC2-1225a, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
(d) (e)
Figure 5.40 (cont.) (d) Alluvial fans descend from the rim to the floor of this ∼60-
km-diameter crater located at 23.0°S 74.3°E. (THEMIS image I17522002, NASA/
JPL/ASU.) (e) Gullies are seen on steep slopes such as the walls of impact craters
and canyons. This image, centered near 38.0°S 192.8°E, is ∼3 km across. (MOC
image MOC2-1292, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
January 1997
October 1996 March 1997
Mars
North Polar Cap HST . WFPC2
PRC97-15b • ST Scl OPO • May 20, 1997
P. James (Univ. Toledo), T. Clancy (Space science Inst.), S. Lee (Univ. Colorado) and NASA
Figure 5.41 The martian polar caps display seasonal changes in size. These Hubble
Space Telescope images show the change in the north polar cap from winter (left)
when it is covered by the seasonal CO2 ice cap until summer (right) when the
permanent cap of H2O ice is visible. (University of Toledo, Space Science Institute,
University of Colorado, NASA, and Space Telescope Science Institute.)
which remains through summer (Figure 5.41). Thermal and compositional char-
acteristics of the north polar permanent cap indicate that it is composed of H2O ice
(Kieffer and Titus, 2001; Langevin et al., 2005b). Rheological, thermal, and
spectroscopic properties indicate that the south polar permanent cap is composed of
H2O ice covered by an 8-m-thick veneer of CO2 ice (Nye et al., 2000; Titus et al.,
154 Geology
Figure 5.42 The south polar region displays a variety of landforms, such as this
“swiss-cheese” terrain caused by the sublimation of CO2 ice in the spring. Image is
∼1.5 km across and is located at 86.0°S 9.2°E. (MOC image MOC2-780, NASA/
JPL/MSSS.)
2003; Bibring et al., 2004). The north polar cap rises ∼3 km above the surrounding
topographically low northern plains and its center is almost coincident with the
rotational pole (Zuber et al., 1998). The 1100-km-diameter cap covers much of the
region poleward of 80°N (Clifford et al., 2000) and its volume is estimated to be
between 1.1 and 2.3 · 106 km3 (Zuber et al., 1998; Smith et al., 2001a). The cap
covers most of the northern PLD, although geologic evidence suggests it was more
extensive in the past (Zuber et al., 1998; Fishbaugh and Head, 2000; Kolb and
Tanaka, 2001).
The south polar permanent cap lies about 6 km higher than the north cap, but its
relief compared to the surroundings is similar. It has a current volume between 1.2
and 2.7 · 106 km3 (Smith et al., 2001a). It is offset from the rotational pole, with
its center near 87°S 315°E (Clifford et al., 2000), although its highest point is near
87°S, 10°E (Smith et al., 2001a). The 400-km-diameter south cap is much smaller in
extent than its northern counterpart and does not completely cover the southern
PLD, but there is evidence that it, like the north cap, was more extensive in the past
(Head and Pratt, 2001; Tanaka and Kolb, 2001).
The south permanent cap displays depressions with a wide variety of shapes
(Figure 5.42), unlike the north cap which shows pits, cracks, and knobs grading into
the underlying PLD (Thomas et al., 2000b). North polar cap features result from
ablation of H2O ice from strong winds and viscous flow of the ice (Zuber et al., 1998).
The south permanent cap consists of two layered units deposited at different times
and separated by a period of erosion. Both units are currently undergoing erosion,
with the older unit eroding faster (3.6 m per Mars year) than the younger unit (2.2 m
per Mars year) (Thomas et al., 2005). The wide variety of features is produced by
sublimation and collapse of the CO2 ice veneer (Byrne and Ingersoll, 2003).
Figure 5.43 The residual south polar cap displays spiral scarps within the ice cap
and underlying polar layered deposits. (MOC image MOC2-225, NASA/JPL/
MSSS.)
The north polar cap displays a series of spiral troughs into the PLD to depths up to
1 km (Figure 5.32) (Zuber et al., 1998). The south polar cap displays spiral scarps
(Figure 5.43). These spirals extend from the pole outward and extend into the PLD.
The northern spiral troughs are separated by 20–70 km and are 5–30 km wide and up
to several hundred kilometers in length (Howard, 2000). The troughs form a slight
clockwise pattern, while the south polar scarps form a counterclockwise pattern.
Two major formation models have been proposed for the spiral patterns. The first
argues that preferential sublimation of ice from the sun-facing slopes causes the
spiral pattern to originate near the edge of the polar deposits and migrate inward
toward the pole (Howard et al., 1982). Strong katabatic winds produced from ice-cap
sublimation and deflected by the Coriolis force could enhance this erosive process
since they strike the scarps at approximately right angles (Howard, 2000). The other
model proposes that ice flows from the accumulation center of the cap toward the
ablating edges of the polar deposits and that the spiral pattern results from the
asymmetric distribution of flow centers and ice velocities (Fisher, 1993, 2000).
Large re-entrant valleys (∼100 km wide and up to 2 km deep) also cut the two
polar caps from the edge of the polar deposits inward to several hundred kilometers.
The north pole valley, Chasma Boreale, extends halfway across the polar cap and
displays steep arcuate scarps. The south pole valley, Chasma Australe, originates in
an amphitheater-shaped scarp which is up to 500 m high and 20 km wide (Anguita
et al., 2000). Both eolian (Howard, 2000; Kolb and Tanaka, 2001) and catastrophic
flood (Anguita et al., 2000; Fishbaugh and Head, 2002) origins have been proposed
for these chasmata.
Polar layered deposits underlying the permanent polar caps consist of horizontal
layers of ice and dust (Figure 5.44) which were deposited during climate cycles
156 Geology
Figure 5.44 The polar layered deposits exhibit layers with differing albedos and
textures. These layers are believed to represent material deposited during climate
cycles. This view shows the layering exposed on a slope within the south polar
region. Image is ∼3 km across and is located near 86.9°S 179.5°E. (MOC image
MOC2-1343, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
driven by obliquity variations (Thomas et al., 1992b) (Section 7.4.2). The northern
PLDs display high thermal inertia values consistent with exposure of H2O ice while
the southern PLDs display a lower thermal inertia suggesting the presence of a fine-
grained lag deposit (Paige and Keegan, 1994; Paige et al., 1994; Vasavada et al.,
2000; Putzig et al., 2005). Crater SFD analysis of the PLDs indicates that the
northern PLDs are younger than 0.1 Ma while the southern PLDs are about 10 Ma
old (Herkenhoff and Plaut, 2000). These low crater densities suggest a resurfacing
rate due to both erosion and deposition of 0.06–0.12 mm yr1.
Horizontal layering exposed in the PLDs ranges in thickness from 300 m down to
the current resolution limits (∼1.5 m/pixel with MOC) (Clifford et al., 2000),
although preliminary results from MRO’s High Resolution Imaging Science
Experiment (HiRISE) camera are revealing the limiting thickness for some layers.
The albedo differences observed among layers likely result from differences in dust-
to-ice content, particle size, and/or composition. While most of the layers appear to
be composed of fine-grained dust, coarser particles and coherent ledges are occa-
sionally seen (Malin and Edgett, 2001; Byrne and Murray, 2002). Unconformities
between the layers and topographic relaxation of superposed impact craters indicate
complex histories of deposition, ablation, subsurface creep, and erosion in both
deposits (Howard et al., 1982; Kolb and Tanaka, 2001; Murray et al., 2001; Pathare
et al., 2005). Wavy layers also are seen, suggestive of internal deformation by ice
flow in response to stresses caused by ice-cap loading (Fisher, 2000).
The seasonal caps, composed of CO2 ice, reach their maximum extent during
winter. The north polar cap is approximately symmetrical around the pole, extending
to ∼60°N along all longitudes. The south seasonal cap, unlike the residual cap, is
centered near the geographic pole and extends to ∼65°S. The seasonal cap begins
forming in late summer to early fall when first thin condensate clouds and later dense
clouds, called the polar hood, form over the pole. The pre-polar-hood activity begins
around LS ¼ 185° for the northern hemisphere and near LS ¼ 50° for the southern
hemisphere (Dollfus et al., 1996; Wang and Ingersoll, 2002). Dust storms are
common along the cap edges during this time (Benson and James, 2005). Polar hoods
consist of a variety of clouds ranging from thin hazes to dense condensate clouds and
contain mainly CO2 ice with smaller amounts of dust and H2O ice. The seasonal cap
is formed by precipitation from the polar hood. The cap becomes visible in the spring,
near LS ¼ 10° in the north and LS ¼ 180° in the south. Albedo and emissivity vari-
ations across the seasonal cap throughout the winter result from differences
in composition (CO2 versus H2O), grain sizes, dust abundance, and porosity
(Eluszkiewicz et al., 2005; Snyder Hale et al., 2005). MOLA analysis indicates
that seasonal precipitation adds up to 2 m to the thickness of the polar cap (Smith
et al., 2001b).
The spring retreat of the polar caps is non-uniform, with many frost outliers
remaining after the main cap has receded. These frost outliers are typically asso-
ciated with rough terrain, dunes, and crater floors where temperatures can remain
low for extended periods of time, and some may be remnants from more extensive
past permanent caps. Early ground-based observers noted a particularly prominent
frost outlier near the south pole which was called the Mountains of Mitchell (near
72°S 40°E). This region is heavily cratered and modestly elevated relative to the
surroundings. TES observations suggest that CO2 frost is responsible for this
region’s high albedo (Kieffer et al., 2000). Atmospheric circulation models propose
that topography from the Hellas and Argyre impact basins enhances precipitation in
this region, which combined with topography will result in frost retention (Cola-
prete et al., 2005).
Thermal mapping of Mars reveals that cold spots are not unusual around the polar
caps (Kieffer et al., 2000; Kieffer and Titus, 2001; Titus et al., 2001). A region
centered near 77°S 160°E was detected during Viking observations to be of about
the same albedo as the surroundings but remained anomalously cold. TES inves-
tigations of this “cryptic” region reveal that it is composed of fine-grained, very
clear (slab) CO2 ice which, due to lower thermal inertia, topography, and perhaps
increased frost precipitation, remains cold while the temperature of the surroundings
increases with increasing insolation (Kieffer et al., 2000; Colaprete et al., 2005).
Dark features such as spots and fans are common in the cryptic region and represent
CO2 gas jetting caused by sublimation originating below the ice slab (Kieffer et al.,
2006). A similar cryptic zone occurs over the Olympia Planitia dunefield near the
north polar cap (Kieffer and Titus, 2001). Smaller exposures of slab ice are also
reported at both poles.
158 Geology
A variety of geological structures geomorphologically similar to terrestrial glacial

features are seen in regions surrounding the present-day polar caps (Kargel and
Strom, 1992; Kargel et al., 1995; Head and Pratt, 2001; Ghatan and Head, 2002;
Hiesinger and Head, 2002; Milkovich et al., 2002). These features, together with a
variety of fluvial features, suggest that the extent of the polar ice deposits has been
greater in the past and underwent basal melting to achieve their present extent.
Putative glacial features include sinuous ridges proposed to be eskers (ridges formed
by subglacial river deposition) (Figure 5.45a), lineated terrain formed by flow of ice-
rich material (Figure 5.45b), “thumbprint terrain” interpreted as terminal deposits
called moraines (Figure 5.45c), and glacial-carved valleys called cirques. All of
these features appear to be Hesperian to Early Amazonian in age (Kargel et al.,
1995; Head and Pratt, 2001; Milkovich et al., 2002).
Geothermal models suggest that subsurface ice is stable up to the surface at
latitudes poleward of ∼50° (Clifford and Hillel, 1983), although variations in
surface thermophysical properties can result in surface ice also existing in other
regions (Paige, 1992; Mellon et al., 1997, 2004). High-latitude regions display
geologic structures that are similar to terrestrial permafrost features and which
strongly correlate with subsurface H2O distribution as revealed by GRS (Kuzmin
et al., 2004; Mangold et al., 2004b). Irregular-shaped depressions (Figure 5.46a) are
similar to terrestrial thermokarst, formed by thermal degradation of ice-rich soils
(Costard and Kargel, 1995). Small mounds with large summit pits (Figure 5.22)
have been interpreted as pseudocraters, formed by interaction of molten lava
with ground ice (Greeley and Fagents, 2001), or pingos, domes of frozen ground
uplifted due to hydrostatic pressure as water freezes (Soare et al., 2005). Small
polygons (<500-m diameter) result from thermal contraction of volatile-rich soils
(Figure 5.46b), enhanced by subsurface water filling the bounding cracks which
subsequently freezes and expands during colder periods (Siebert and Kargel, 2001;
Kossacki et al., 2003; Mangold, 2005; van Gasselt et al., 2005).
Lower-latitude features also have been interpreted as products of glacial activity
from wetter climatic conditions associated with obliquity cycles (Section 7.4.2).
Lucchitta (2001) has argued that longitudinal grooves and streamlined hills in the
outflow channels result from warm-based glaciers. Lobate debris aprons along the
flanks of the Tharsis shield volcanoes and at the bases of massifs east of Hellas
appear to be ice-rich and are proposed to be the remnants of recent (Late Amazonian)
glacial activity (Neukum et al., 2004; Head et al., 2005). Lobate debris aprons are
also observed at the bases of the small gullies found along crater and canyon walls.
The gullies may have formed either by seepage of groundwater (Malin and Edgett,
2000b) or from melting of a surface snowpack deposited during the last high-
obliquity period (Christensen, 2003). The associated lobate debris aprons at the base
of these gullies display longitudinal features and terminal ridges (Figure 5.47),
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 5.45 (a) Sinuous ridges, such as these seen near the southern rim of Argyre
Basin, have been suggested to be eskers formed under an extensive glacier. Crater
at top is ∼14.3 km in diameter and located at 55.1°S 316.7°E. (THEMIS image
I08553004, NASA/JPL/ASU.) (b) The floors of many channels and craters contain
lineated terrain which has been interpreted as ice-rich material flowing downslope.
This perspective image from HRSC shows lineated material apparently flowing
from a 9-km crater into a 16-km crater. This crater is located adjacent to the
Hellas Basin, near 38°S 104°E. (Image SEM1ZGRMD6E, ESA/DLR /FU Berlin
[G. Neukum].) (c) Thumbprint terrain is composed of lines of small mounds. One
interpretation is that these are blocks deposited in moraines of retreating glaciers.
Image is ∼3 km across and located at 72.4°N 107.4°E. (MOC image MOC2-513,
NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
159
160 Geology
(a) (b)
Figure 5.46 (a) Pits are seen in some regions of the northern plains where other
indications of subsurface ice exist. These pits may be analogous to thermokarst pits
on Earth, created by the removal of subsurface ice. These pits in Utopia Planitia are
located near 44.9°N 85.3°E. (MOC image MOC2-293, NASA/JPL/MSSS.) (b)
Small polygons, such as these seen near Lyot Crater at 54.6°N 33.4°E, are typically
formed by freeze–thaw cycles of ice-rich soils. Image is ∼3 km across. (MOC
image R1001555, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
Figure 5.47 Glacier-like flows have been detected in several locations on Mars.
This feature is located along the wall of a crater near 38.6°S 112.9°E. Image is
∼2.5 km wide. (MOC image M1800897, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
similar to features associated with glacial flow on the Earth and may represent active
debris-covered glaciers (Arfstrom and Hartmann, 2005).
Fretted terrain occurs along the dichotomy boundary primarily in the 0°–70°E
longitude zone. It consists of flat-floored, steep-walled channels (fretted channels)
which merge into smaller knobs inundated with plains material further to the north
(Figure 5.38c). Fretted terrain likely originated from tectonic activity associated
Geologic evolution of Mars 161
with dichotomy boundary formation and subsequently has been modified by fluvial
(Carr, 1995, 1996; Carruthers and McGill, 1998; McGill, 2000), eolian (Irwin et al.,
2004), mass wasting (Carr, 1995), and/or glacial activity (Lucchitta, 1984; Head
et al., 2006a, b). The presence of lobate debris aprons, theater-headed valleys, and
lineated floor fill which moves downslope through the valleys forming the fretted
channels (“lineated valley fill”) strongly suggests that ice-rich material continues to
modify these channels at present (Head et al., 2006a, b).
5.4 Geologic evolution of Mars

The variety of geologic processes described in Section 5.3 has led to a complicated
geologic history for Mars. Impact cratering rates were highest during the Noachian,
during which time destruction of pre-existing features by crater formation and
deposition of ejecta blankets over surrounding regions were major processes of
degradation. The record of this intense cratering period is observed in the southern
highlands and has recently been revealed through a population of large craters
buried under the younger northern plains deposits (Frey et al., 2002; Watters et al.,
2006). Internal heat from accretion, differentiation, and decay of short-lived
radionuclides was also higher early in martian history, leading to large-scale vol-
canic and tectonic activity from the Noachian to the Hesperian periods. Inter-crater
plains, ridged plains, paterae, and the initial volcanism in Elysium and Tharsis
began during this time and the opening of Valles Marineris was initiated. Volcanic
and tectonic activity became concentrated in the Elysium and Tharsis regions during
the Amazonian period as the amount of internal heat declined, with current activity
focused in the region between these two provinces.
Water has played a major role in the geologic evolution of Mars. Noachian Mars
had a thicker atmosphere which could have led to warmer surface conditions,
allowing rainfall to occur and liquid water to exist on the planet’s surface (Jakosky
and Phillips, 2001) (Section 6.4). Liquid water is invoked to explain the abundance
of valley network channels from this period and the increased degradation rates
inferred from highly eroded Noachian surface features (Craddock and Howard,
2002). The formation of large impact basins such as Hellas and Argyre near the end
of the Heavy Bombardment Period helped to remove much of the martian atmos-
phere, resulting in the cessation of rainfall and global liquid water reserves on the
surface. Short-period localized episodes of fluvial activity associated with formation
of the outflow channels were interspersed with longer periods of cold, dry condi-
tions similar to those observed today (Baker, 2001). Obliquity variations have
influenced the martian climate in recent (Amazonian) time, alternating between
drier and wetter periods. Temperatures associated with the wetter periods are still
debated (Section 7.4.2). If warm and wet, rainfall might occur and liquid water
162 Geology
would be abundant in rivers, lakes, and possibly oceans. If cold and wet, snow
would fall, producing glaciers even in equatorial regions. Except for these periods of
high obliquity, Mars has been cold and dry in recent times, with geologic activity
dominated by eolian, mass wasting, and ice-creep processes.
The mineralogic information acquired by MGS, Odyssey, and MEx provides
additional constraints on the geologic evolution of Mars (Section 4.3). OMEGA
observations of the temporal distribution of specific minerals subdivide the planet
into three geochemical periods (Bibring et al., 2006). The Phyllosian Period
corresponds to the Early to Middle Noachian and indicates abundant water on Mars
which produced the phyllosilicate signature of this period. Increased volcanic
activity during Late Noachian and Early Hesperian periods outgassed copious
amounts of sulfur, which interacted with liquid water to produce the sulfur
mineralogy which characterizes the Theiikian Period. Ferric oxides dominate the
mineralogy of Late Hesperian through Late Amazonian materials, indicating that
liquid water has been rare in recent times on Mars except in very localized regions
and for short time periods. Alteration during this Siderikian Period has been limited
to frost–rock interactions and atmospheric weathering processes. Thus, the
mineralogic and geologic records both suggest major changes in the processes
which have contributed to the formation and modification of the martian surface
over the past ∼4.5 Ga.
6
Atmospheric conditions and evolution
6.1 Characteristics of the present martian atmosphere

Eighteenth-century astronomers observed clouds on Mars, revealing the presence of
the planet’s atmosphere. Ground-based reflectance spectroscopy suggested that CO2
was a major component of the martian atmosphere based on the large number of
absorption lines in the 2–4-μm region. Mariners 4, 6, and 7 confirmed that CO2 was
the dominant component of the martian atmosphere (Table 6.1) but found that the
current atmosphere is very thin, exerting an average pressure of only 700 Pa (7 mbar).
The surface pressure can vary by up to 20% as a result of seasonal variations in the
amounts of atmospheric CO2 and H2O (Leovy, 2001). This thin atmosphere prevents
the retention of solar heat, leading to large temperature changes between the planet’s
day and night sides. As noted in Section 4.4.2, a planet’s equilibrium temperature
(Teq) results from the balance between incoming solar radiation (insolation) and
reradiation from the planet’s surface. This equilibrium temperature is given by

ð1 Ab ÞLsolar 1=4 Fsolar ð1 Ab Þ 1=4
Teq ¼ ¼ 2
ð6:1Þ
16pr2 er 4errAU
where Fsolar is the solar flux at the Earth’s orbit (Fsolar ¼ solar constant ¼ 1.36·103 J
s−1 m−2) and rAU is the distance of the planet from the Sun in astronomical units.
In Chapter 4 we saw that Mars’ average Ab ¼ 0.250. Assuming an average
emissivity ε ¼ 1 (applicable for rocky surfaces) and setting rAU ¼ 1.52 AU, we find
that Mars’ Teq ¼ 210K. Mars’ observed average surface temperature is ∼240K,
indicating that it experiences a slight amount of greenhouse warming due to
trapping of emitted surface heat by the CO2-rich atmosphere.
The low average pressure of 700 Pa and low average temperature of 240K
precludes the existence of liquid water on most of the martian surface at the present
time. Emplacement of liquid H2O on Mars’ surface leads to its immediate sub-
limation into the atmosphere or freezing into ice on the surface. Five locations have
163
164 Atmospheric conditions and evolution
Table 6.1 Constituents of the martian atmosphere (by volume)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 95.32%

Nitrogen (N2) 2.70%
Argon (Ar) 1.60%
Oxygen (O2) 0.13%
Carbon monoxide (CO) 0.08%
Water (H2O) 210 ppm
Nitrogen oxide (NO) 100 ppm
Neon (Ne) 2.5 ppm
Hydrogen–deuterium–oxygen (HDO) 0.85 ppm
Krypton (Kr) 0.3 ppm
Xenon (Xe) 0.08 ppm
been identified where pressure and temperature conditions may allow liquid water to
exist for short periods of time (37 to 70 sols): between 0° and 30°N in Amazonis,
Arabia, and Elysium Planitiae, and in the Hellas and Argyre impact basins (Haberle
et al., 2001). Whether liquid water actually occurs in these regions is uncertain,
particularly since there is only weak correlation between these areas and the dis-
tribution of near-surface H2O from GRS. However, the salt-rich nature of the
martian soils, as determined from the surface landers and rovers, suggests that H2O
brines may exist on the surface for short periods of time.
Understanding the martian atmosphere draws largely upon our comprehension of
Earth’s atmospheric dynamics. The lack of oceans on Mars simplifies atmospheric
dynamics compared to Earth, but complications result from events that are minor
contributors to the terrestrial atmosphere. One complication is Mars’ greater orbital
eccentricity, which leads to larger variations in annual solar insolation than that
experienced by Earth. Dust storms are common on Mars and lead to heating in the
upper atmosphere due to absorption and reradiation of heat by dust particles and
cooling of the lower atmospheric layers due to blockage of solar radiation reaching
the surface, leading to less greenhouse warming. Regions of low thermal inertia
produce “thermal continents” on Mars, which affect atmospheric circulation. Obli-
quity variations affect the long-term atmospheric circulation through climate change.
But the major driver of atmospheric circulation on Mars is the seasonal condensation
and sublimation of CO2 and H2O between the atmosphere and seasonal polar caps.
6.2 Atmospheric physics

6.2.1 Barometric equation and scale height
The martian atmosphere is structured into layers which vary in composition, tem-
perature, and the physical nature of atmospheric gases. Variations in pressure (P)
Atmospheric physics 165
and density (q) as a function of altitude above the planet’s surface (z) are given by
the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium:
dP
¼ gðzÞqðzÞ ð6:2Þ
dz
where g(z) is the gravitational acceleration at altitude z. Pressure and temperature (T)
can be related in atmospheric gases through the ideal gas law:
P ¼ NkT ð6:3Þ
where N is the number of gas particles per unit volume and k is Boltzmann’s constant
(k ¼ 1.38·10–23 J K–1). Essentially, N is the density of the gas divided by the mass of
one gas particle. The mass of one gas particle is the product of the particle’s
molecular weight in atomic mass units (amu) (μa) and the mass of one atomic mass
unit (mamu ¼ 1.660539·10–27 kg):
q
N¼ : ð6:4Þ
la mamu
From Eqs. (6.3) and (6.4), we can derive a relationship for density:
Pla mamu
q¼ : ð6:5Þ
kT
The variation in atmospheric pressure with altitude is given by the barometric

equation:
0 1
Zz
dz A
PðzÞ ¼ Pð0Þexp@ ð6:6Þ
HðzÞ
0
where P(0) is the pressure at the surface (z ¼ 0; typically corresponding to the

planet’s mean radius or geoid) and P(z) is the pressure at some altitude z above the
surface. H(z) is the scale height of the planetary atmosphere, which depends on
the temperature (T), gravitational acceleration (g), and average molecular weight
(μa) at the altitude of interest:
kTðzÞ
HðzÞ ¼ : ð6:7Þ
gðzÞla ðzÞmamu
The scale height H is the distance over which the pressure decreases by a factor of
1/e. Small values of H imply that the atmospheric pressure decreases rapidly with
altitude. The scale height of Mars’ atmosphere is about 10km.
A similar equation can be derived for the variation in density with altitude:
0 1
Zz
dz
qðzÞ ¼ qð0Þexp@ A: ð6:8Þ
H ðzÞ
0
Here, H*(z) is the density scale height, given by

1 1 dTðzÞ gðzÞla ðzÞmamu

¼ þ : ð6:9Þ
H ðzÞ TðzÞ dz kTðzÞ
In regions of the atmosphere where temperature does not vary with altitude,
H*(z)¼H(z).
A variety of heating sources drives atmospheric motions on Mars. Solar heating is
the most important driver of atmospheric circulation, caused by the absorption of
visible wavelength solar photons by the surface and within atmospheric layers with
moderately large optical depths (i.e., near cloud layers). The martian surface and
atmospheric dust particles reradiate the visible wavelength energy they absorb,
usually at infrared wavelengths which further heat the atmosphere. At higher alti-
tudes, ultraviolet (UV) and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) radiation can break apart
molecules and cause ionization of atoms and molecules, providing another source of
atmospheric heating. Atmospheric dynamics are driven by the most efficient
mechanism of heat transport within a particular region, leading to the layered
structure of the atmosphere. The three mechanisms of transporting heat are con-
duction, convection, and radiation.
6.2.2 Conduction
As noted in Section 3.4.1, conduction transfers heat through direct collisions
between atoms and molecules. Conduction is important in the upper parts of
planetary atmospheres and sometimes near the surface. Fourier’s equation
(Eq. 3.27) and the thermal diffusion equation (Eq. 3.30) are utilized to quantitatively
describe atmospheric conduction just as they are used in analysis of conduction
within planetary interiors.
6.2.3 Convection
Convection dominates in the lower parts of the martian atmosphere. Heat is
transferred between regions of different temperature through movement of the
material. Convection occurs when a parcel of air in a planet’s atmosphere is slightly
warmer than its surroundings. The parcel expands in an attempt to re-establish
pressure equilibrium. However, this expansion causes the parcel’s density to decrease
below that of the surroundings. The parcel then rises as it seeks a region with
equivalent density. But the pressure of the surroundings decreases with height,
causing the rising parcel to expand as it rises. The parcel’s temperature drops as it
expands. The temperature of the surroundings also decreases with height above the
surface. If the temperature of the surroundings decreases sufficiently rapidly with
height, the parcel remains warmer than its surroundings. Thus, the parcel continues
to rise and transports heat upward. Alternately, cold air is denser than its sur-
roundings and will descend. Atmospheres where energy transport is dominated by
convection have a temperature structure which follows an adiabatic lapse rate. No
heat is exchanged between the convecting parcel and the surroundings under
adiabatic conditions.
The temperature structure of an atmosphere undergoing convection can be
derived from the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium (Eq. 6.2) and basic thermo-
dynamic relations. Conservation of energy within the atmosphere is obtained from
the first law of thermodynamics:
dQ ¼ dU þ PdV: ð6:10Þ
The amount of heat absorbed from the surroundings by a system is dQ. This is
related to the change in internal energy of the system (dU) and the work done by the
system on its environment (PdV, where P ¼ pressure and dV ¼ change in volume).
The thermal heat capacities of the atmosphere at constant volume (CV) and constant
pressure (CP) are given by

dQ @U
CV ¼ ¼
dT @T
V ð6:11Þ
dQ @U @V
CP ¼ ¼ þP :
dT P @T P @T P
The specific volume (V ) is the volume per unit mass. Density (q) is related to
specific volume through

1
q¼ : ð6:12Þ
V
Differentiating the ideal gas law (Eq. 6.3) and substituting Eq. (6.12) for the density,
we find

k kT
dV ¼ dT dP: ð6:13Þ
la mamu P la mamu P2
The specific heat at constant pressure (cP) or constant volume (cV ) is the heat
capacity per unit mass (m):

CP CV
cP ¼ and cV ¼ : ð6:14Þ
m m
The difference of the thermal heat capacities (or specific heats) in an ideal gas is the
gas constant (Rgas ¼ 8.31 J Mole−1 K−1):
CP CV ¼ mðcP cV Þ ¼ Rgas ¼ NA k ð6:15Þ
where NA is Avogadro’s number, the number of particles in one mole (¼6.022·1023

particles), and k is Boltzmann’s constant.
Assume we have an atmosphere composed of an ideal gas which is convecting. A
parcel of this air moves adiabatically (dQ ¼ 0). Equation (6.10) then becomes
dU ¼ PdV: ð6:16Þ
Using the relationships in Eqs. (6.11) and (6.14), we find that
cV dT ¼ PdV

1 ð6:17Þ
cP dT ¼ dP:
q
The ratio of the specific heats, or thermal heat capacities, occurs often in thermo-
dynamic applications and is indicated by the parameter γ:
c P CP
c¼ ¼ : ð6:18Þ
cV CV
The adiabatic lapse rate of a dry atmosphere is obtained by combining the

thermodynamic equation, equation of hydrostatic equilibrium, and ratio of the
specific heats:

dT dT g
qcP ¼ gq ! ¼ : ð6:19Þ
dz dz cP
This is often rewritten as
dT ðc 1Þ gla mamu

¼ : ð6:20Þ
dz c k
Gases have specific values of γ. Monatomic gases have γ ¼ 5/3. The value of γ for
diatomic gases is 7/5 and for polyatomic gases is 4/3. The martian atmosphere’s dry
adiabatic lapse rate is 4.5Kkm−1.
l
dz ds
Figure 6.1 The intensity (Iν) of radiation is related to the distance it travels through
an atmosphere (ds) and the angle at which it is emitted (h).
The dry adiabatic lapse rate is the maximum temperature gradient of a convecting
atmosphere. Addition of volatiles such as water reduces this temperature gradient,
giving rise to a wet adiabatic lapse rate (Section 6.3.2).
6.2.4 Radiation
Radiation, the absorption and re-emission of energy by atoms, is the third mech-
anism by which energy is transported through an atmosphere. The intensity of
radiation changes as it passes through an atmosphere. This change in intensity (dI)
depends on the radiation’s initial intensity (I), atmospheric density (q), atmospheric
thickness (ds), and absorption and emission properties of the atmosphere:
dIm ¼ jm qds Im am qds: ð6:21Þ
The subscript ν indicates that the intensity, emission coefficient ( jν), and absorption
coefficient (aν) depend on the radiation’s frequency.
Energy can be emitted at any angle and thus ds can be greater than the minimum
atmospheric thickness. Figure 6.1 shows the geometry of energy being reflected/
scattered from a surface. From this diagram, one can see that ds ¼ sec h dz. Let μh ¼
cos h. Then Eq. (6.21) can be rewritten as

1 1
dIm ¼ jm q dz Im am q dz: ð6:22Þ
lh lh
The first term on the right side of Eq. (6.22) provides information about the addition
of energy by the atmosphere while the second term gives insights into how the
atmosphere absorbs energy. The extinction coefficient (aν) is related to the optical
depth (sν) of the atmospheric gases:
dsm ¼ am qdz: ð6:23Þ
The ratio of extinction and absorption coefficients is called the source function (Sν):
jm
Sm ¼ : ð6:24Þ
am
Applying these substitutions to Eq. (6.22) gives the equation of radiative transfer:

dIm
lh ¼ Sm Im : ð6:25Þ
dsm
If Sν does not depend on the optical depth of the atmosphere, we can integrate
Eq. (6.25) to get
Im ðsm Þ ¼ Sm þ es ½Im ð0Þ Sm : ð6:26Þ
An optically thick atmosphere has sν 1 and Eq. (6.26) reduces to Iν ¼ Sν, indi-
cating that the intensity of the emitted light entirely results from energy emitted from
within the atmosphere. An optically thin atmosphere has sν 1, reducing Eq. (6.26)
to Iν ¼ Iν(0). In this case, the radiation is minimally affected by its passage through
the atmosphere and its intensity is defined by the incident radiation. The amount of
atmosphere through which the radiation passes varies with zenith angle (angular
distance of object from overhead). Thus, the change in intensity can be related to
both the optical depth (sν) and the zenith angle (z) through Beer’s law:
I ¼ I0 es=ðcos zÞ : ð6:27Þ
The temperature gradient can never exceed the dry adiabatic lapse rate under
equilibrium conditions, so we can determine whether radiation or convection
dominates within a particular region of an atmosphere by comparing these two
values. Superadiabatic conditions occur when the observed thermal gradient
exceeds the dry adiabatic lapse rate:

dT ðc 1Þ gla mamu dT g
> or > : ð6:28Þ
dz obs c k dz obs cp
Convection will drive the temperature gradient into an adiabatic lapse rate under
superadiabatic conditions, so if Eq. (6.28) is satisfied we can say that convection
is the primary energy transport mechanism within that part of the atmosphere.
Present-day martian atmosphere 171
Radiation will dominate when

dT ðc 1Þ gla mamu
> : ð6:29Þ
dz obs c k
Sections of atmospheres obeying Eq. (6.29) are in radiative equilibrium.
6.3 Present-day martian atmosphere

6.3.1 Atmospheric structure
The martian atmosphere is structured in layers based on composition, temperature,
isotopic characteristics of the gases, and the physical nature of atmospheric gases.
This structure has been revealed by a variety of spacecraft and ground-based
observations (Figure 6.2). The pressure, density, and temperature measurements
made by the five lander missions (VL1, VL2, MPF, and MER) as they descended
through the atmosphere provide the most detailed information about the atmos-
pheric structure but are “snapshots” in terms of location and time. Long-term
observations by orbiting spacecraft using radio occultation measurements and
infrared sounding provide insights into atmospheric structure over larger regions
and time periods. From these results, the martian atmosphere is subdivided into
three layers: lower, middle, and upper.
160
Viking 1 UAMS
140
120 Mars
Pathfinder Upper atmosphere
Altitude z (km)
100
80
Viking 1 AS1
60
Middle atmosphere
CO2
40
condensation
20
Lower atmosphere
0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Temperature (K)
Figure 6.2 The martian atmosphere is divided into a lower, middle, and upper part
based on temperature, pressure, density, and compositional variations. This figure
shows the temperature profiles measured by instruments on the Mars Pathfinder
and Viking 1 landers as they descended to the surface. (NASA/JPL.)
The lower atmosphere extends from the martian surface to an altitude of ∼40km.
Pressure and temperature decrease with increasing altitude throughout the lower
atmosphere and energy transport is dominated by convection within the first 10km
(Leovy, 2001). Convection ceases at night and a strong temperature inversion
develops close to the surface. Temperatures and pressures within the lower
atmosphere are comparable to those found in the Earth’s stratosphere. The density
of the lower atmosphere is largely driven by the CO2 and H2O seasonal cycles
associated with the sublimation and condensation of the polar caps, which in turn
lead to surface pressure variations throughout the year.
Two processes heat the martian lower atmosphere. As noted in Section 6.1, the
lower atmosphere experiences a slight greenhouse warming as atmospheric CO2
blocks infrared radiation from the surface from escaping to space. In addition, the
martian lower atmosphere contains large quantities of dust which also absorb
sunlight and re-emit thermal infrared energy. Atmospheric dust is a major con-
tributor to the heating of the lower atmosphere and must be included in circulation
models of this region.
Ozone (O3) may also contribute to atmospheric heating over the winter poles
through absorption of solar UV and dissociation of the O3 molecule. Ozone is
rare over most of Mars because of the limited amount of O2 and O in the atmos-
phere and the destruction of O3 by interactions with H2 (produced by photolysis
of H2O vapor). The cold conditions over the winter poles reduce the amount
of atmospheric H2O vapor in those locations and allow formation of some O3
(Perrier et al., 2006). Ozone has been detected in both the lower and middle
atmospheres of Mars (Blamont and Chassefière, 1993; Novak et al., 2002;
Lebonnois et al., 2006).
The middle atmosphere, or mesosphere, extends between 40 and ∼100km
above the martian surface. Middle atmosphere profiles obtained by VL1, VL2,
and MPF indicate that temperatures can vary considerably with time. These
temperature variations result from the near-IR absorption and emission of solar
radiation by CO2 and from atmospheric waves initiated in the lower atmosphere
and enhanced by thermal tides between the day and night hemispheres (Schofield
et al., 1997).
The upper atmosphere, or thermosphere, extends beyond 110km altitude. The
thermosphere is heated by solar EUV radiation, which has energies between 10
and 100 eV and wavelengths between 10 and 100 nm. Solar EUV output varies
with the solar activity cycle, resulting in large variations in thermosopheric
temperatures above 120km altitude. Temperatures are cooler during periods of
low solar activity and increase as the sunspot cycle reaches maximum. The region
above 130km altitude is called the ionosphere because solar radiation ionizes the
atmospheric gases above this level. Most of the electrons in Mars’ ionosphere are
derived from CO2 and peak photoelectron densities occur on the day side (Frahm
et al., 2006).
The low densities and high temperatures encountered in the upper thermosphere
enhance the escape of atoms from the planet. If a gas is in thermal equilibrium, the
number of particles with velocities between v and v þ dv is given by the Maxwell
distribution function:
1=2
2 m 3=2 2 mv2
f ðvÞdv ¼ N v e 2kt dv ð6:30Þ
p kT
where N is the number density of particles, m is the particle mass, k is Boltzmann’s

constant, and T is the temperature of the gas. Particle velocities typically display a
Gaussian distribution, with a frequency peak at some velocity which tails off at
higher velocities. In the lower levels of a planetary atmosphere, densities are high
enough that collisions between the gas particles are common and the velocity
distribution of these particles is driven toward the Maxwell distribution function.
However, collisions are few in regions of low density and particles in the tail of the
Maxwellian velocity distribution can have velocities exceeding the escape velocity.
The altitude above which particles can escape to space is called the exobase and
occurs above ∼130–150km altitude on Mars (Mantas and Hanson, 1979).
6.3.2 Clouds and dust storms

Ground-based observers noted that albedo markings on Mars are often obscured
and correctly attributed these changes to clouds within the martian atmosphere.
Martian clouds are divided into yellow clouds, white clouds, and polar hoods
(discussed in Section 5.3.7). Hazes, which are optically thin while clouds are
optically thick, are often seen along the terminator, particularly along the sunrise
limb, and have been observed from the surface landers (Figure 6.3). These result
from vapor condensation during the low nighttime temperatures. Early morning fog
also is seen in low-lying areas such as the Valles Marineris canyon and inside
impact craters (Figure 6.4).
Yellow clouds have been observed since 1877 and are now recognized as dust
storms. Dust is prevalent across the martian surface because of the lack of liquid
water and the range of geologic processes which have eroded surface rocks. Lon-
gitudinal differences in atmospheric pressure and temperature can produce strong
winds capable of producing dust storms. Dust devil activity, which is more common
in the southern hemisphere and extends from late spring to early fall (Fisher et al.,
2005; Whelley and Greeley, 2006), helps lift dust into the atmosphere (Basu et al.,
2004; Kahre et al., 2006) (Figure 6.5). Martian dust storms can be local, regional, or
Figure 6.3 Early morning clouds and hazes are common sights from the landers.
This image shows thin cirrus clouds over the Mars Pathfinder landing site. (NASA/
JPL/Imager for Mars Pathfinder team.)
Figure 6.4 Fog is often seen in topographic depression in the early morning. This
MOC image shows a 36-km-diameter crater, located at 66.4°S 151.4°E, filled with
fog. (MOC image R0700964, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
Figure 6.5 Dust devils help to lift dust from the surface into the martian
atmosphere. These dust devils were captured by Spirit’s camera as they traveled
across the floor of Gusev Crater. (NASA/JPL/Texas A&M University.)
Mars • Global Dust Storm
June 26, 2001 September 4, 2001

Hubble Space Telescope • WFPC2
NASA, J. Bell (Cornell). M. Wolff (SSI), and the Hubble Heritage Team (STScl/AURA) • STScl-PRC01-31
Figure 6.6 Global dust storms can arise quickly on Mars, as demonstrated in these
two images taken 2.5 months apart by the Hubble Space Telescope. Albedo
features are easily discerned in the image from 26 June 2001, but are completely
covered by the dust storm in the image from 4 September 2001. (Image STScI-
PRC01-31, NASA/Cornell/SSI/STScI/AURA.)
Figure 6.7 White clouds can be seen over the Tharsis volcanoes and western Valles
Marineris in this MOC regional view. Orographic clouds commonly occur near the
tall martian volcanoes. (MOC image MOC2-144, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
global in extent, depending on the atmospheric conditions. Global dust storms

(Figure 6.6) typically occur near perihelion when it is summer in the southern
hemisphere. The stronger daytime heating associated with Mars’ proximity to the
Sun produces the strong winds and dust devil activity which initiate dust storms.
Cooling of the surface under the dust storm leads to further temperature gradients and
more wind, causing the dust storm to expand. Under the right conditions, this
mechanism can continue until the entire planet is engulfed in dust, whereupon the
surface temperature variations diminish, the winds decrease, and the dust storm ends.
White clouds and hazes have been observed since the seventeenth century and are
primarily composed of H2O, although some CO2 clouds have also been detected
(Figure 6.7). The white clouds clearly show on UV and blue filter images of Mars.
Many of the white clouds are orographic clouds, produced as the atmosphere
is forced by topography to higher altitudes where the lower temperatures allow
condensation of the H2O vapor. Ground-based observers in the seventeenth century
often reported the presence of a W-shaped cloud in the western hemisphere of Mars.
Today we know that the W-shaped cloud is an orographic cloud associated with the
Tharsis volcanoes.
Convecting air parcels will rise at the dry adiabatic lapse rate until they reach a
level where the temperature equals the condensation temperature of one of the gas
components, at which point clouds will form. Air is saturated when the abundance
of a condensable gas is at its maximum vapor partial pressure (the amount of
atmospheric pressure contributed by the vapor). Evaporation (or sublimation) is
balanced by condensation in saturated air. Liquid droplets will condense when more
vapor is added to saturated air, resulting in the formation of clouds. The amount of
vapor contained in the atmosphere and how close that atmosphere is to saturation is
measured by the relative humidity. Relative humidity (RH) compares the partial
pressure of the vapor (pv) to that of saturated air (ps):

pv
RH ¼ 100 : ð6:31Þ
ps
The value of RH is close to 100% in clouds. The saturation vapor pressure at a

particular temperature is given by the Clausius–Clapeyron equation:
Ls
ps ¼ CL eRgas T ð6:32Þ
where CL is a constant specific to the type of gas condensing and Ls is the latent heat
of condensation for saturated air. The release of this latent heat affects the tem-
perature gradient and thus the lapse rate in this region of the atmosphere. The
specific heats of the condensing gas become
dV dw
cV ¼ P Ls ð6:33Þ
dT dT
1 dP dw
cP ¼ Ls : ð6:34Þ
q dT dT
The mass of water vapor which condenses out per gram of air is given by w. The cp
in the dry adiabatic lapse rate (Eq. 6.20) must be adjusted using Eq. (6.34) to include
the heating effects from the condensation:
dT g
¼ : ð6:35Þ
dz cP þ Ls dw
dT
This thermal gradient is called the wet adiabatic lapse rate. The wet adiabatic lapse
rate can never exceed the dry adiabatic lapse rate, therefore the latter is often used as
an upper limit to the thermal gradient of a convecting atmosphere.
6.3.3 Winds
Gradients in pressure and temperature resulting from solar heating produce winds in
an attempt to reduce these gradients. Atmospheric pressure and temperature gra-
dients result from three major factors: seasonal changes, dust storms, and diurnal
variations. The seasonal changes result from condensation and sublimation of CO2
and H2O from the polar caps. As noted above, dust storms can enhance the tem-
perature gradient leading to stronger winds. The diurnal variations result from the
temperature differences between the day and night sides of the planet as well as the
presence of passing storm systems. Diurnal wind directions often change
throughout the day (Figure 6.8). Examples of the winds triggered by these processes
are Hadley circulation, thermal tides, and condensation flows.
If a planet’s rotation axis lies perpendicular to the ecliptic plane, the equator
receives more solar energy than other latitudes. Convection in the atmosphere causes
warmer air to rise and flow toward regions with lower temperature and pressure.
Thus the warm air rises over the equator, cools, and sinks back to the surface near the
poles. The flow then returns to the equator along the surface. For slowly rotating or
360
Wind direction (degree)
270
Viking 1
180
Pathfinder
90
0
0 1 2 3
Sol
Figure 6.8 Wind direction varied considerably throughout a martian sol at both the
Mars Pathfinder and Viking 1 landing sites. Wind direction is the azimuth angle,
measured from north (0°). Wind direction at the Pathfinder site typically changed
from south-southwest winds in the morning to north-northeast in the afternoon.
(MPF image SS009, NASA/JPL.)
+60
+30
Equator
–30
–60
West East
Figure 6.9 Differences in solar insolation with latitude combined with a planet’s
rotation produce Hadley cells which drive atmospheric circulation. Hadley cell
circulation produces easterly winds (winds from east to west) within the equatorial
zone and westerlies in the 30° to 60° latitude zone in each hemisphere. Arrows on
the left show the vertical circulation within each latitude zone, with warm air rising
over the equator and cooler air sinking near 30° latitude.
non-rotating planets, there are two convection cells, one in the northern hemisphere
and one in the south. These convection cells are called Hadley cells.
Venus is an example of a planet with one Hadley cell per hemisphere. The faster
rotation of Mars causes the north–south winds (meridional winds) to be deflected
and the Hadley cells split into three Hadley cells per hemisphere due to conservation
of angular momentum (Figure 6.9). This results in east–west (zonal) winds occur-
ring along the surface, with easterlies (winds from east toward west) dominating
near the equator and westerlies (winds from west toward east) occurring in the mid-
latitude zones. The velocity gradient of these winds can be estimated from the
thermal wind equation:
du 1 @u g @h
ffi ¼ ð6:36Þ
dz H @ ln P 2RXhðsin fÞ @f
where H is the pressure scale height (Eq. 6.7) at altitude z, u is the zonal wind
velocity, P is the pressure and R is the planet’s radius. The angular velocity (Ω) of
the atmosphere in the rotating frame of the planet depends on the latitude (f) of the
atmospheric parcel because of the Coriolis force. The potential temperature, h, is
given by:
Rgas =cP
P0
h¼T : ð6:37Þ
P
Equation (6.36) predicts zonal wind velocities near 85 m s−1 near the top of the
Hadley circulation and ∼10 m s−1 near the surface (Read and Lewis, 2004).
The pattern displayed in Figure 6.9 only results when the planet’s rotation axis is
perpendicular to its orbital plane. Any tilt of the rotation axis causes the Hadley cell
circulation to be displaced from the equator and produces seasonally changing
weather patterns. The large eccentricity of Mars’ orbit also leads to large time-
averaged differences between the polar regions. Thus, while Mars’ wind patterns are
dominated by Hadley cell circulation, complications to this simplified view occur
because of its rotation rate, obliquity, and orbital eccentricity as well as the presence
of polar caps and thermal continents.
Mars’ thin atmosphere is not very efficient at retaining the daytime heating,
leading to dramatic temperature decreases at night. The large temperature difference
between day and night hemispheres causes air flow from the warmer day side to
the cooler night side. Winds produced by this temperature gradient are called
thermal tides. Thermal tides are centered in the equatorial regions but extend to mid-
latitudes. The thermal gradient and thus the efficiency of thermal tides can be
estimated by comparing the solar heat input, Fin, with the heat capacity of the
atmosphere. Solar heat input per day is related to the surface area exposed to solar
radiation, the amount of the solar radiation absorbed, and the length of the day (td):

Fsolar
Fin ¼ pR ð1 A0 Þ 2
2
td ð6:38Þ
rAU
where R is the radius of the planet, A0 is the geometric albedo, Fsolar is the solar
constant, and rAU is the distance of the planet from the Sun in astronomical units.
The amount of heat, Q, necessary to raise the atmospheric temperature by some
temperature change, DT, is related to the heat capacity of the atmosphere per unit
area and the total area of the atmosphere:

P0
Q ¼ cP 4pR2 DT ð6:39Þ
g
where P0 /g is the mass of the atmosphere per unit area of the surface. If all of the
solar heat absorbed by the atmosphere is used to raise the atmospheric temperature
by DT, then Fin ¼ Q. The fractional increase in the temperature becomes
DT ½Fsolar ð1 A0 Þgtd
¼ 2 T
: ð6:40Þ
T 4P0 cP rAU
Planets with tenuous atmospheres, like Mars, display much larger fractional tem-
perature changes than planets with thick atmospheres. For Mars DT/T is approxi-
mately 20%, compared to ∼0.4% for Venus.
Condensation flow winds result from the condensation of CO2 over the fall/
winter pole and its sublimation over the spring/summer pole. Atmospheric pressure
900
800
Pressure (Pa)
700
600
500
0º 45º 90º 135º 180º 225º 270º 315º 360º
Ls
Figure 6.10 Atmospheric pressure varies on an annual cycle because of the

condensation flow between the polar caps. This figure shows the pressure variation
averaged over three years at the Viking 1 landing site near latitude 22.5°N. Highest
atmospheric pressures occurred near northern winter (Ls ¼270°) with lowest
pressures occurring near the end of northern summer.
increases as the CO2 moves into the fall/winter hemisphere and decreases as
summer approaches and the CO2 migrates to the opposite hemisphere. The com-
bination of these polar sinks/sources of CO2 and Mars’ high orbital eccentricity
produce a 20% variation in surface pressure throughout the year (Figure 6.10).
The condensation/sublimation of CO2 is a major driver of Mars’ atmospheric
circulation and is called the CO2 seasonal cycle (James et al., 1992). The CO2 cycle
is weakly linked with the dust cycle since the upwardly directed wind associated
with sublimation will transfer dust from the ice cap to the atmosphere while the
downward wind at the condensing polar cap will deposit dust (Kahn et al., 1992;
James et al., 2005).
The amount of solar insolation decreases during the fall and reduces to zero at
the poles during the winter. The amount of energy lost at the top of the winter
atmosphere due to thermal radiation is not balanced by the energy produced by
atmospheric convection. The temperature can therefore drop to the condensation
temperature of CO2 (148K), causing atmospheric CO2 to condense and form the
seasonal polar cap. Latent heat from the condensation of CO2 is the major atmos-
pheric energy source during polar night.
The CO2 seasonal cycle involves up to 30% of the martian atmospheric mass.
Atmospheric circulation is strongly affected as this mass sublimes from the spring/
summer pole and is transferred to the fall/winter pole for condensation. This con-
densation flow adds ∼0.5 m s−1 to the planet’s Hadley-circulation-produced
meridional winds (Read and Lewis, 2004).
Another contributor to the condensation flow winds is the H2O seasonal cycle
(Jakosky and Haberle, 1992; Houben et al., 1997; Richardson and Wilson, 2002).
This cycle involves the exchange of H2O between atmospheric and non-atmos-
pheric reservoirs. The non-atmospheric reservoirs include the seasonal and
permanent polar caps, adsorbed water in the regolith, and surface or near-surface
ice. Most of the atmospheric transport involves H2O vapor, although the white
condensate clouds also contribute. As with CO2, the abundance of atmospheric H2O
vapor varies with latitude and season, ranging over a factor of two.
The dominant processes which affect the abundance of H2O vapor in the
atmosphere are sublimation from the seasonal and permanent polar caps, conden-
sation on the fall/winter polar cap, desorption of H2O from regolith grains due to
seasonal temperature changes, and diffusion of H2O vapor from the regolith into the
atmosphere. The permanent caps are the dominant contributor to atmospheric H2O
by pumping H2O into the atmosphere in the spring/summer and removing it in the
fall/winter. This creates an imbalance in the amount of H2O between the hemi-
spheres, which can be counteracted by the regolith absorbing or releasing H2O.
Equilibrium between the atmosphere and regolith is achieved within a few years.
6.3.4 Atmospheric circulation

The general circulation of the martian atmosphere is driven by zonal and meridional
winds, the Coriolis force, planetary waves, and seasonal condensation flow. Zonal
winds and meridional circulation are produced by solar insolation through Hadley
circulation, although the seasonal condensation flow also contributes to the merid-
ional component.
Winds follow a curved path from high to low pressure areas because of the
planet’s rotation. For prograde rotating bodies like Mars, winds are deflected to the
right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. This
deflection of wind patterns because of the planet’s rotation is the Coriolis effect and
the fictitious force causing the wind to curve is the Coriolis force. The Coriolis force
(FC) is an expression of the conservation of angular momentum:
~ ~ ·~
FC ¼ 2X v ð6:41Þ
where Ω is the angular velocity of the planet and v is the velocity of the atmosphere.
The magnitude of FC depends on the latitude f, being greatest near the poles and
negligible near the equator:
FC ¼ 2Xvðsin fÞ: ð6:42Þ
Atmospheric waves are another major contributor to Mars’ atmospheric circula-

tion. Stationary waves, also called Rossby waves, remain fixed in the rotating ref-
erence frame of the planet and are associated with strong eastward jets (the jet stream
is a familiar example). They propagate vertically in response to topographic vari-

ations or from heating over thermal continents. They tend to occur at high latitudes
because of the strength of the Coriolis force and, while strongest in the winter
hemisphere, occur at all seasons. On Mars, they influence the stability of the
atmosphere and are a major contributor to the distribution of heat from the equatorial
to the polar regions. MGS’s TES and Radio Occultation investigations were the first
to unambiguously detect stationary waves in the martian atmosphere (Banfield et al.,
2000, 2003; Hinson et al., 2001, 2003; Fukuhara and Imamura, 2005). Radio
occultation results suggest that stationary waves dominate at altitudes below ∼75km
(Cahoy et al., 2006).
Traveling planetary waves are produced by temperature and pressure (baroclinic)
variations and are commonly associated with weather fronts. Clouds associated with
traveling waves were detected in Mariner 9 and Viking data (Conrath, 1981;
Murphy et al., 1990), but the most detailed view of traveling waves has been
obtained from MGS analysis (Hinson and Wilson, 2002; Wilson et al., 2002).
Banfield et al. (2004) analyzed two years of MGS TES data to determine that
traveling waves are strongest in late northern fall and early northern winter, with
much weaker waves detected in the southern fall and winter seasons. They also
found strong annual repeatability in traveling waves.
The atmospheric circulation is modeled using Mars Global Circulation Models
(MGCMs), which grew out of terrestrial GCMs beginning in 1969. MGCMs pri-
marily model the circulation occurring within the lower atmosphere, although some
have been extended to the middle and upper atmosphere. MGCMs parameterize the
physical processes affecting atmospheric circulation and include contributions from
Hadley circulation, Coriolis effect, atmospheric dust, radiative heating and cooling,
clouds, convection, turbulence, waves, drag forces from interaction with surface
roughness (i.e., the planetary boundary layer), and the seasonal condensation/
sublimation flow (Read and Lewis, 2004). The four major MGCMs have been
developed at NASA Ames Research Center (Pollack et al., 1990, 1993; Barnes
et al., 1993, 1996; Haberle et al., 1993; Murphy et al., 1995; Joshi et al., 1997), the
French Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique (Hourdin et al., 1995; Forget et al.,
1999), Oxford University (Joshi et al., 1995; Collins et al., 1996; Lewis et al., 1997;
Newman et al., 2002a, b), and Princeton University (Wilson, 1997; Richardson and
Wilson, 2002; Richardson et al., 2002). These MGCMs have become increasingly
robust and successful in modeling the observed martian atmospheric circulation.
GCMs provide insights into the global circulation patterns but computational
limitations prevent them from providing much detail. In recent years mesoscale
models have been developed which provide detailed studies of small-scale pro-
cesses on a regional scale (Rafkin et al., 2001; Toigo and Richardson, 2002).
Mesoscale models are particularly useful when investigating processes such as dust
lifting (Toigo et al., 2003) and conditions at landing sites (Tyler et al., 2002; Kass
et al., 2003; Toigo and Richardson, 2003).
6.3.5 Present-day martian climate

Observations from orbiters and surface landers combined with the numerical
modeling from the MGCMs provide a reasonably detailed understanding of the
present-day martian atmosphere. Daytime heating results in convection which can
lift dust off the surface through dust devil activity from late spring through early
summer (Hinson et al., 1999). Convection can extend through an entire scale height
(∼10km). The temperature gradient in the convective region approaches that of the
dry adiabatic lapse rate of ∼4.3Kkm−1. At night, convection ceases and strong
temperature inversions develop. Nighttime temperatures can drop low enough to
cause condensation of atmospheric water vapor, producing the hazes and fog
commonly seen in the early morning hours. Thermal tides dominate the circulation
at altitudes above ∼75km, particularly in the tropics, while planetary waves
dominate at lower altitudes (Cahoy et al., 2006).
Eastward zonal winds dominate in the mid-latitude zones and increase in intensity
vertically up to about 30km during all seasons except for mid-summer when winds
emanate from the west. Lower latitude winds are dominated by westerlies all year.
Hadley circulation is the dominant contributor to the meridional winds although
the seasonal condensation flow between the poles cannot be ignored on Mars.
During the equinoxes a symmetric pattern of Hadley circulation develops on either
side of the equator, but near the solstices the ascending branch is displaced near 30°
latitude in the summer hemisphere and the descending branch occurs near 60°
latitude in the winter hemisphere (Haberle et al., 1993). Heating variations induced
by Mars’ large orbital eccentricity enhance these patterns, making the northern
winter Hadley circulation stronger.
Planetary waves disrupt the general Hadley circulation pattern in mid to high
latitudes. Eastward-propagating traveling planetary waves are produced by vari-
ations in atmospheric temperature and/or pressure (baroclinic and/or barotropic
instabilities). The number of wave lobes along a particular latitude band is called the
wave number of the planetary wave – martian traveling waves typically have zonal
wave numbers between 1 and 3 during the winter and spring (Hollingsworth et al.,
1996). Weather systems are commonly seen along the edges of the polar caps
(Figure 6.11).
Stationary waves develop through the interaction of the traveling planetary waves
with topography or thermal continents. Stationary waves typically have zonal wave
numbers of 1 or 2 (Conrath, 1981). As the atmosphere flows over the massive
topographic features on Mars, internal gravity waves are generated which further
affect the stability and heating of the atmospheric layers. As the atmosphere ascends
Cyclone on Mars
Hubble Space Telescope • WFPC2
PRC99-22 . STScl OPO . J. Bell (Cornell University), S. Lee (University of Colorado), M. Wolff (SSI) and NASA
Figure 6.11 Storm systems often occur near the polar caps. This Hubble Space
Telescope image shows one such storm occurring near Mars’ north polar cap.
(Image PRC99-22, Cornell University/University of Colorado CO/SSI/NASA/
STScI.)
over the large martian volcanoes, the drop in temperature with altitude causes
condensation and the formation of orographic clouds.
Wind direction is affected by the seasonal drift of the Hadley circulation and
the strength of the condensation flow. The tropical Hadley circulation zone
produces winds blowing from the northeast in the northern hemisphere and
from the southeast in the southern hemisphere. However, the seasonal shift in the
location of the ascending and descending branches of the Hadley circulation means
that mid-latitudes can experience these trade winds during the winter, and this is
generally consistent with wind directions inferred from wind-streak analysis
(Thomas et al., 2003). The cross-equatorial Hadley circulation during the solstices
produces a westerly jet in the subtropics (∼15°–30°) within a scale height of the
surface, with wind speeds near 33 m s−1 at an altitude of ∼2km (Hinson et al., 1999).
This is much higher than the surface wind speeds measured by landers, which are
typically in the 5 to 10 m s−1 range (e.g., Smith et al., 1997). However, higher wind
speeds are expected to occur along topographic slopes (Joshi et al., 1995).
Daytime convection and its associated dust devil activity help to lift surface dust
into the atmosphere (Basu et al., 2004; Kahre et al., 2006) which can facilitate the
production of dust storms. MOC image analysis finds that dust storms in the size
range of 104–106 km2 tend to occur in mid-latitude zones along the edges of the
seasonal polar cap (Wang et al., 2005) and at lower latitudes during northern winter
when Mars is at perihelion (Cantor et al., 2001; James and Cantor, 2002). Dust is
carried by the ascending branch of the Hadley circulation and distributed over a
wide area, heating the atmosphere and causing enhancement of the associated winds
so that more dust is lifted. When conditions are favorable, this process can produce
the global-wide dust storms (Zurek and Martin, 1993).
Evolution of the martian atmosphere 185
6.4 Evolution of the martian atmosphere

The present-day martian atmosphere precludes the existence of liquid water on the
surface for extended periods, but the geologic and mineralogic evidences suggest
that this has not always been the situation. The abundance of valley network sys-
tems, the highly degraded nature of impact craters and other geologic features, and
the existence of phyllosilicates all suggest that the Noachian period was much wetter
than the conditions prevailing since that time. The fivefold enhancement of deu-
terium to hydrogen in the martian atmosphere relative to Earth also suggests that
Mars had a thicker atmosphere in the past (Owen et al., 1988; Krasnopolsky, 2000;
Jakosky and Phillips, 2001). Volcanism, including formation of the highland
paterae and Tharsis, was the likely source of the atmospheric CO2, but volcanoes
also release substantial quantities of water vapor. Accretion, differentiation, and
decay of short-lived radioactive elements would have led to higher heat flow and
increased volcanism during the Noachian. The CO2 and H2O outgassed by these
volcanoes would produce a thick early atmosphere.
Both CO2 and H2O are greenhouse gases which would increase the surface
temperature and, combined with the higher surface pressures provided by a thicker
atmosphere, might allow rainfall and the presence of liquid water. However, stellar
models indicate that 4 Ga ago the Sun was only 25–30% as luminous as it is today
(Newman and Rood, 1977). This decreased luminosity translates to an effective
temperature of only ∼196K, requiring 77K of greenhouse warming (Haberle,
1998). Numerical modeling suggested that a CO2-rich atmosphere producing 5 bars
(5·105 Pa) of surface pressure would bring the surface temperature to 273K with
this lower luminosity Sun (Pollack et al., 1987). However, CO2 will condense under
these higher pressure scenarios, producing clouds and releasing latent heat higher in
the atmosphere (Kasting, 1991). Both of these mechanisms result in cooling of the
surface below the freezing point of water. Possible solutions to this conundrum
include a scattered greenhouse effect from CO2 ice clouds (Forget and Pierre-
humbert, 1997), greenhouse warming by other gases (Kasting, 1991; Squyres and
Kasting, 1994; Sagan and Chyba, 1997; Yung et al., 1997), a more massive and thus
brighter early Sun (Whitmire et al., 1995), and wetter microclimates produced by
impacts (Segura et al., 2002).
Valley network formation and the high degradation rates recorded by geologic
features cease ∼3.9 Ga ago, suggesting that the thicker atmosphere disappeared by
the end of the Noachian. The combination of three mechanisms probably led to the
erosion of the martian atmosphere. Prior to ∼4 Ga ago, Mars’ magnetic field was
operating, which would have provided protection from the solar wind. Once the
magnetic field ceased operation, solar wind particles could strike the martian
atmosphere and strip it from the planet through sputtering and collisions (Jakosky
et al., 1994). The timing also coincides with the period when the cataclysmic Late
Heavy Bombardment is postulated to have occurred throughout the inner Solar
System (Gomes et al., 2005), which would have produced many of the large impact
basins. As the bolides passed through the atmosphere, friction would heat the
atmospheric gases and allow many of them to escape. This impact erosion would
have been particularly efficient at Mars given the planet’s small size and gravita-
tional pull (Melosh and Vickery, 1989). Solar-wind stripping and impact erosion
combined with normal Jeans’ escape of lighter atoms from above the exobase could
have thinned the martian atmosphere to its current levels in a relatively short period
of time (Brain and Jakosky, 1998; Jakosky and Phillips, 2001)
Short-lived excursions of the martian climate from its present state have occurred
since the major event at the end of the Noachian. These excursions are indicated by
the geologic (e.g., Baker, 2001) and geochemical (Romanek et al., 1994; Watson
et al., 1994; Jakosky and Jones, 1997; Squyres et al., 2004c) evidence of liquid
water on the martian surface in the post-Noachian period. These recent climate
fluctuations likely result from changes in Mars’ obliquity (Section 7.4.2).
7
History of water on Mars
Our understanding of the role that water has played in Mars’ history has evolved
dramatically over the past 40 years (Carr, 1996). Early spacecraft investigations
revealed a cold, dry world with little evidence of liquid water ever having played a
dominant role. Mariner 9 and Viking observations of the surface geology led to the
paradigm of an early wet and warm Mars which transitioned into its present cold,
dry state by the end of the Noachian. Data from MGS, Odyssey, and MEx reveal that
water has played an important role up to recent times (Figure 7.1), although whether
this water has been primarily in the liquid or ice form is still debated. While
the atmosphere and polar caps are the most obvious locations of H2O today, the
majority of Mars’ water resides in the subsurface, primarily in the form of ice.
The distribution of these subsurface H2O reservoirs is only now being revealed
through instruments such as Odyssey’s GRS and the ground-penetrating radars on
MEx and MRO.
7.1 Origin of water on Mars

Outgassing associated with impact crater formation and volcanism is the primary
source of martian H2O found in the atmosphere, polar caps, and subsurface (Pepin,
1991; McSween et al., 2001). This indicates that H2O was incorporated into the
crust and interior of Mars. The two possible mechanisms for incorporating this
water into the planet are through volatile-rich planetesimals which were accreted
into Mars or emplacement of a volatile-rich veneer through later delivery by
cometary and asteroidal impacts.
Solar nebula condensation models indicate that temperatures inward of 2.5 to
3 AU were too hot for H2O to be present (Cassen, 1994; Drouart et al., 1999).
Planetesimals formed within this region would be expected to be volatile-poor,
although incorporation of small amounts of hydrated minerals might have occurred
(Drake and Righter, 2002). The formation of Jupiter and Saturn perturbed volatile-rich
187
188
Geologic Mineralogic Geologic
period period processes Mineralogy Atmosphere Other
Valley networks,
high erosion, Magnetic dynamo,
alluvial fans, high impact rates
Early Noachian Phyllosian paleolakes, Phyllosilicates Dense; wetter (LHB),
Middle Noachian distributary fans Initiation of Tharsis,
Widespread
Late Noachian Theiikian Sulfates volcanism
No magnetic field;
Low erosion rates, low rates of
Early Hesperian Outflow channels Thin; dry with geologic activity
wetter
periods
Late Hesperian Northern ocean? interspersed
Anhydrous
Early Amazonian Siderikian ferric oxides Obliquity cycles
Middle Cold-base
Amazonian glaciers,
Late Amazonian Gullies
Figure 7.1 Geologic processes, dominant mineralogy, and atmospheric conditions have varied over Mars’ history. This chart
summarizes the major processes and characteristics of Mars from its earliest history (Early Noachian) to the present (Late Amazonian).
Origin of water on Mars 189
planetesimals from the region of those planets into the inner Solar System, providing
some volatile-rich material to be incorporated into material forming the terrestrial
planets (Morbidelli et al., 2000). However, the amount of water incorporated into
Mars during accretion must have been relatively small because SNC meteorite
analysis indicates that the martian mantle is quite dry (Section 2.3).
The low water concentrations in the martian mantle can be reconciled with the
surface evidence of substantial water by having Mars form from volatile-poor
planetesimals and later acquire a volatile-rich veneer (Carr and Wänke, 1992).
Much of the terrestrial H2O inventory was probably delivered through impacts of
large volatile-rich planetesimals during the late stages of accretion (Morbidelli et al.,
2000; Robert, 2001). However, the small size of Mars indicates that it did not
experience as many of these planetesimal impacts (Chambers and Wetherill, 1998;
Chambers, 2004). Mars’ water must therefore originate primarily from impacts of
smaller comets and asteroids (Lunine et al., 2003).
The ratio of deuterium (D) to hydrogen (H) provides constraints on the origin of
water on Earth and Mars. Deuterium is the isotope of hydrogen with one neutron.
Deuterium is rarer than hydrogen but its greater mass causes it to remain behind as
hydrogen escapes during fractionation processes. The D/H ratio for the bulk Earth is
149·10−6, which is substantially higher than the solar ratio deduced from solar
wind implanted in lunar soils (20·10−6) (Geiss and Gloeckler, 1998) or the
expected protosolar nebula value of 80·10−6 (Robert et al., 2000). This higher
terrestrial value indicates that water on Earth is not derived from the solar nebula or
from solar wind implantation. Clay minerals in carbonaceous chondrites have D/H
ratios similar to the terrestrial ratio, although organic material in these meteorites has
much higher D/H (Robert et al., 2000). The heterogeneity of D/H throughout the
Solar System suggests that the water in our Solar System originated by interactions
of the solar nebula with deuterium-enriched interstellar ice. Turbulent mixing within
the solar nebula caused the H2O to condense at different locations and at different
times, producing the observed isotopic heterogeneities.
Values of D/H have been measured in comets Halley (Balsiger et al., 1995),
Hyakutake (Bockelée-Morvan et al., 1998), and Hale-Bopp (Meier et al., 1998).
All three show much higher D/H ratios than terrestrial water, indicating that
cometary impacts contribute no more than 10% of the water in the volatile-rich
veneer of the Earth. Dynamical models of cometary impacts also indicate that they
would be a minor contributor to inner Solar System H2O inventories (Morbidelli
et al., 2000).
Migration of the giant planets 0.7 Ga after Solar System formation perturbed
volatile-rich objects in the outer asteroid belt, providing a mechanism for the
delivery of H2O into the inner Solar System (Petit et al., 2001; Gomes et al., 2005;
Strom et al., 2005). The similarity of D/H in carbonaceous chondrites and the Earth
190 History of water on Mars
complements the dynamical arguments that asteroids are the primary source of the
terrestrial H2O budget. Mars, being closer to the asteroid belt than the Earth, might
be expected to have acquired even higher amounts of H2O from asteroid impacts.
Analysis of D/H in martian meteorites indicates that Mars is enriched in deuterium
compared to Earth, probably as a result of mixing between magmatic water and a
deuterium-enriched atmospheric component (Watson et al., 1994; Leshin, 2000;
Lunine et al., 2003). The higher concentration of deuterium in the martian atmos-
phere is expected if Mars has lost much of its original atmosphere (Donahue, 1995)
(Section 6.4).
Water delivered by asteroid collisions should have provided Mars with enough
water to produce a global ocean between 600 and 2700m deep (Lunine et al., 2003).
The amount of water needed to have produced all the fluvial and glacial features on
Mars would produce a global ocean 400–500m deep (Carr, 1996). Analysis of
incompatible trace elements in the martian meteorites suggest that only 50% of the
H2O incorporated into the planet’s interior has been degassed (Norman, 1999;
Lunine et al., 2003). Summing the outgassed and non-outgassed amounts leads to
an estimate that the amount of water contained by Mars is equivalent to a 1000-m-
deep global ocean. Thus, asteroid collisions can easily deliver the water inventory
estimated for Mars.
7.2 Water versus other volatiles

The current climatic conditions preclude the existence of large quantities of liquid
water on the martian surface, but the presence of geologically young channels and
gullies indicates that some substance has flowed recently. Water is the favored
fluid because it is one of the most common molecules in the Solar System, is
expected to have been delivered in sufficient quantities to Mars, and can produce
the observed characteristics of the channels and gullies. However, other volatiles
also have been proposed to explain the Hesperian- and Amazonian-aged channels
and gullies.
Hoffman (2000) argued that the outflow channels could be produced by CO2
density flows rather than liquid water. Geothermal models of the pressure and
temperature conditions in the near-surface region of Mars suggest that condensed
CO2 could be stable at depths of 100m in the mid-latitudes of the planet and
liquid CO2 could be present within the equatorial substrate. Hoffman’s model
proposes that this subsurface CO2 exists as extensive clathrate deposits. Landslides
or geothermal heating of CO2 saturated regolith would release the gas, producing a
density flow which could erode the outflow channels. Alternately, Max and Clifford
(2001) proposed that the outflow channels were produced by dissociation of
subsurface methane clathrates. However, the amount of CH4 necessary to support
Water on early Mars 191
such debris flows is much larger than current estimates of CH4 in the martian
regolith (Section 8.4).
A liquid CO2 origin also has been proposed to explain the small gullies located on
steep slopes such as the interior walls of impact craters in mid-latitude regions
(Musselwhite et al., 2001). Musselwhite et al. (2001) note that the triple point of CO2
corresponds to a depth of 100m in the martian regolith, which is consistent with the
depth of the gully seepage locations. Their model proposes that atmospheric CO2
diffuses into the regolith to a depth of 100 m. During the winter, the low temperatures
cause a plug of CO2 ice to form on the cliff-face and grow in thickness inward.
Temperatures and pressures increase as this plug grows, leading to formation of
liquid CO2 interior to the ice plug. As summer approaches and temperatures
increase, the ice plug begins to thin, allowing the liquid CO2 eventually to break
through and flow out of the cliff-face. The liquid CO2 vaporizes, producing a debris
flow incorporating rocks and clathrate ice which erodes the gully.
Stewart and Nimmo (2002) modeled the timescales and depths for atmospheric
CO2 diffusion into the martian regolith. They found that CO2 can only diffuse a few
meters into the regolith and that it would take longer than one winter for CO2 to fill
the regolith pore spaces. They also considered formation of CO2 ice, liquid, and
clathrates under denser atmospheric conditions such as those which existed early in
Mars’ history. Their results indicate that such deposits would not persist to the
present day. The amount of CO2 necessary to support the debris flow creating a
single outflow channel is much greater than the plausible CO2 content of the current
regolith.
The modeling of Stewart and Nimmo (2002) argues that gullies and outflow
channels probably formed by the rapid melting and transport of liquid water. The
detection of H2O within the upper meter of the martian regolith by GRS and the
mineralogic evidence of hydrated minerals on the surface of Mars from OMEGA,
TES, THEMIS, and the MER investigations also suggest that H2O has been the
dominant volatile affecting the surface geology and mineralogy throughout martian
history.
7.3 Water on early Mars

Mariner 9 and Viking images revealed the valley network and outflow channel
systems, leading to the conclusion that liquid water had been responsible for for-
mation of these features. The valley networks are concentrated on ancient Noachian
terrains, with a few on the flanks of younger volcanoes (Baker, 1982; Gulick and
Baker, 1990) (Figure 7.2). Rainfall and groundwater sapping are proposed forma-
tion mechanisms for the Noachian-aged valley networks, and geomorphic analysis
suggests that both mechanisms contributed (Section 5.3.6).
Figure 7.2 Valley networks are primarily concentrated on the ancient Noachian
surfaces, but these valleys also occur on the flanks of younger volcanoes. These
valley network systems occur on the flanks of Alba Patera. Image is centered
near 46°N 247°E and is 19km wide. (THEMIS image V11912007, NASA/
JPL/ASU.)
Figure 7.3 Impact craters from the Noachian period appear highly degraded,
suggesting that erosion rates were higher early in martian history. The elevated
rims of degraded craters have been stripped away, the walls are heavily eroded, and
the floors are flat and typically filled by later deposits. Geologic processes
sometimes have removed part of the crater rim, as seen in the crater near the top of
this image. The lower crater is 13.5km in diameter and located at 31.0°S 0.5°E.
(THEMIS image I08951002, NASA/JPL/ASU.)
Mariner 9 and Viking images also revealed that older impact craters on Noachian
terrains appeared more degraded than younger craters on the planet (Figure 7.3).
This suggested that the Noachian was characterized by higher erosion rates than
those that have operated in the Hesperian and Amazonian. Topographic profiles of
the degraded craters approximated the profiles expected for erosion by liquid water
and suggested that rainfall was common on early Mars (Craddock and Howard,
Water on early Mars 193
2002; Forsberg-Taylor et al., 2004). MGS and Odyssey images revealing alluvial
fans (Moore and Howard, 2005), sedimentary deposits (Malin and Edgett, 2000a),
distributary fans (Malin and Edgett, 2003; Bhattacharya et al., 2005; Lewis and
Aharonson, 2006), and possible paleolake deposits (Cabrol and Grin, 2001; Irwin
et al., 2005) further support the idea that liquid water was common on the surface of
Noachian Mars.
Geologic features of fluvial origin provide one of the evidences that the
atmosphere of Noachian Mars was denser, producing warmer and wetter surface
conditions. Isotopic ratios of heavy noble gases in Mars’ atmosphere, including
D/H, indicate a thicker atmosphere than at present (Owen and Bar-Nun, 1995).
Water delivered by asteroid impacts after differentiation was incorporated into
the martian lithosphere and later released by outgassing associated with impacts
and volcanism (Pepin, 1991), primarily during the formation of the Tharsis
volcanic province during the Noachian. Impact erosion by the LHB cataclysm
combined with solar wind erosion of the atmosphere after the magnetic dynamo
ceased could remove up to 99% of the atmospheric gases, transitioning Mars into
the thinner atmospheric conditions which exist to the present (Jakosky and
Phillips, 2001).
OMEGA’s detection of hydrated minerals within Noachian materials (Bibring
et al., 2005; Poulet et al., 2005) provides mineralogic evidence that is consistent
with the geologic and isotopic arguments for water on early Mars. Phyllosilicates
are found in association with eroded outcrops and in dark deposits which likely
resulted from erosion of ancient clay-rich materials. These locations indicate that the
phyllosilicates formed early in martian history through interaction with surface
water, were subsequently buried to protect them from weathering processes oper-
ating throughout most of martian history, and have only recently been exposed. The
detection of phyllosilicates led Bibring et al. (2006) to characterize the early to
middle Noachian as the phyllosian period during which liquid water was abundant
on the martian surface.
The exhumation of ancient materials which have been buried for much of martian
history is suggested not only by mineralogic evidence but also from geologic
analysis. Several locations across the planet show craters which are being exposed
as overlying layers are removed (Figure 7.4) and the relatively fresh nature of the
Hesperian-aged deposits investigated by Opportunity suggests that Meridiani Pla-
num has recently been exhumed from under younger deposits. This suggests that
future missions can analyze ancient deposits which have not undergone substantial
alteration by recent geologic processes.
The late Noachian was a period of transition from the mineralogic viewpoint.
Increased volcanism, forming not only the volcanic constructs in Tharsis and
Elysium but also the flood basalts of the ridged plains regions, released considerable
Figure 7.4 Arabia Terra is one of the locations where buried craters are reappearing
as overlying younger materials are removed. Such craters initially appear as infilled
circles, such as these craters, located near 28.6°N 42.5°E. The largest crater (upper
right) is 1.4km in diameter. (MOC image R0901004, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
amounts of sulfur into the martian atmosphere. The sulfur interacted with water to
produce sulfate minerals. This theiikian period (Bibring et al., 2006) extended
through the early Hesperian. The highly acidic and saline aqueous conditions
detected by Opportunity within Meridiani Planum date from this period (Squyres
et al., 2004c) and are probably representative of the aqueous environments that
existed during the late Noachian to early Hesperian. By the end of the early Hes-
perian, surface water became rare as the martian atmosphere thinned and climatic
conditions cooled. Recent martian history is characterized by anhydrous conditions
except for local regions (Bibring et al., 2006).
7.4 Water in the post-Noachian period

The post-Viking view of Mars was of a planet where liquid water had been abundant
during the planet’s early history but whose atmosphere had thinned by the end of the
Noachian, transitioning into the cold dry conditions which exist to the present.
Although evidence of recent aqueous activity was apparent in the Hesperian-aged
outflow channels, these features were proposed to result from cataclysmic release of
subsurface water through volcanic or impact processes. Any changes to the atmos-
phere were short-lived and localized and did not radically affect the climate of Mars.
7.4.1 Martian oceans

This view began to change around 1990 when a few scientists argued that a
multitude of enigmatic features in the northern plains could be explained as evi-
dences of past oceans within the northern lowlands (Figure 7.5). Parker et al. (1989)
Water in the post-Noachian period 195
Figure 7.5 Geologic analysis combined with MOLA topography and roughness
have led to the hypothesis of a large ocean covering much of the martian northern
plains in the Hesperian to Amazonian period. The extent of Oceanus Borealis is
shown in lighter tone in this image superposed on a MOLA-derived shaded relief
map. The Tharsis volcanoes and Valles Marineris are seen near the bottom.
(NASA/JPL/GSFC/MOLA team/Brown University.)
cited the gradational nature of the dichotomy boundary in western Deuteronilus

Mensae as evidence of sedimentary deposition and proposed that this deposition
occurred in a sea produced during outflow channel flooding of the northern plains.
Later work identified two possible shorelines which were largely continuous around
the entire northern plains, leading to the proposal of one or more oceans forming in
this area during Hesperian to Amazonian times (Parker et al., 1993). Baker et al.
(1991) and Kargel and Strom (1992) mapped the distribution of possible flood,
permafrost, and periglacial features across Mars and argued that the hydrologic
cycle associated with outflow channel formation could produce short-lived northern
oceans and southern glaciers into the Amazonian period.
Models of the hydrologic cycle producing oceans in the northern plains invoke
high internal heat flow to release water from subsurface ice reservoirs or aquifers.
Clifford and Parker (2001) argue that this process first produced a northern plains
ocean shortly after formation of the dichotomy boundary. Recharge of the deep
subsurface aquifer by polar basal melting permitted subsequent outbursts through
the outflow channels into more recent times, producing episodic flooding of the
northern lowlands. As the geothermal flux declines with time and the permafrost
layer thickens, outbursts become rarer and ocean episodes diminish. An alternate
model (Baker et al., 1991; Gulick et al., 1997; Baker, 2001) also invokes internal
heat to trigger the outflow channel flooding through melting of subsurface ground
ice and CO2 clathrate (Figure 7.6). The release of the CO2 from the clathrates as well
as volcanism leads to greenhouse warming and rainfall. The northern ocean
(Oceanus Borealis) produced by the outflow channel flooding begins to evaporate
Figure 7.6 One possible scenario for how northern oceans could be produced on
Mars is shown in this diagram. This model (Baker, 2001) suggests long-term cold
conditions which are interspersed by short-lived cataclysmic episodes of volatile
release. (Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature, Baker
[2001], Copyright 2001.)
and the moisture is transferred to the southern hemisphere where it is precipitated as

snow to produce glaciers. Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by
dissolving in the ocean water and through silicate weathering. Within 103 to 105
years, cold temperatures return and the CO2 is sequestered into CO2 clathrates
underneath the ground ice resulting from infiltration of the ocean water. Another
pulse of high heat flow can cause the cycle to repeat.
MOLA analysis reveals that one of Parker et al.’s (1993) proposed shorelines
corresponds with an equipotential surface continuous around the northern plains
(Head et al., 1998, 1999). Roughness studies of the northern plains indicate they are
extremely smooth, similar to sediment-covered ocean floors on Earth (Figure 4.3)
(Kreslavsky and Head, 2000; Smith et al., 2001a). However, MOC imagery does
not reveal features which would be expected along shorelines (Figure 7.7) (Malin
and Edgett, 1999) and the mineralogic data do not reveal evidence of hydrated
minerals within the proposed ocean boundaries (Bibring et al., 2005, 2006).
Olivine, which alters quickly in the presence of water, has been detected in Hes-
perian-aged outcrops and argues against a recent hydrologic cycle involving liquid
water on the surface. An ice-covered ocean might alleviate some of these concerns,
Water in the post-Noachian period 197
(a) (b)
100 nm
Figure 7.7 MOC has imaged the locations of proposed shorelines from Oceanus
Borealis. (a) This context image shows the location of one of the proposed
shorelines northwest of Olympus Mons. (b) This MOC image corresponds to the
square identified as SPO2-428/03 on the context image. Although this image lies
along the proposed shoreline, no evidence of such a feature is seen. (MOC images
MOC2-180a and MOC2-180c, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
but at the present time there is still considerable debate as to whether Hesperian-to-
Amazonian-aged oceans have existed on Mars.
7.4.2 Obliquity cycles and climate change

Long-term climate change likely results from perturbations induced by the planets
and the Sun’s non-spherical shape. These perturbations result in variations in Mars’
orbital parameters (including eccentricity, inclination, and time of perihelion) and
obliquity (Ward, 1992) and are analogous to the Milankovitch cycles which con-
tribute to ice ages on Earth. Although the obliquity and orbital motion are strongly
chaotic and numerical solutions are only accurate for the past 60 Ma, numerical
solutions have been extended over longer time periods to estimate the range of
values (Laskar and Robutel, 1993; Touma and Wisdom, 1993; Laskar et al., 2004).
Those models indicate that eccentricity varies between 0 and 0.12 with a most
probable value of 0.068 and orbital inclination varies between 0° and 8°. Obliquity
can vary from almost 0° to over 80° with a most probable value of 41.8°. These
ranges are much greater than the variations experienced by the Earth, primarily
because Phobos and Deimos are too small to provide a stabilizing influence on
Mars. The obliquity and orbital variations lead to insolation changes which can
influence the martian climate (Figure 7.8).
The poles receive more solar insolation as the obliquity increases, increasing their
temperatures and causing sublimation of the CO2 and H2O ice in these regions.
The addition of these gases increases the density of the atmosphere and the
Obliquity (degrees)
45
35
25
15
0.12
Eccentricity 0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
500
Insolation (W m–2)
400
300
200
100
0 –2 –4 –6 –8 –10
Time (Ma)
Figure 7.8 Gravitational perturbations from the other planets cause Mars to
experience variations in its obliquity (top), eccentricity (middle), and solar
insolation (bottom). Numerical modeling shows how these parameters have varied
over the past 10 Ma. (Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd:
Nature, Laskar et al. [2002], Copyright 2002.)
accompanying surface pressure. Since H2O and CO2 are greenhouse gases, one
expects that the surface temperature will rise and could allow liquid water to exist on
the surface. Depending on the combination of orbital and obliquity values, liquid
water can occur in regions that range from very localized, such as occurs today
(Hecht, 2002), to a large fraction of the planet (Richardson and Mischna, 2005). Ice
dominates over liquid on the surface at higher obliquities because of thermal
blanketing produced by CO2 condensation in thick atmospheres and the greater
extent of the winter polar cap (Haberle et al., 2003; Mischna et al., 2003). The
stability zone for H2O ice moves towards the equator as the obliquity increases and
is found preferentially at higher elevations and in regions of high thermal inertia.
The obliquity cycle has a period of about 2.5 Ma while eccentricity variations
occur on timescales of 1.7 Ma. Mars is currently moving from a higher to lower
obliquity period and eccentricity is moving toward a high (Figure 7.8). Analysis of
MOC, THEMIS, and HRSC imagery reveals features in near-equatorial zones
which are interpreted as cold-based glaciers produced during the last high-obliquity
Present-day stability and distribution of H2O 199
Figure 7.9 Flow lines within this deposit have been interpreted as a cold-based
glacier emplaced during the last high-obliquity period. This deposit is located on
the northwestern flank of Olympus Mons, near 22.5°N 222.0°E. Image is
approximately 33km wide. (THEMIS image I16967012, NASA/JPL/ASU.)
period (Head and Marchant, 2003; Neukum et al., 2004; Head et al., 2005, 2006a)
(Figure 7.9). Tongue-like deposits on crater walls at higher latitudes (Figure 5.47),
the possible source of melting water to produce gullies (Christensen, 2003), may be
debris-covered glaciers from the last high-obliquity period (Arfstrom and Hart-
mann, 2005). Ice-rich mantling deposits occur in the 30°–60° latitude zone in
both hemispheres (Mustard et al., 2001) and may have been deposited when obli-
quity last reached 30°–35° (Head et al., 2003a). Layering in the polar layered
deposits (Figure 5.44) may record depositional cycles of ice and dust associated
with the obliquity cycles (Jakosky et al., 1993; Laskar et al., 2002).
7.5 Present-day stability and distribution of H2O

Current atmospheric conditions on Mars produce a triple point pressure of water
several orders of magnitude higher than the water vapor partial pressure. This
prevents liquid water from being stable for extended periods of time on the surface.
Short-lived episodes of recent flooding associated with volcanic activity have been
recorded at Cerberus Fossae (Burr et al., 2002; Head et al., 2003b) and a nearby
feature has been interpreted as a frozen sea (Murray et al., 2005) (Figure 7.10),
although this feature is more commonly mapped as a basaltic lava flow. Localized
regions may allow liquid water to form and flow for short periods of time under
current conditions if ice deposits receive sufficient insolation (Haberle et al., 2001;
Hecht, 2002). However, H2O on present-day Mars is primarily in the form of ice or
vapor. Condensing all of the water vapor in the martian atmosphere onto the surface
would create a layer 10−5 m thick across the entire planet. Water in the polar caps
Figure 7.10 This unusual terrain near the Cerberus Fossae fissure resembles pack
ice and has been proposed to be a frozen sea. The sharpness and number of impact
craters have led others to interpret these features as resulting from basaltic lava
flows. (Image SEMYVLYEM4E, ESA/DLR/FU Berlin [G. Neukum].)
and PLD would produce a global layer with a maximum thickness of 29.6m.
However, the amount of water needed to produce all the fluvially created features on
Mars is estimated to form a global layer 400m thick (Carr, 1996). Clearly there must
be another reservoir of martian water – that reservoir is probably underground.
7.5.1 Models of subsurface H2O distribution

The layered ejecta morphologies surrounding young impact craters, central pit
structures, source regions of outflow channels, valley network characteristics
indicative of sapping, and various permafrost-type features (Section 5.3) suggest
that much of Mars’ water inventory exists in subsurface reservoirs. Hydrologic
models of present-day Mars suggest that H2O ice can be stable at the surface in
contact with the atmosphere at latitudes poleward of 40° because of the low
temperatures while ice at lower latitudes is stable at depths >1–2m (Clifford and
Hillel, 1983; Mellon and Jakosky, 1993, 1995). Models indicate that the thickness
of the ice-rich cryosphere has nominal values of 2.5km in the equatorial region to
6.5km at the poles (Clifford, 1993). The estimated geothermal flux of 30 mW m−2
could result in liquid groundwater aquifers under the cryosphere (Figure 7.11).
Aquifer water can migrate toward the colder cryosphere where it freezes at the
base. The cryosphere is therefore expected to thicken over time. The aquifer can
further be depleted when its pressure overcomes the hydraulic head of the overlying
material and fluid is released in outflow channel events. However, the aquifer is
replenished through pressure-induced melting at the base of the polar caps. This
fluid infiltrates into the underlying material and recharges the aquifer (Clifford,
Present-day stability and distribution of H2O 201
10
ZONALLY AVERAGED ELEVATION (km)

5
0
Cryosphere
250 m
–5 100 m
–10 10 m
Basement
–15
–90 –60 –30 0 30 60 90
LATITUDE
Figure 7.11 Hydrologic models of the martian substrate, using estimated values of
internal heat flux and material physical properties, suggest that ice-rich (cryosphere)
and water-rich regions can exist below the martian surface. The thicknesses of
these regions are latitude-dependent, based on topography and solar insolation.
(Reprinted by permission from the American Geophysical Union, Clifford [1993],
Copyright 1993.)
1987, 1993; Clifford and Parker, 2001). Thus, large H2O reservoirs are expected to
exist to the present day within the upper few kilometers of the martian substrate.
7.5.2 Direct detection of subsurface H2O

The hypothesis of substantial quantities of H2O in the subsurface has been based
entirely on indirect evidence from geology until recently. The neutron detectors
(Neutron Spectrometer and HEND) on Odyssey’s GRS instrument suite provide
the first direct information about H2O ice within the upper meter of the martian
surface (Boynton et al., 2002; Feldman et al., 2002, 2004a; Mitrofanov et al., 2002).
The instruments detect neutrons produced by cosmic ray interactions with surface
materials. These neutrons can pass through the surface before escaping to space.
Hydrogen (typically bound in the form of water for terrestrial planets) is a good
absorber of epithermal (energies between 0.4 eV and 0.7 MeV) and fast (energies
between 0.7 and 1.6 MeV) neutrons while CO2 is a poor absorber of epithermal and
thermal energies (<0.4 eV) (Feldman et al., 2002, 2004a). Thus, H2O distribution
maps can be produced by comparing the fluxes of thermal, epithermal, and fast
neutrons.
Figure 4.10 shows the water-equivalent hydrogen content of martian soils derived
from analysis of epithermal neutron flux (Feldman et al., 2004a). Polar regions have
high water abundances extending to 60° latitude, consistent with the expected
distribution of H2O based on ground-ice stability models (Mellon et al., 2004) and
the distribution of permafrost-related geologic features (Kuzmin et al., 2004). Two
equatorial regions, Arabia and the highlands region south of the dichotomy boundary
between Elysium and Tharsis, contain about 8% water-equivalent hydrogen and
could result either from hydrated minerals (Feldman et al., 2004b; Fialips et al.,
2005) or remnant ice emplaced by atmospheric processes (Jakosky et al., 2005).
The distribution of H2O in the near-surface materials as indicated by epithermal
neutron analysis has provided ground-truth for models of the stability of near-surface
ice on Mars. The zones of ice stability are dictated by the balance between vapor
diffusion of the ice and condensation of ice from the atmosphere. These conditions
result from heating of the surface by solar insolation. The depths to which tem-
peratures are high enough to cause soil desiccation vary on diurnal, seasonal, and
long-term (i.e., obliquity-driven) cycles and reach maximum values of 1–2m for the
long-term cycles (Mellon and Jakosky, 1995). Below this desiccated zone permanent
ice deposits can occur, consistent with the impact crater record which shows that
layered ejecta morphologies and central pits have formed at least from Hesperian
through Amazonian times (Barlow, 2004, 2006). A two-layer model consisting of a
dry soil layer overlying a deep icy layer accurately reproduces most features of
the epithermal neutron data in the polar regions (Boynton et al., 2002; Feldman
et al., 2004a). Models of ice stability zones generally correlate with the epithermal
neutron indicators of subsurface ice distribution (Mellon et al., 2004). Longitudinal
variations are largely produced by thermal inertia differences (Schorghofer and
Aharonson, 2005) and other slight discrepancies between observation and model
may be due to rocks and dust (Sizemore and Mellon, 2006). The correlation between
observed H2O and that predicted from the ice stability models indicates that the
ground ice is in equilibrium with the current martian atmosphere.
The GRS instruments provide information about H2O only within the upper
meter of the martian surface, yet hydrologic models (Clifford, 1993) and impact
crater morphologies (Barlow and Perez, 2003; Barlow, 2005) suggest that volatiles
extend to depths of a few kilometers. Direct investigation of volatile compositions
and phases at these depths are being conducted by the ground-penetrating radars on
Mars Express (MARSIS: Picardi et al., 2005) and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
(SHARAD: Seu et al., 2004). Those results will provide important constraints for
understanding the planet’s hydrologic cycle, the vertical distribution of present-day
volatiles, and the role of subsurface volatiles in the formation of specific geologic
features.
8
Search for life
The possibility of current (extant) or past (extinct) life on Mars has been of interest for
centuries. Percival Lowell’s early ideas of intelligent life forms who engineered an
elaborate canal system have been disproved, but the question of whether microbial life
exists or has existed on Mars remains an area of intense debate. The question of martian
life is one of the driving forces behind the continuing exploration of the planet.
8.1 Martian conditions relevant to biology

Surface conditions on present-day Mars are extremely inhospitable to terrestrial life
forms (Clark, 1998). The thin CO2 atmosphere is inefficient at retaining daytime
solar heating, resulting in a temperature range of 130–250K with an average tem-
perature of 240K. No evidence of biologic replication has been observed in terrestrial
organisms at temperatures <253K (Beaty et al., 2006). The low temperatures and
low atmospheric pressure at the surface prevent liquid water from existing for
extended periods of time. Terrestrial life forms require water for survival, so the lack
of liquid water on Mars is a major deterrent to life on the surface.
The thin martian atmosphere and the lack of a present-day magnetic field allow
harmful radiation to penetrate to the surface (except perhaps in regions where rocks
retain strong remnant magnetization [Alves and Baptista, 2004]). Odyssey’s MARIE
instrument (Badhwar, 2004) measured the radiation environment above the martian
atmosphere until October 2003 when particles from a large solar flare caused it to
cease functioning. Although it only operated for 19 months, MARIE determined that
the daily radiation dose from galactic cosmic rays was between 18 and 24 millirad
(1 rad¼0.01Jkg−1). Protons emitted during solar flare events were recorded to have
typical doses of 1–2 rad and the largest events provided doses
7 rad (Cleghorn
et al., 2004). While these are relatively small doses (the average cosmic ray exposure
on Earth is 30–45 millirad yr−1), the higher dosage solar particle events require
shielding to protect cells from damage.
203
204 Search for life
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is another major concern on the surface of Mars.

The martian atmosphere contains very little ozone except over the winter pole,
therefore allowing UV to reach the surface. Models suggest that UV fluxes are up to
three orders of magnitude more damaging to DNA on the martian surface than on
Earth (Cockell et al., 2000), and laboratory experiments conducted under martian
UV conditions found rapid inactivation of seven species of bacillus (Schuerger
et al., 2006). However, UV conditions on present-day Mars may not be drastically
different from those on Archean Earth when primitive life existed (Cockell et al.,
2000), so UV levels alone may not contraindicate martian life forms.
However, the high UV levels together with the highly oxidizing chemistry of the
martian soils is an extremely destructive combination for life forms (Biemann et al.,
1977). Very low levels of organic materials were detected in the martian regolith by
the Viking landers which suggests that organic material is being destroyed as fast as
or faster than it is being produced on Mars. Highly acidic conditions, such as
revealed in Meridiani Planum by Opportunity, could host specialized life forms, but
it is unclear if prebiotic chemical reactions could occur in such conditions to give
rise initially to life forms (Squyres et al., 2004c).
The combination of low temperature, low pressure, lack of liquid water, high
radiation and UV levels, and oxidizing soil conditions makes the martian surface a
very inhospitable place for life forms similar to those found on Earth. However, the
subsurface might provide conditions more conducive to biologic activity (Clark,
1998; Farmer and Des Marais, 1999; Cockell and Barlow, 2002; Diaz and Schulze-
Makuch, 2006). Overlying surface materials provide protection from the hazardous
radiation environment. Temperatures increase with depth in the martian substrate
and liquid water oases could exist where a high geotherm encounters H2O-rich
layers. Long-lived hydrothermal activity associated with volcanism or large impact
craters could provide habitable oases for extended periods of time (Newsom et al.,
2001; Varnes et al., 2003; Abramov and Kring, 2005). It is within these regions
where extant martian life may occur.
8.2 Viking biology experiments

The Mariners 4, 6, and 7 missions had led scientists to conclude that Mars was a dry,
dead world where life would never have had an opportunity to arise. The Mariner 9
discovery of channels formed by flowing water changed this perception – if water
had flowed on Mars in the past, life may have arisen. The 1976 Viking missions
therefore included landers with experiments to determine if the martian surface might
contain life. The landers used their robotic arms to scoop up soil samples which were
then deposited into the experiments (Figure 8.1). The three specific biology
experiments were the gas exchange (GEx), pyrolytic release (PR), and labeled
Viking biology experiments 205
Figure 8.1 The two Viking landers were each equipped with a sampling arm which
could retrieve soil samples for analysis of possible microbial life. This sequence of
four images shows the Viking 2 lander’s sampling arm retrieving a soil sample
and the small trench from which the sample was removed. (Image PIA00145,
NASA/JPL.)
release (LR) (Figure 8.2). In addition, the gas chromatograph–mass spectrometer

(GCMS) was used to look for organic material within the regolith.
The GEx experiment tested the martian regolith for release of biologically
derived gases by adding water (Klein, 1977). It utilized two modes – a humid mode
and a wet mode when a nutrient solution was added. The experiment tested whether
the addition of water or water and nutrients could stimulate dormant organisms in
the soil to metabolic activity. In the humid non-nutrient mode, the atmospheric
pressure was raised to 200 mbar (2·104 Pa) and saturated with water vapor.
The sample was incubated at temperatures between 281K and 288K for seven
days under dark conditions. In the wet nutrient mode a concentrated solution of
organic and inorganic materials was added to the soil sample and again incubated
under 200 mbar (2·104 Pa) pressure conditions and temperatures in the range of
281–288K. The latter experiment was run three times for periods ranging from 31 to
200 sols. In both cases, gases were released by desorption from the soil and oxygen
was generated. However, these gases were likely produced by chemical reactions of
the oxidized martian soil with the water and nutrients, not by biologic activity.
The PR experiment (also called the carbon assimilation experiment) approxi-
mated the conditions on Mars and incubated the samples under both dark and light
conditions (Horowitz et al., 1977; Klein, 1977). Experiments under lighting con-
ditions removed wavelengths shorter than 320nm. No nutrients were added in either
mode of operation, but a trace of water was added in one test. The test was designed
to determine if microorganisms in the soil directly synthesize carbon from the
atmosphere (CO and/or CO2) and emit gases as waste products. Gases were emitted
206 Search for life
Soil processor
adapter plate
Upper mounting plate assembly
Pyrolytic release illuminator assembly
Soil distribution assembly
Thermoelectric coolers Soil entry port
Vertical actuator assembly
Labeled release
C14 detector assembly He/Kr/CO2 reservoir
Nutrient valve block assembly
Pyrolytic release experiment Module assembly

Dump cell
Gas exchange experiment
Test cell
Heater
Organic vapor trap Test cell
Heaters Dump cell Dump cell
Thermostat
Test cell
Carrousel Stainless steel tubing (15 m)
Gas chromatograph
Labeled release experiment
Nutrient reservoir
Enclosure
Electronic subsystem
Figure 8.2 This diagram shows the layout of the Viking biology experiment
package. The labeled release (LR), pyrolytic release (PR), gas exchange (GEx),
and gas chromatograph–mass spectrometer (GCMS) were the experiments which
analyzed martian soil samples for evidence of life. (NASA.)
during the test. However, heating of the sample to 913K, which should have ster-
ilized it, and retesting revealed that approximately the same amount of gases were
produced. The thermal stability of these experimental results strongly supports a
non-biologic chemical reaction rather than biologic metabolism as the source.
The LR experiment added water containing a dilute solution of simple organic
compounds to the soil sample, then incubated the sample between 13 and 90 sols at a
temperature of 283K and pressure of ∼60 mbar. Gases were again detected from the
incubated soil sample. The temperature of the sample was then raised to 433K in
order to sterilize it and retested. The amount of gas released was lower than the
initial amount but gas was still given off. The results of the LR could be consistent
either with metabolizing organisms in the soil or by non-biologic chemical reactions
(Klein, 1977).
The GCMS experiment analyzed the composition of the martian regolith samples.
Its search for organic materials within the samples was negative (Biemann et al.,
Martian meteorite ALH84001 207
1977). Exposure of surface materials to solar UV combined with the oxidized

soil chemistry likely destroys any organic material in relatively short periods
of time.
The results of the Viking lander experiments argue against microorganisms in the
martian regolith. Results of all of the experiments are consistent with desorption of
atmospheric gases retained by the soil and/or chemical reactions resulting from the
oxidized nature of the soil. Most scientists believe the Viking results indicate that
life does not exist on the surface of Mars at the present time (Space Studies Board,
1977), consistent with our understanding of life under the hostile conditions
described in Section 8.1. However, the landing sites of the two Viking landers were
not in regions that would be optimal for life to exist. Therefore much of the recent
effort at determining if martian life currently exists focuses on “special regions”
where conditions may be more conducive (Klein, 1998; Beaty et al., 2006).
8.3 Martian meteorite ALH84001

The Viking biology experiments indicated that extant martian life is unlikely on the
planet’s surface, but they did not address the possibility of ancient martian life.
Interest in the possibility of extinct martian life resurged in 1996 following the
announcement that chemical evidence within the ALH84001 martian meteorite was
consistent with ancient bacteria (McKay et al., 1996). ALH84001 (Figure 8.3) is
the one martian meteorite with an orthopyroxenite composition and a 4.5 Ga crys-
tallization age (Mittlefehldt, 1994). It contains large globules of carbonates (Figure
4.11) (Romanek et al., 1994) which formed ∼3.9 Ga ago (Borg et al., 1999). Within
Figure 8.3 ALH84001 is the only martian meteorite currently in our collections
which samples the ancient cumulate crust of Mars. Mineralogic evidence within
the meteorite led scientists in 1996 to suggest that the meteorite contained evidence
of ancient martian bacteria. (NASA/JSC.)
208 Search for life
Figure 8.4 Electronic microscopic images of the ALH84001 carbonate revealed a

number of small elongated features which McKay et al. (1996) interpreted as
fossilized nanobacteria. The diameter of this feature is about 1/100 the width of a
human hair. (NASA/JSC.)
the carbonates, McKay et al. (1996) found polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

(PAHs), magnetite, and iron sulfides which they argued were formed by martian
bacteria. They also noted small features (Figure 8.4) which they suggested were
fossilized nanobacteria.
The ALH84001 evidence has been the topic of many heated debates among the
scientific community since it was announced. At present, most scientists believe that
the PAHs and iron sulfides are either non-biologic in origin or result from terrestrial
contamination (Scott, 1999; Zolotov and Shock, 2000). The “nanofossils” have
been determined to be either an artifact from the preparation of the sample for
scanning electron microscope analysis or a terrestrial weathering effect (Sears and
Kral, 1998). The strongest evidence remaining for a biogenic origin of the
ALH84001 mineralogies is the magnetite, whose shape is consistent with an origin
by bacteria (Thomas-Keprta et al., 2000). However, most scientists believe that the
evidence in ALH84001 is too weak to support the assertion that it contains evidence
of ancient martian biologic activity.
8.4 Atmospheric methane

Ground-based observations (Krasnopolsky et al., 2004) and measurements from
MEx’s Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) (Formisano et al., 2004) have detected
methane (CH4) in the martian atmosphere with a global average of ∼10 parts per
billion (ppb). However, PFS detected regional variations in the concentration of
CH4, ranging between 0 and 35 ppb, suggesting localized sources/sinks of the gas
(Formisano et al., 2004). Methane undergoes photochemical losses in the martian
Future missions 209
atmosphere, with a mean loss rate of 2.2·105 cm−2 s−1 and a mean lifetime of ∼340
years (Krasnopolsky et al., 2004; Krasnopolsky, 2006), indicating that it must
constantly be replenished. The timescale of global mixing of CH4 is ∼0.5yr, so
constant replenishment also is indicated by the regional variations in concentration
(Krasnopolsky et al., 2004).
The 1700 ppb of terrestrial atmospheric methane primarily results from biologic
activity and methane-loving organisms (methanogens) are plausible candidates for
martian microbes if they exist (Max and Clifford, 2000; Jakosky et al., 2003; Varnes
et al., 2003). If martian atmospheric CH4 results from subsurface biological activity,
this microbial population must be much smaller than on Earth because of the lower
CH4 concentrations. Krasnopolsky et al. (2004) estimated that the dry biomass
produced by biologic methanogenesis on Mars is between 15·10−13 and 4·10−14
kgm−3, well below the detection limit of 10−8 kgm3 of Viking’s GCMS.
Biologic activity is not the only possible source of martian atmospheric CH4.
Dust and chemical changes to the atmosphere produced during cometary impacts
can produce CH4 (Kress and McKay, 2004), but the amounts are too low to explain
the globally averaged concentrations of 10 ppb (Krasnopolsky, 2006). Volcanic
outgassing is a possible source, but CH4 is a minor component of terrestrial volcanic
emissions (Ryan et al., 2006) and no active volcanism has been detected on Mars
from either visible or thermal IR analysis. Low-temperature alteration of basalt by
carbon-rich hydrothermal fluids is a possible abiogenic source of CH4 (Lyons et al.,
2005), as is photolysis of H2O in the presence of CO (Bar-Nun and Dimitrov, 2006).
Carbon isotopic analysis is necessary to determine whether the CH4 results from
biogenic or abiogenic processes.
8.5 Future missions

The Viking experiments indicate that life is not widely distributed across the martian
surface. However, there are localized areas that might be more conducive to life
forms. In addition, past conditions may have been more hospitable and traces of
extinct life might be retained in certain areas of the planet. Thus the question of
martian life (extinct or extant) still remains to be answered unconditionally. Future
missions are being planned which will help address these issues.
The first post-Viking mission specifically designed to look for evidence of
martian life was the Beagle 2 lander (Figure 8.5), which separated from the Mars
Express orbiter in December 2003. Beagle 2 carried instruments designed to
identify water in the soil, rocks, and atmosphere and traces of life through direct
measurement of carbon compounds (Chicarro, 2002). It landed in the Isidis Basin
but no signal was returned from the spacecraft after landing.
210 Search for life
Figure 8.5 Artist’s concept of the Beagle 2 lander after deployment at its Isidis
Planitia landing site. Unfortunately no signal was ever received from Beagle 2.
(Image ESA20MGBCLC, ESA/Denman Productions.)
Figure 8.6 Phoenix is scheduled to land on Mars in 2008 and will investigate the
martian soil and its ability to contain biologic material. This artist’s concept shows
Phoenix after landing in the northern plains. (NASA/JPL.)
The next mission that will include instruments to look for evidence of life is
NASA’s Phoenix mission (Figure 8.6), which was launched on 4 August 2007. The
objectives of the Phoenix mission are (1) study the history of water in all of its
phases, and (2) search for evidence of habitable zones and assess the biological
potential of the ice–soil boundary (Smith and the Phoenix Science Team, 2004). To
achieve its objectives, Phoenix will land in May 2008 within the 65° to 70°N
latitude zone, which has been characterized as a region of high near-surface ice
content by GRS. Its instruments will investigate subsurface H2O and its interaction
with the atmosphere as well as characterize the composition of the martian regolith
Future missions 211
Figure 8.7 The Mars Science Laboratory is expected to arrive on Mars in 2010 and
will contain instruments designed to look for evidence of current or past martian
life. (Image PIA04892, NASA/JPL.)
down to 0.5 meter depth. The Thermal and Evolved Gas Analyzer (TEGA)
instrument will determine the isotopic ratios of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and
nitrogen within the soil and provide constraints on the role of biological processes in
forming these isotopes.
NASA plans to launch the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) (Figure 8.7) in the fall of
2009 with arrival in October 2010. MSL is a larger, more robust version of the Mars
Exploration Rovers currently operating on the planet. MSL will characterize the
biology, geology, geochemistry, and radiation environment of its landing location
(Vasavada and the MSL Science Team, 2006). Its specific objectives relative to
biology include determining the nature and inventory of organic carbon compounds,
making an inventory of the chemical building blocks of life, and identifying features
which may be representative of biological processes. To achieve these objectives, it
will collect rock and soil samples for distribution among on-board test chambers.
These experiments will determine the elemental composition of the samples, including
organic compounds such as proteins and amino acids which could be produced by life.
ESA has recently selected the ExoMars mission as its first flagship mission in the
Aurora program of Moon and Mars exploration (Figure 8.8). ExoMars will launch in
2013 with arrival at Mars in 2015. It will contain a rover and a small fixed surface
station (Vago et al., 2006). The rover will carry the Pasteur science package designed
to investigate the geology and exobiological properties of the planet. Proposed
instruments include cameras, spectrometers (IR, Mössbauer, and Raman), a ground-
penetrating radar, X-ray diffractometer, Mars Organics and Oxidants Detector,
GCMS, radiation detector, and a meteorological package. An important part of the
rover is the incorporation of a drill which will be able to access the subsurface to a
depth of 2 m to explore the possibility of subsurface biologic oases. The surface
212 Search for life
Figure 8.8 ESA’s ExoMars mission will consist of a rover and a fixed surface
station. The rover, shown in this artist’s conception, will be able to drill to depths of
2 m to determine if life might exist underground. (ESA/AOES Medialab.)
station will contain the Geophysics/Environment Package (GEP), although the

specific instruments have not been selected.
Other missions focused on searching for evidence of martian biology are being
discussed. These include additional landers and sample return missions. In addition,
many studies are being conducted in remote regions of Earth to characterize the
extreme conditions under which terrestrial lifeforms survive and reproduce. These
include dry, cold environments such as the Dry Valleys region of Antarctica (Doran
et al., 1998; Wentworth et al., 2005; Abyzov et al., 2006), volcanic regions where
thermophilic organisms might prosper (Farmer, 1998; Bishop et al., 2004), sulfur-
rich volcanic environments (Fernández-Remolar et al., 2005; Knoll et al., 2005),
and salt-rich environments (Mancinelli et al., 2004; Reid et al., 2006). These studies
help us to better understand the environments under which terrestrial organisms
have flourished and provide us with insights into possible astrobiological niches
on Mars.
8.6 Planetary protection issues

The possibility that Mars may possess extant life forms or at least provide envir-
onments where life forms could survive and replicate leads to issues of planetary
protection. The basic tenet of planetary protection is that exploration must not
jeopardize possible life forms throughout the Solar System. The Committee on
Space Research (COSPAR) is an international organization charged with
developing and maintaining planetary protection policies (Rummel et al., 2002).
Contamination can be either from Earth-based organisms being transported to
another world (“forward contamination”) or from extraterrestrial organisms being
transported to Earth (“backward contamination”). COSPAR defines five categories
Planetary protection issues 213
of planetary protection. Category I includes any type of mission to a body with low
probability of life. Examples include Venus and the Moon. Category II are bodies
which may provide insights into the origin of life but which provide only a remote
chance that contamination by a spacecraft will jeopardize future exploration.
Examples are comets and the Jovian planets. Mars exploration is included in
Categories III and IV since it is an environment where forward contamination
would jeopardize future biological explorations. Category III refers to flyby and
orbiter missions while Category IV covers landers and atmospheric probes. Cat-
egory V refers to a mission from any body which is returning samples to the Earth
and is concerned with backward contamination.
Mars orbiters are required to meet the Viking lander pre-sterilization spore levels
in the event that the spacecraft crashes into the planet (Rummel and Meyer, 1996).
The Viking landers were assembled in a Class 100000 clean room with an average
spore burden of 300 spores per square meter and a total spore burden of 3·105
spores per square meter (DeVincenzi et al., 1996). These are the bioburden levels
which Class III spacecraft to Mars are required to meet.
Class IV spacecraft include landers, rovers, penetrators, and atmospheric probes.
They are subdivided into Classes IVa and IVb, depending on whether the mission
contains life-detection experiments (DeVincenzi et al., 1996). Landers without
life-detection experiments require pre-sterilization Viking lander bioburden
levels, similar to the Class III spacecraft. Category IVb landers carry life-detection
experiments and require Viking-level sterilization levels. The Viking landers were
heat sterilized by being exposed to a temperature of ∼385K for 30 hours.
The 2005 COSPAR planetary protection policy defined a Class IVc mission,
which are those landers investigating special regions on Mars. A special region is
defined as one where terrestrial organisms could propagate or which has a high
potential for extant martian life (see COSPAR, 2005). The Mars Special Regions
Science Analysis Group (SR-SAG) (Beaty et al., 2006) rated the potential of
specific martian environments to exceed the threshold conditions in temperature
(253K) and water activity (0.5) necessary for microbial propagation within ∼5m of
the surface for a time period of 100 years after arrival of the mission. Both normal
and crash landings were considered by the team. Their study finds that the only
regions that show a significant probability of association with modern liquid water
were the gullies and the pasted-on mantle material in the ∼30°–80° latitude zone in
both hemispheres. The recent detection by MGS of changes in gully appearance
which may indicate recent water flow reinforces the special region nature of these
features (Malin et al., 2006) (Figure 8.9).
Regions for which there is a low but non-zero probability of modern liquid water
include the low-latitude slope streaks, low-latitude features proposed to be glaciers,
and features hypothesized to be deposits of massive subsurface ice. Features that
214 Search for life
Figure 8.9 Gully formation continues into the present day, as these two images of a
crater in the Centauri Montes region demonstrate. A light-colored deposit formed
within the 6-year period between August 1999, when the left image was acquired,
and September 2005 when the right image was taken. Although the deposit might
have been formed by a dust avalanche, water flow is the preferred interpretation.
(MOC image MOC2-1619, NASA/JPL/MSSS.)
could have a high probability of association with modern liquid water but which
have not been identified as existing at the present time include young volcanic
environments, possible hydrothermal systems in recent large impact craters, and
modern outflow channels. Overall, the SR-SAG found that while conditions might
support the existence of life for short time periods, the conditions on Mars were too
hostile to allow such life to replicate which would lead to large-scale biological
contamination.
Future missions to Mars include plans for sample return. This raises the small but
non-zero chance that martian microorganisms might be brought to Earth which
could prove dangerous to terrestrial life (Race, 1996; Trofimov et al., 1996). The
2005 COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy states that samples which will not be
subject to life-detection investigations should be sterilized before return to Earth.
Unsterilized samples must be placed in a sample container which is then sealed and
placed in another containment system whose integrity will be verified before the
sample is returned to Earth. This latter containment system must not have contacted
Mars, either directly or indirectly, thus breaking the “chain of contact” between
Mars and Earth. No uncontained hardware or samples which contacted Mars and
which have not been sterilized can be returned to Earth. Once on Earth, all samples
Planetary protection issues 215
Figure 8.10 The Lunar Receiving Laboratory was built at NASA’s Johnson Space
Center as a containment facility in which to store and analyze the lunar samples
without cross-contamination. Similar laboratory designs are being evaluated for
the return of samples from Mars. (NASA/JSC.)
will be sent to receiving facilities designed to contain the material and allocate it for
scientific study, similar to the process instituted at NASA Johnson Space Center for
receiving, cataloging, and distributing the lunar samples returned by the Apollo
missions (Mangus and Larsen, 2004) (Figure 8.10).
9
Looking ahead
Our paradigm of Mars has shifted several times, particularly during the past 40
years of spacecraft observations. Lowell’s view of a world criss-crossed by canals
built by a dying race of Martians was supplanted in the 1960s by Mariner views of a
geologically dead world with an atmosphere too thin to support liquid water.
Mariner 9’s discovery of channels and volcanoes shifted the view to one of a planet
where water existed in the past and led to renewed interest in the possibility that life
might exist on our neighboring world. The Viking lander investigations quashed
hopes of finding the martian soil teeming with microbial life, but refocused
the interest in biological activity (past or present) to identifying localized oases.
Recognition that we have samples of the planet’s crust in the form of martian
meteorites has greatly influenced our understanding of the planet’s bulk chemistry
and thermal evolution. The latest shift in our mental picture of Mars has revealed
that water, either liquid or ice, has played a larger role throughout the planet’s
history than previously recognized. Our post-Viking view was that Mars had a
thicker atmosphere and warmer, wetting surface conditions early in its history, but
the post-Noachian period has been characterized by the cold, dry climate that we
see today. Insights gained from MGS, Odyssey, MER, and MEx combined with
increasing computational capabilities have revealed that short-lived climate excur-
sions have occurred up through recent times, driven by changes in orbital parameters
and the planet’s obliquity. Equatorial cold-based glaciers and mid-latitude gullies
probably formed by seeping groundwater reveal that water is actively altering the
face of Mars even today.
We are entering a new era of Mars exploration. The mineralogic information
provided by Spirit and Opportunity combined with orbital investigations from TES,
THEMIS, and OMEGA have revealed that the planet has distinct mineralogic
periods which generally coincide with the well-established geologic periods. These
results further illuminate the geologic and climatic changes that the planet has
experienced throughout its 4.5 Ga of existence. The increasingly higher resolutions
216
Looking ahead 217
Opportunity
"Cape Verde"
Rover tracks
"Duck Bay"
"Cabo Frio"
50 m(164 ft)
Figure 9.1 The Opportunity rover had just arrived at the rim of Victoria Crater
when MRO’s HiRISE camera snapped its picture from orbit. This is the first time
that a surface mission has been clearly seen in images taken by a Mars orbiter.
(PIA08817, NASA/JPL/University of Arizona.)
achieved by spectrometers, such as CRISM on MRO, will permit even more

detailed investigations in the upcoming years and allow us to begin to understand
the small-scale geology of the planet.
Higher resolutions are not limited just to the spectrometers. MOC, THEMIS, and
HRSC have taken us from the kilometer-scale views of earlier orbiters to meter-
scale perspectives where localized geological processes begin to reveal themselves.
These improved views have helped us narrow the possible range of processes
operating in different regions of the planet. The arrival of MRO with the HiRISE
camera is taking us to the next step of seeing surface features down to the centi-
meter scale. For the first time we can actually see our surface landers and rovers
from orbit (Figure 9.1), which exemplifies the new perspective we can anticipate of
the martian surface.
Topographic information from MOLA and the stereo views of HRSC have
provided us with three-dimensional views of martian surface features for the first
time. Determining depths, heights, slopes, and roughness helps constrain the types
of processes that formed and modified the observed surface features. We can now
also peer below the surface through use of MEx’s MARSIS and MRO’s SHARAD
ground-penetrating radars and determine how subsurface structure and compos-
ition, particularly the distribution of subsurface ice and liquid, influence the features
seen on the martian surface.
Long-term monitoring of the martian atmosphere by TES, PFS, and SPICAM
combined with surface monitoring from landers and rovers is helping us to
218 Looking ahead
understand the structure of the atmosphere and the processes driving its circulation.
Features that had previously been proposed based on general circulation models
have now been confirmed by these instruments. Advances in computational
capabilities and improved modeling of the terrestrial atmosphere have enhanced the
modeling of the martian atmosphere and mesoscale models are providing us with
our first detailed understanding of weather and climate at specific locations on the
surface. New insights of weather and atmospheric structure can be anticipated as
data from MRO’s Mars Climate Imager (MARCI) and Mars Climate Sounder
(MCS) are analyzed.
Upcoming missions will focus on addressing specific questions about Mars.
Phoenix will provide the first detailed analysis of surface ice. Its Microscopy, Elec-
trochemistry, and Conductivity Analyzer (MECA) will determine the mineralogy,
pH, water/ice content, and soil/ice conductivity at the landing site. Complementing
MECA is the Thermal and Evolved Gas Analyzer (TEGA) experiment which will
characterize the chemistry of ice and soil samples and look for evidence of organic
molecules which might have been produced by biological activity. The Surface
Stereo Imager (SSI) and Robotic Arm Camera (RAC) will determine the geological
context of the samples and surroundings, and the Meterological Station (MET) will
provide daily weather reports during the lander’s operational lifetime.
The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) is a larger and heavier version of the Mars
Exploration Rovers, with enhanced capabilities for on-board analysis of surface
materials. It will include a laser to vaporize thin surface layers of rock and allow
chemical analysis of the rock’s interior. On-board test chambers will analyze the
chemistry of soil and crushed rock samples, including detection of organic mol-
ecules indicative of life. A neutron spectrometer will be used to locate water and a
meterological package will monitor the atmospheric conditions and daily weather as
the rover moves across the planet’s surface.
Two candidates for the 2011 Mars Scout mission were announced in January
2007. The two candidates, Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) and
The Great Escape (TGE), would study the evolution of Mars’ upper atmosphere
through analysis of the structure and dynamics operating in this region. A major
emphasis of both missions will be to understand atmospheric loss through inter-
actions of the upper atmosphere with the solar wind. NASA will select one of these
proposals in early 2008 as the final design for the 2011 Mars Scout mission.
ESA’s ExoMars will be the first Mars mission with drilling capabilities. Although
primarily advertised as an astrobiology mission (Section 8.5), ExoMars will also
characterize the geochemical and geophysical characteristics of its landing area. The
Pasteur experiment package will investigate the interior composition of rocks
encountered by the rover and can drill up to 2 meters in the soil to collect samples which
will be analyzed by on-board experiments. The lander’s Geophysics/Environmental
Looking ahead 219
Package will supplement the data acquired by other landers and rovers about the
weather and surface material properties.
These upcoming missions will address some of the current questions about Mars’
upper atmosphere, surface geochemical and geophysical characteristics, and the
planet’s potential for harboring extinct or extant life. However, answers to many
other questions will have to await missions yet to be defined. The interior structure
of Mars is one of the biggest uncertainties and will require emplacement of a seismic
network across the planet. Experiments to measure heat flow at various locations
across the planet will constrain the present-day geothermal flux and provide insights
into the stability of near-surface ice and the thermal evolution of the planet. Analysis
of martian meteorites has provided our first glimpse of the planet’s bulk chemistry,
but they largely represent young basaltic flows. Analysis of a wider variety of rock
samples from across the martian surface will better define the geochemical evolu-
tion of the planet. Age-dating of surface samples is needed to constrain the martian
crater chronology and determine its similarities and differences to that derived for
the Earth–Moon system. Firm establishment of the martian chronology will further
illuminate the geologic, geochemical, thermal, and climatic histories of the planet.
A common question about the future exploration of Mars is the relative role of
robots versus humans. Robotic missions are cheaper than human missions and can
operate for longer periods, typically until the mission reaches the end of its operating
lifetime. Advances in technology are producing rover and lander missions capable
of feats that were only dreamed of during the Viking era. However, the Apollo
missions taught us that trained astronauts can easily outperform a robotic mission.
Spirit took five months to travel approximately 3 km from its landing site on the
Gusev plains to Columbia Hills. Much of that time was spent driving and if the rover
passed an unusual rock during its periods of autonomous driving, the rock went
unnoticed. Humans not only could travel greater distances in shorter periods of time
but also can climb steeper slopes and stop to investigate serendipitous discoveries
along the way. Human missions also are typically of more interest to those
remaining behind on Earth, notwithstanding the incredible Internet traffic associated
with the MPF and MER missions. However, humans require expensive life-support
(air, food, water, shelter) and the extent of such a mission will be shorter because of
the need to return to Earth. Sending humans to Mars, as proposed in NASA’s Vision
for Space Exploration, will take substantial resources and commitment to achieve.
International participation, and sharing of the costs, will likely be necessary to take
this step. Robotic missions cannot be sacrificed to pay the way for humans – a
balanced program of robotic and human exploration will provide the best return on
the monetary investment.
I am often asked why we should spend the money exploring Mars when there are
so many problems facing us here on Earth. My response is that the technologies
220 Looking ahead
Figure 9.2 The Earth’s clouds and water-covered surface contrast with the dry
conditions and thin atmosphere of Mars. (From Viking Orbiter Views of Mars,
NASA SP-441, courtesy Lunar and Planetary Institute.)
developed for studying Mars and the knowledge that we gain from our neighboring
world benefit all of us on Earth. Mars exploration excites people, particularly our
youth. Such excitement in the early days of the space program led those of us
currently involved in Mars exploration to pursue scientific and engineering careers.
Our current discoveries are inspiring a new generation of scientists and engineers
whose creativity and inventions will enable breakthroughs to resolve many of the
problems facing humanity. The conditions on present-day Mars contrast dramat-
ically with the warm, water-rich Earth, enhancing our awareness of our own fragile
environment (Figure 9.2). Our growing realization that early Mars was more Earth-
like with liquid water, a thicker atmosphere, and warmer surface conditions leads
me and many of my colleagues to investigate what happened to produce the cold,
dry planet we see at present. Such knowledge will help us be better caretakers of the
blue orb that we call home.
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Appendix: Mission reports
Early missions
A summary of the early Mars missions can be found in chapter 1, Spacecraft Exploration
of Mars, by Conway Snyder and Vassili Moroz (1992) in Mars, eds. H.H. Kieffer,
B.M. Jakosky, C.W. Snyder, and M.S. Matthews. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona
Press, pp.71–119.
Viking
Viking mission results were published in four special issues of the Journal of Geophysical
Research:
Volume 82, 30 September 1977
Volume 84, 30 December 1979
Volume 87, 30 November 1982
Volume 95, 30 August 1990
Mars Pathfinder
The Mars Pathfinder 90 day report was published in the 5 December 1997 issue of
Science (vol. 278).
Results from the Mars Pathfinder mission were published in two issues of the Journal of
Geophysical Research:
Volume 104, 25 April 1999
Volume 105, 25 January 2000
Mars Global Surveyor

The Mars Global Surveyor 90 day report was published in the 13 March 1998 issue of
Science (vol. 279).
A special section devoted to the Mars Global Surveyor mission initial results was
published in the 25 October 2001, issue of the Journal of Geophysical Research
(vol. 106).
255
256 Appendix
Mars Odyssey
Initial reports from Mars Odyssey can be found in the July 2002 (vol. 297) and June 2003
(vol. 300) issues of Science.
A special section devoted to the Mars Odyssey mission early results was published in the
January 2004 issue of Space Science Reviews (vol. 110).
Mars Express
A book describing the scientific experiments on Mars Express is: Mars Express: The
Scientific Payload, edited by Andrew Wilson and published by ESA Publication
Division (2004).
First results from the OMEGA instrument were published in the March 2005 issue of
Science (vol. 307).
First results from the PFS instrument were published in the August 2005 issue of
Planetary and Space Science (vol. 53).
Mars Exploration Rovers

The 90 day report for the Spirit rover was published in the 6 August 2004, issue of
Science (vol. 305).
The 90 day report for the Opportunity rover was published in the 3 December 2004, issue
of Science (vol. 306).
Mission Websites
US Mars mission information can be accessed through the JPL Mars Exploration Program
website: mars.jpl.nasa.gov/
Mars 96: www.iki.rssi.ru/mars96/mars96hp.html
Mars Express: www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Mars.Express/index.html
ExoMars: www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Aurora/SEM1NVZKQAD.0.html
Nozomi: nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/tmp/1998-041A.html
www.stp.isas.jaxa.jp/nozomi/index-e.html
Index
2001: A Space Odyssey 13 Aram Chaos 83

Archimedes’ principle 58
aa flows 122, 123 Ares Vallis 12, 83, 87, 151
absolute ages (see absolute chronology) Argyre 41, 118, 157, 159, 162, 164
absolute chronology 104, 109 Arsia Mons 126, 127
accretion 28–9, 36, 185, 189 Ascraeus Mons 126, 127, 135
accretionary heating 31, 42 ash 124, 130, 131
Acidalia 82, 139 aspect ratio 123, 127
adiabatic lapse rate 167, 168, 170, 176, 177, 183 asteroids 26–7, 30, 108, 189, 193
Aeolis 141 asthenosphere 64, 71, 133
aerocentric latitude 52, 53 atmosphere 3, 8, 116, 162, 163–86, 187, 193, 194,
aerographic latitude 52, 53 203, 216, 218
Airy-0 53 circulation 178, 181–3
Airy isostacy 58, 59 composition 164
Alba Patera 60, 129, 130, 134, 135, 192 evolution 185–6
albedo 26, 72–3, 74, 98, 156, 157 lower 171, 172, 182
bond 22, 72, 97 middle 171, 172
geometric 22, 73 structure 171–3
Albor Tholus 125, 126 upper 171, 172–3, 218
ALH84001 35, 85, 87, 207–8 Atmospheric Structure Instrument/Meteorology
alluvial fans 151, 153, 193 Package (ASI/MET) 12
Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS) 14, 81, atmospheric surface pressure 8, 16, 163, 172, 180, 198
88, 92 atomic mass unit 165
Alpha Proton X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS) 12, 88 AUGUST 17
Amazonian Period 110, 111, 120, 126, 127, 135, 138, aureole 129
150, 158, 161, 163, 188, 190, 192, 195, 202 aurora 18
Amazonis Planitia 110, 130, 131, 135, 164 Avogadro’s number 168
Ampère’s law 67
Amphitrites Patera 126 backward contamination 212
Analyzer of Space Plasma and Energetic Atoms barchan dunes 144, 145
(ASPERA) 18 barometric equation 165
Anderson, E.M. 4 basalt 83, 88, 89, 91, 93, 122, 126, 130
Anderson’s Theory of Faulting 134 Basaltic Achondrite Best Initial (BABI) 34
andesite 83, 88, 89, 93 Basin and Range 134
angle of repose 124, 140 Beagle 2 18, 209, 210
angular momentum 181 Beer, Wilhelm 3, 53
Antarctica 212 Beer’s law 170
Antoniadi, E.M. 3 Biblis Patera 130
aphelion 20 blueberries 91
Apollinaris Patera 126 body waves 63–4
Apollo 10, 30, 48, 109, 215, 219 bolide ratio 110
aquifer 195, 200 Boltzmann’s constant 165
Arabia 85, 130, 148, 164, 194, 202 Bouguer, Pierre 58
257
258 Index
Bouguer anomaly 58, 60 convection 40–1, 44, 64, 65–6, 166–9, 170, 172,
Bouguer correction 58 177, 183, 184
Brahe, Tycho 2 coordinate systems 52–4
bulk composition 37–9, 219 Copernicus, Nicholaus 1
bulk modulus 63 Coprates Chasma 19, 138
Coracis Fossae 66
caldera 112, 122, 124, 127, 129 core 44, 57, 66, 71
canals 3–5, 203, 216 core formation 37, 39, 42
canali 3 Coriolis force 155, 178, 181, 182
Candor Chasma 138 crater (see impact craters)
carbon dioxide (CO2) 8, 15, 151, 153, 154, 157, 163, crater density 47, 104, 156
190–1, 201 crater size–frequency distributions 104–6
carbonate 70, 83, 84, 87, 93, 207, 208 crater statistics 104–10
Cassini, Giovanni 2 creep 141, 156
Centauri Montes 214 crust 70, 71, 95
center of figure (COF) 52, 56 crustal dichotomy (see hemispheric dichotomy)
center of mass (COM) 51, 56 crustal thickness 41, 44, 60, 63, 71
central peak 115, 118, 119 cryosphere 200, 201
central pit 118, 119, 200, 202 cryptic region 157
centrifugal potential 57 crystallization age 33–4, 109
Ceraunius Patera 130 cumulative size–frequency distribution 48, 105
Cerberus 131, 199, 200 Curie temperature 68
chalcophile elements 31
channel 3, 9, 147–50, 152, 190, 204, 216 D/H ratio 189–90, 193
Channeled Scablands 150 Dawes, William 3
chaotic terrain 135, 148, 150 debris aprons 158
Chasma Australe 155 Deep Space 2 (DS2) 7, 13
Chasma Boreale 144, 155 Deimos 3, 8, 25–6, 26–7, 197
chassignites 35 deltas 151
chemical remnant magnetization (CRM) 68 dendritic channels 149
chemical weathering 94 density 22, 23, 98, 165
Chryse Planitia 10, 12, 87 density scale height 166
Cimmeria 44, 68, 69, 70 deuterium 185, 189
cinder cones 121, 124 Deuteronilus Mensae 195
cirques 158 dichotomy (see hemispheric dichotomy)
Claritas 135 differentiation 31, 36, 64, 185, 193
Clausius-Clapeyron equation 176 diffusion term 67
clathrates 190, 191, 195 dikes 41, 70, 127, 138
climate 183–4, 194, 218 discharge 149, 150
climate change 164, 186, 197–9, 216 distributary fans 151, 152, 193
climate cycles 144, 155, 156 domes (see tholii)
clouds 173–7 drill 211, 218
condensate 157, 181 duricrust 95, 100
dust 2 dust 16, 35, 87, 88, 93, 95, 96, 98, 100–1, 130, 141,
orographic 175, 176, 184 144, 156, 157, 166, 172, 184
white 2, 175, 176 dust cycle 76, 83, 90, 180
color 73, 75, 94 dust devils 100, 101, 146, 173, 174, 183, 184
Columbia Hills 14, 89, 90, 219 dust storms 8, 9, 15, 88, 93, 100, 126, 157, 164,
Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) 212, 173–5, 184
213, 214
Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Eagle Crater 14, 91, 92, 93
Mars (CRISM) 80, 217 Early Heavy Bombardment Period 30
complex craters 114, 115, 118, 119 Eberswalde Crater 152
composite volcano (see stratovolcano) eccentricity (see orbital eccentricity)
composition 76–93 EETA 79001 53
compressional faults (see thrust faults) ejecta blanket 114, 115–16, 161
compressional stress 134, 139, 140 continuous 115, 116
condensation flow (see seasonal cycles) discontinuous 115, 116
cones 131 layered 116, 117, 200, 202
contact/compression stage 112 elastic lithosphere 66
conduction 64, 65, 166 elastic material 132
Index 259
electrical conductivity 67 glacial activity 158–61, 190, 195, 196, 198, 199,
electrostatic charging 101 213, 216
elemental abundances 85 glacier (see glacial activity)
Elysium 60, 63, 66, 85, 110, 124, 125, 126, 135, 161, Gould, M. 3
164, 193, 202 graben 129, 130, 134, 135, 139
Elysium Mons 125, 126, 127 Grand Canyon 104
emission coefficient 169 gravitational potential 54–5
emmissivity 98, 157 gravity 22, 54–60, 140, 149
Endurance Crater 93 gravity anomalies 57–60, 61
eolian processes 120, 141–7 Great Escape, The (TGE) 218
Erebus Crater 110 Green, Nathaniel 3
erg 144 greenhouse gases 185, 198
erosion 107, 108, 110, 120, 149, 154, 192 greenhouse warming 98, 163, 164, 172, 185, 195
escape velocity 22, 173 ground ice 150, 202
eskers 158, 159 groundwater 149, 150, 158, 216
equilibrium condensation 29 gullies 151, 153, 158, 190, 191, 199, 213, 214, 216
excavation stage 113–18 Gusev Crater 14, 87, 88, 89, 90, 95, 101, 174, 219
exhumation 193
exobase 173, 186 Hadley cell circulation 178–9, 181, 183, 184
ExoMars 211–12, 218, 256 Hadriaca Patera 126
extensional faults (see normal faults) Hale-Bopp 189
extensional stress 134, 139 half-life 33
extinction coefficient 169 Hall, Asaph 3, 23
extreme ultraviolet 166, 172 Hall, Chloe Angeline Stickney 23
Halley 189
Faraday’s law of inductance 67 haze 173, 174, 176, 183
faults 63, 70, 134, 149 heat flow 41, 64–6, 185, 195, 201, 219
ferric iron (Fe3þ) 82, 88 heat flux (see heat flow)
ferromagnetism 68 heavy bombardment period 30, 162
ferrous iron (Fe2þ) 82 Hecates Tholus 125, 127
first law of thermodynamics 167 Hellas 41, 60, 62, 73, 75, 99, 118, 146, 157, 158, 159,
Flammarion, Nicolas 3 162, 164
flattening 22, 23, 51, 57 hematite 83, 91, 126
Flaugergues, Honoré 2 hemispheric dichotomy 41, 44, 60, 69, 139, 148, 160,
flood basalts 121, 122, 124, 127, 140, 193 195, 202
fluvial processes 110, 147–51, 162, 190, 193 Herschel, William 2
fog 173, 174, 183 Hesperia Planum 110
folding 133 Hesperian period 43, 84, 110, 111, 120, 126, 127, 130,
forward contamination 212 135, 138, 140, 150, 158, 161, 163, 190, 192, 193,
Fourier’s law 65, 166 194, 195, 202
fractional crystallization 43 High-Energy Neutron Detector (HEND) 79, 201
free air anomaly 58 High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment
fretted channels 149, 160 (HiRISE) 156, 217
fretted terrain 148, 160 High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) 18, 19, 24,
friction speed 143 123, 127, 131, 159, 198, 217
frost outlier 157 Holden Crater 152
Hooke’s law 132
Galileo 2, 110 horst 134
Galle Crater 152 Hubble Space Telescope (HST) 5, 76, 82, 153,
Gamma Ray Spectrometer (GRS) 13, 79–81, 85, 86, 175, 184
158, 164, 187, 191, 201, 210 Hugoniot equations 112, 113
Ganges Chasma 83, 138 human missions 219
Gas Chromatograph-Mass Spectrometer (GCMS) Huygens, Christiaan 2
206, 211 Hyakutake 189
gas constant 168 hydraulic radius 149
Gas Exchange (GEx) experiment 205, 206 hydrologic cycle 195
geochronology 32–4, 104 hydrostatic equilibrium, equation of 165
geoid 57, 60, 165 hydrothermal activity 41, 150, 204, 209, 214
geologic history 161–3
Geophysics / Environment Package (GEP) 212, 218 ice (see water)
geothermal flux 200, 219 ice stability 202
260 Index
ideal gas law 165 Lunar Crater Chronology (LCC) 48, 109
igneous rocks 102, 103 Lunar Receiving Laboratory 215
ignimbrites 124 Lyot Crater 119, 160
Imager for Mars Pathfinder (IMP) 12
impact craters 60, 110–20, 139, 150, 161, 185, 192, Ma’adim Valles 89
193, 202, 204, 214 maars 120
impact creep 141, 143, 149 magma ocean 42–3, 64
impact erosion 186, 193 magnetic field 8, 16, 41–2, 66–70, 185, 203
inclination (see orbital inclination) magnetic diffusivity 67
induction equation 67 magnetic permeability 67
infrared 78, 86, 166, 172 magnetic properties 95–7, 101
Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer (IRIS) 80 Magnetometer / Electron Reflectometer (MAG / ER)
infrared sounding 171 12, 41, 67, 68, 69
infrared spectrometer 211 Manning equation 149
Infrared Thermal Mapper (IRTM) 11, 80, 97 Manning roughness coefficient 149
intercrater plains 124, 161 mantle 37, 38, 40, 71, 189
International Astronomical Union (IAU) 53 mantle plumes 41, 45, 66, 127
interior structure 70–1, 219 mantling deposits 199, 213
ionosphere 16, 67, 172 maps 3
Isidis 18, 41, 209, 210 Maraldi, Giacomo 2
isochron line 34, 52 Mariner 3 6, 8
isochron plots 107, 110 Mariner 4 6, 8, 9, 163, 204
isostacy 58–60 Mariner 6 6, 8, 80, 163, 204
isostacy equation 58 Mariner 7 6, 8, 80, 163, 204
isostatic compensation 58 Mariner 8 6, 8
Mariner 9 6, 8–10, 53, 80, 126, 147, 182, 187, 191,
jarosite 91 204, 216
Jeans’ escape 186 Mars 1 6, 15
Johnson Space Center 215 Mars 2 6, 8, 15–16
joints 134, 149 Mars 3 6, 8, 15–16
Jovis Tholus 130 Mars 4 6, 16
Mars 5 6, 16
katabatic winds 155 Mars 6 6, 16–17
Kepler, Johannes 2, 20 Mars 7 6, 16–17
Kilauea Volcano 123 Mars 96 7, 17, 64, 256
Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionospheric
Labeled Release (LR) experiment 206 Sounding (MARSIS) 18, 19, 41, 43, 76, 78,
laminar flow 142, 146, 149 202, 217
landslides 138, 140, 190 Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN)
Laplace’s equation 54 218
Late Heavy Bombardment 30, 47, 108, 186, 193 Mars Atmospheric Water Detector (MAWD) 10
lava channels 122, 123, 127 Mars Climate Imager (MARCI) 218
lava dome 124 Mars Climate Orbiter (MCO) 7, 12–13
lava fountain 124 Mars Climate Sounder (MCS) 218
lava tubes 122, 123 Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) 7, 13–15, 101, 171,
layered deposits 138, 150, 152 191, 211, 216, 218, 219, 256
Legendre polynomials 55 Spirit 7, 13–14, 81, 87, 88–91, 97, 101, 174,
life 3, 4, 10, 203–15, 216 216, 219
lineated terrain 159 Opportunity 7, 13, 18, 38, 87, 91–2, 93, 96, 97, 145,
lineated valley fill 161 151, 193, 194, 204, 216, 217
lithophile elements 31, 38, 39 Mars Express (MEx) 7, 18, 80, 162, 187,
lithosphere 44, 66, 71, 130, 133, 193 216, 256
loess 144 Mars Global Circulation Models (MGCMs)
log-incremental size–frequency distribution 106 182–3, 218
longitude of Sun (LS) 21 Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) 7, 11–12, 54, 56, 66,
longitudinal dunes 144, 145 80, 129, 144, 162, 187, 193, 213, 216, 255
Lowell, Percival 4–5, 203, 216 Mars Observer 7, 11, 13
Lowell Observatory 4 Mars Odyssey (MO) 7, 13, 80, 129, 162, 187, 193,
Luna 30, 109 216, 256
Lunae Planum 121, 140 Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) 11, 54, 75, 129, 150,
lunar cataclysm 30 174, 175, 184, 196, 197, 198, 217
Index 261
Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) 5, 11, 41, 43, Nili Patera 83, 84, 126
51, 53, 60, 62, 63, 76, 77, 122, 128, 129, 130, Nilosyrtis Mensae 148
131, 138, 139, 140, 144, 195, 196, 217 Noachian period 84, 110, 111, 120, 126, 127, 135,
Mars Organics and Oxidants Detector 211 138, 150, 151, 161, 162, 185, 187, 188, 191–3
Mars Pathfinder (MPF) 7, 12, 56, 87, 88, 89, 95, 96, Noachis 110
100, 101, 171, 172, 174, 177, 219, 255 noble gases 35, 40, 193
Mars Polar Lander (MPL) 7, 13 Noctis Labyrinthus 135
Mars Radio Science Experiment (MaRS) 18 normal faults 134, 135, 139
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) 7, 15, 80, 187 Nozomi 7, 19, 256
Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) 15, 211, 218
Mars Scout 218 obliquity 2, 3, 20, 21, 156, 158, 162, 164, 186,
Martian Chronicles, The 4 197–9, 216
martian meteorites 31, 35–6, 37–9, 54, 59, 85–7, 88, Observatoire pour la Minéralogie, l’Eau, les Glaces,
189, 190, 216, 219 et l’Activité (OMEGA) 18, 38, 80, 83, 84, 162,
Martian Radiation Experiment (MARIE) 13–15, 203 191, 193, 216
Marwth Vallis 84 occultation spectrometer (see AUGUST)
mass 22, 23, 55 ocean 190, 194–7
mass movement 140–1 Oceanus Borealis 195, 196, 197
Mauna Loa 121 Ohm’s law 67
Maxwell distribution function 173 olivine 71, 83, 93, 196
Maxwell’s equations 67 Olympia Planitia 144, 157
Medusae Fossae Formation 76, 130, 131, 146 Olympus Mons 60, 62, 122, 125, 126, 129, 147,
Meroe Patera 126 197, 199
Meridiani 14, 53, 83, 87, 91, 92, 93, 95, 130, 145, 151, Opportunity (see Mars Exploration Rovers)
193, 194, 204 opposition 21, 22
mesoscale models 182, 218 optical depth 166, 169
mesosphere (see atmosphere, middle) orbital distance 19, 20
metamorphic rocks 103 orbital eccentricity 19, 20, 164, 183, 197, 198
Meteor Crater 112 orbital inclination 19, 20, 197
meteorological package 211, 218 orbital period 20
Meterological Station (MET) 218 orbital properties 20
methane (CH4) 18, 151, 190, 208–9 orbital velocity 20, 21
Microscopic Imager (MI) 14, 88, 91, 92 Orientale Basin 107
Microscopy, Electrochemistry, and Conductivity outflow channels 10, 135, 148, 149, 150, 158, 162,
Analyzer (MECA) 218 190, 191, 195, 200, 214
Milankovitch cycles 197 outgassing 38, 187, 209
mineral 102 oxygen isotopes 35, 38–59
Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer ozone 16, 172, 204
(Mini-TES) 14, 88, 97
model age 34 pahoehoe flows 122, 123
modification stage 118 paleolake 88, 150, 193
moments of inertia 44, 51, 52, 56–7 paleomagnetic poles 70
moraines 158, 159 Palomar Observatory 5
Mössbauer spectrometer 15, 81, 88, 97, 101, 211 Panoramic Camera (Pancam) 14, 97
Mountains of Mitchell 157 paramagnetism 68
Mt. St. Helens 121 Pasteur 211, 218
multi-ring basins 118 paterae 124, 126, 161, 185
Pavonis Mons 123, 126, 127
nakhlites 35 peak ring 118, 119
name 1 pedestal craters 120
nanobacteria 208 perihelion 20, 175, 184, 197
Navier–Stokes equation 65 permafrost 158, 195, 200, 202
Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer permittivity of free space 67
(NICMOS) 78 phase integral 73
Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (ISM) 17, 80 Phobos 3, 8, 17, 24–5, 26–7, 197
Neutron Spectrometer (NS) 79, 201, 218 Phobos 1 7, 17
neutrons 85, 201–2 Phobos 2 7, 17, 80, 82
epithermal 80, 201–2 Phoenix 15, 210–11, 218
fast 80, 201 phosphates 38
thermal 80, 201 phyllosian period 84, 162, 193
Newtonian fluid 132 phyllosilicates 84, 93, 162, 185, 193
262 Index
physical properties 22 rock abundance 76, 100
physical weathering 94 rock cycle 103
pingos 158 rock fall 140
planetary boundary layer 182 rockslide 140
planetary embryos 29 Rossby wave 181
Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) 18, 80, 208, 217 rotation axis tilt (see obliquity)
planetary protection 212–15 rotation period 2, 3, 21, 22
planetesimals 28, 187 roughness 75–6, 77, 196
plate tectonics 41, 43–5, 70, 135
polar caps 2, 3, 15, 75, 76, 78, 144, 151–5, 156–7, salt 89, 90, 91, 92, 164, 212
164, 180, 181, 184, 187, 199, 200 saltation 141, 143, 146, 149
polar hood 157, 173 sample return 212, 214
polar layered deposits 76, 78, 130, 144, 146, 151, sand 95, 142, 144
155–6, 199, 200 sand dunes 96, 144, 145
polar regions 151–8 sapping 149, 150, 191, 200
polar wander 70 saturation 107
polygonal terrain 139, 158, 160 scale height 165, 178, 183
Pratt isostacy 58, 59 Schiaparelli, Giovanni 3, 73
precession constant 56 seasonal cycles 172, 180, 181, 183
precession rate 22, 23, 56 CO2 180
primary (P) waves 63–4 H2O 180–1
prime meridian 53 seasons 3, 21
principal axes 52 secondary craters 108–9, 115, 116
Proctor, Richard 3 secondary (S) waves 63–4
production populations 108 sectoral harmonics 55
pseudocraters 158 sedimentary rocks 103
pyroclastic deposits 124, 126, 127, 129, 130 sediments 150, 193, 195
Pyrolytic Release (PR) experiment 205–6 seismic 60–4, 112, 135, 219
semimajor axis (see orbital distance)
R-plot (see relative size–frequency distribution) Shallow Radar (SHARAD) 76, 78,
radar 5, 75–6, 211 202, 217
radioactive age dating (see geochronology) shape 51–2
radioactive elements 31, 185 shear modulus 63
radiation 169–71, 203–4, 211 shear stress 143
radiative equilibrium 171 shergottites 35, 53, 85, 89
radiative transfer equation 170 shield volcanoes 121, 122, 125, 126, 130
radio occultation 171, 182 shorelines 195, 196, 197
Radio Science Experiment 12, 60 sidereal orbital period 1, 20
radius 22, 23, 51 siderikian period 84, 163
rainfall 110, 120, 150, 162, 185, 191, 192, 195 siderophile elements 31, 37, 39
Raman spectrometer 211 simple craters 114, 115, 118
rarefaction wave 112–14 simple-to-complex transition diameter 114
Ravi Vallis 148 Sinai Planum 135
Rayleigh number 65 Sirenum 44, 68, 69, 70
reflection spectroscopy 76, 82 slope 140, 149
refractory elements 29 slope streaks 141, 213
regolith 25, 94–7, 181, 190, 204 SNC meteorites (see martian meteorites)
relative chronology 104 snow 149, 150, 157, 162, 196
relative humidity 176 soil properties 96
relative size–frequency distribution 105–6 Sojourner 12, 101, 147
remnant magnetism 44, 46, 68–70, 203 sol 22
retrograde motion 1–2 solar heating (see solar insolation)
Reynolds’ number 142 solar insolation 164, 166, 177, 178, 180, 197, 198,
Richardson Crater 145 201, 202
ridged plains 73, 107, 110, 124, 140, 161, 193 solar wind 185, 189, 218
Ries Crater 112 solar wind erosion 193
ripples 144, 145 solid state convection 64
Robotic Arm Camera (RAC) 218 Solis Planum 135
robotic missions 219 source function 170
rock 88, 93, 98, 102, 146 special region 213–14
Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT) 14, 88, 97 specific heat 65, 98, 167, 176
Index 263
Spectroscopy for Investigation of Characteristics of Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) 12, 35, 74, 79,
the Atmosphere of Mars (SPICAM) 18, 80, 217 80, 82–3, 89, 91, 97, 99, 157, 182, 191, 216, 217
spherical harmonics 55 thermal evolution 39–42, 219
spherules 91 thermal expansion coefficient 65
spiral scarps 155 thermal gradient 65, 170
spiral troughs 144, 155 thermal heat capacity 167
Spirit (see Mars Exploration Rovers) thermal inertia 11, 15, 16, 97–100, 144, 146, 156, 157,
stagnant lid 44–5 198, 202
Stealth region 76 thermal infrared radiometer (KRFM) 17, 80
Stefan–Boltzmann constant 97 thermal models 42–5
Stefan–Boltzmann law 97 thermal remnant magnetization (TRM) 68
Steno, Nicolaus 103 thermal skin depth 98
Stickney 23, 24, 25 thermal tides 172, 179, 183
Stokes’ drag equation 142 thermal wind equation 178
storm systems 175, 184 thermokarst 158, 160
strain 132 thermosphere (see atmosphere, upper)
static threshold friction speed 143 tholii 126
stratigraphy 103, 111, 138 threshold velocity 142–4
stratosphere 172 thrust faults 134, 135, 139
stratovolcanoes 121, 124 thumbprint terrain 158, 159
stress 132, 134 topography 41, 60, 62, 157, 183, 201
strike-slip faults 134, 135 traction 141, 143, 149
sublimation 120, 154, 155, 157, 163, 197 transection 103, 135
sulfate 83, 84, 89, 91, 93, 194 transient crater 114, 118
sulfur 39, 84, 92, 144, 163, 194, 212 transverse dunes 144, 145
Sunset Crater 121, 123 Trojan asteroids 27
superadiabatic conditions 170 turbulence 142, 145, 146, 149
superposition 103, 104 Tyrrhena Patera 125, 126
surface gravity (see gravity)
surface pressure (see atmospheric surface pressure) ultraviolet 166, 172, 176, 204
Surface Stereo Imager (SSI) 218 Ulysses Patera 130
suspension 141, 143, 149 Uranius Patera 130
synodic orbital period 1, 20 Uranius Tholus 130
Syria Planum 135, 138 US Naval Observatory 23
Syrtis Major 2, 73, 75, 82, 84, 85, 126 Utopia 10, 41, 82, 87, 139, 160
Uzboi Valles 152
tectonism 132–40, 160, 161
Tempe Terra 135 Valles Marineris 9, 19, 40, 61, 83, 99, 130, 135–9,
temperature 15, 22, 163, 203, 213 141, 150, 161, 173, 175, 195
brightness 98 valley networks 147, 148, 149, 150, 162, 185, 191,
condensation 180 192, 200
effective 98, 185 vapor partial pressure 176, 199
equilibrium 97–8, 163 Vastitas Borealis 140
potential 178 ventifacts 146
temperature inversion 172, 183 vernal equinox 21
TERMOSKAN 17, 80 Victoria Crater 217
Terra Meridiani (see Meridiani) Viking 1 6, 10, 25
terrain softening 133 Viking 2 6, 10
tesseral harmonics 55 Viking 1 lander 10, 87, 100, 171, 172, 177, 180
Tharsis 40–1, 43, 45, 51, 52, 60, 61, 66, 70, 73, 85, 99, Viking 2 lander 87, 100, 171, 172
107, 110, 124, 126, 127–30, 131, 134, 135, 136, Viking biology experiments 11, 204–7
138, 158, 161, 175, 176, 185, 193, 195, 202 Viking landers 11, 56, 64, 81, 95, 204, 205,
Tharsis Tholus 130 213, 216
theiikian period 84, 163, 194 Viking orbiters 10–11, 47, 53, 54, 80, 130, 182, 187,
Thermal and Evolved Gas Analyzer (TEGA) 211, 218 191, 255
thermal conductivity 65, 98 viscoelastic material 132
thermal continents 164, 182, 183 viscoelastic relaxation time 132
thermal diffusion equation 65, 166 viscosity 65, 120, 121, 123, 132, 149
thermal diffusivity 65 viscous material 132
Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) 13, 35, Vision for Space Exploration 219
79, 80, 83, 97, 129, 191, 198, 216, 217 volatile elements 29
264 Index
volcanism 35, 40–1, 120–32, 161, 185, 193, 204, 209, condensation flow 179
214, 216 easterlies 178
von Mädler, Johan 3, 53 meridional 178, 180, 181, 183
vugs 91, 92, 94 trade 184
westerlies 178, 183
wall terraces 118, 119, 140 zonal 178, 181, 183
War of the Worlds 4 wind direction 177, 184
Warrego Valles 148 wind streaks 145–6, 184
water (H2O) 38–9, 85, 86, 91, 138, 147–51, 153, 157, wrinkle ridges 66, 134, 135, 139, 140
158, 162, 163, 185, 187–202, 203, 213, 216
water activity 213 X-ray diffractometer 211
wave X-ray fluorescence 81, 87
atmospheric 172, 181
gravity 183 yardangs 146, 147
stationary 181, 183 Yellowstone 121
traveling planetary 182, 183 Young’s modulus 132
wave of darkening 3–4
wave number of planetary wave 183 zenith angle 170
wavenumber 78 zonal harmonics 55
weather 182, 183, 218 Zond 2 6, 15
whole rock age 34 Zond 3 15
wind 141, 173, 177–81 Zunil 109

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Na d i n e Ba r l o w is Associate Professor in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at

Books in the series

1. Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere†

Cambridge University Press

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

ISBN-13 978-0-511-39303-7 eBook (EBL)

ISBN-13 978-0-521-85226-5 hardback

2.2 Differentiation and core formation 32

4.4 Physical characteristics of surface materials 93

7.5 Present-day stability and distribution of H2O 199

It is an exciting time to be a planetary scientist specializing in Mars research. I have

Mars researchers specialize in a specific discipline and can have difficulty

1.1 Historical observations

1.1.2 Telescopic observations from Earth and space

Major advances in our understanding of Mars began in 1830 during a close

1.2 Spacecraft missions

Mission Country Launch date Type of mission Results

1.2.1 US missions to Mars

information on the concentrations and transport of water vapor in the atmosphere

on 11 December 1998, and was designed to serve as a martian weather satellite.

compositions, and a Mössbauer Spectrometer to determine iron phase and concen-

1.2.2 Soviet/Russian Mars missions

1.2.3 European Space Agency Mars missions

1.2.4 Japanese missions to Mars

1.3 Mars’ orbital properties

Table 1.2 Orbital properties of Mars

Semimajor axis 2.2792·108 km

Source: JPL Solar System Dynamics page: ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/

eccentricity causes a noticeable difference in Mars’ perihelion and aphelion dis-

1.4 Physical properties of Mars

Table 1.3 Mars oppositions (2000–2020)

Opposition date Closest approach Closest distance Apparent diameter

Table 1.4 Physical properties of Mars

direction of rotation is the same as on Earth, counterclockwise as seen from above

1.4.3 Mass and density

1.5 Martian moons

Alternately, Deimos may have different surface properties that preferentially

1.5.3 Origin of Phobos and Deimos

1.5.4 Possible other satellites?

1.5.5 Trojan asteroids at Mars orbit

2.1 Formation of Mars

Planetesimal orbits begin to assume their ﬁnal characteristics due to a combination

2.1.2 Heavy bombardment

CUMULATIVE CRATERS >4 km (n km–2)

10–4 Constant Copernicus

2.2 Differentiation and core formation

element (Dr) which has been produced by the decay:

Nt ¼ ðNt þ Dr Þekðtt0 Þ : (2:4)

Thus, we also need to know the initial (non-radiogenic) amount of daughter

Table 2.1 Geologically important radionuclides

Parent Daughter Half-life (yrs)

concentrations are impossible to determine, the ratio of the daughter isotope to

At time t, we can measure concentrations of 87Rb/86Sr and 87Sr/86Sr and compare

Dð87 Sr=86 SrÞ

where D indicates the difference in concentrations between two minerals. This

2.2.3 Martian meteorites

Meteorite name Year found Type Crystallization age (yrs)a

2.2.4 Differentiation and core formation on Mars

2.3 Bulk composition of Mars

2.4 Thermal evolution of Mars

2.4.1 Isotopic and geologic constraints on thermal models

2.4.2 Thermal models for Mars