MAHARASHTRA ANIMAL & FISHERY SCIENCES UNIVERSITY, NAGPUR.

COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES

UDGIR – 413 517, DIST. LATUR.

REFRESHER TRAINING COURSE ON

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION

DEPARTMENT OF GYNAECOLOGY AND OBSTETRICS

 MAHARASHTRA ANIMAL & FISHERY SCIENCES, NAGPUR
COLLEGE OF VETERINARY & ANIMAL SCIENCES, UDGIR- 413 517
DEPARTMENT OF GYNAECOLOGY & OBSTETRICS
REFRESHER TRAINING COURSE ON

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
Sponsored by
Maharashtra Livestock Development Board, Akola
in collaboration with
Maharashtra State Animal Husbandry Department

PROGRAMME DETAILS

FIRST DAY
TIME TOPIC FACULTY
10.00 hrs Registration
11.00 hrs Inauguration session
12.00 hrs Introduction to AI course Dr. N.M. Markandeya
12.30 hrs Pre training evaluation
13.00 hrs Lunch break
14.00 hrs Structural dynamics of reproductive tract Dr. R.R. Mugale
14.45 hrs Follicular dynamics and oestrus cycle Dr. S.S. Kulkarni
15.30 hrs Oestrus related behaviour & Heat detection Dr. N.Z. Gaikwad
16.15 hrs Morbid specimen palpation Dr. M.A. Khan
17.00 hrs Participants presentation
SECOND DAY
TIME TOPIC FACULTY
09.00 hrs Library Access
10.00 hrs Physiology of oestrus & hormonal control Dr. N.M. Markandeya
11.00 hrs Infectious infertility & it‟s control Dr. A.V. Bhosale
12.00 hrs Uterine pathology and conception rate Dr. S.D. Moregaonkar
13.00 hrs Lunch Break
14.00 hrs Artificial insemination technique Dr. A.D. Patil
14.45 hrs Strategies to improve conception rate Dr. S.D. Moregaonkar
15.30 hrs Sexual health control in males and females Dr. N.M. Markandeya
16.15 hrs Management information system Dr. B.S. Borgaonkar
17.00 hrs Group discussions on Gynaeco-clinical problems Dr. N.M. Markandeya
Dr. A.D. Patil

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 THIRD DAY
TIME TOPIC FACULTY
09.00 hrs Climatology & Reproduction Dr. S.S. Kulkarni
10.00 hrs Cattle and Buffalo breeding activities Dr. P.B. Deshpande
11.00 hrs Genetic improvement of cattle through AI Dr. M.P. Sawane
12.00 hrs Fertility improvement measures Dr.N.M. Markandeya
13.00 hrs Lunch Break
14.00 hrs Scientific feeding & ration computing Dr. A.B. Kanduri
14.45 hrs Role of nutrients on fertility Dr. A.U. Bhikane
16.00 hrs Common infertility problems in bovines Dr. A.D. Patil
16.45 hrs Post thaw semen evaluation Dr. S.B. Daware
17.30 hrs Discussions on surgical problems Dr. V.D. Aher
Dr. G.U. Yadav
FOURTH DAY
TIME TOPIC FACULTY
09.00 hrs Library access
10.00 hrs Induction & Synchronization of oestrus Dr. A.D. Patil
11.00 hrs Post partum disorders & infertility Dr. N.M. Markandeya
12.00 hrs Pharmacodynamics of drug molecules Dr. G.D. Ranvir
13.00 hrs Lunch Break
14.00 hrs Accidents during insemination Dr. G.U.Yadav
14.45 hrs Health monitoring for high conception rate Dr. B.N. Ambore
15.30 hrs Cold chain management of frozen semen Dr. P.B. Deshpande
16.15 hrs Handling & management of LN2 containers Dr. N.M. Markandeya
17.00 hrs Discussions on clinical cases Dr. A.U. Bhikane
Dr. B.N. Ambore

FIFTH DAY
TIME TOPIC FACULTY
09.00 hrs Internet & Information systems Prof. C.R. Joshi
10.00 hrs Follow up of AI Dr. A. D. Patil
10.45 hrs Modern trends in improving breeding efficiency Dr. N.M. Markandeya
11.30 hrs Clean milk production, recording and testing Dr. A.A. Devangare
12.15 hrs Economics of dairying Dr. J.M. Chahande
13.00 hrs Lunch Break
14.00 hrs Post training evaluation
15.00 hrs Valedictory session
16.00 hrs Participants remarks
17.00 hrs Relieving reports

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 OTHER ACTIVITIES 

 Guest faculty lectures

 Demo of AI films
 Clinical case discussions
 One theme debates
 On farm demonstrations
 Clinical practices
 Company presentations

PROGRAMME ORGANIZATION COMMITTEE

Dr. N.M. Markandeya, Programme Co-ordinator

Dr. A.U. Bhikane, Technical arrangements
Dr. N.Z. Gaikwad, Lodging arrangements
Dr. S.B. Daware, Registration arrangements
Dr. A.D. Patil, Organizing Secretary

SUPPORTING FACULTY
Dr. S.D. Moregaonkar, Guest arrangements.
Dr. G.P. Bharkad ,Boarding arrangements.
Dr. G.U. Yadav, Audio – visual arrangements.
Dr. B.N. Ambore, Refreshment arrangements.
Dr. S.T. Kalwaghe, Transport arrangements.

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Sr.
List of Topics Name of Faculty
No.
Dr. N. M. Markandeya
1 High conception rate through artificial insemination
Dr. A. D. Patil

Dr. N. M. Markandeya
2 Insemination Technique in Bovines
Dr. A. D. Patil

Dr. N.M. Markandeya

3 Nutritional infertility in bovines
Dr. A.U. Bhikane

4 Reproductive Nutrition in Bovines Dr. A. B. Kanduri

Dr. P. B. Deshpande
5 Retrospective Review of Breeding Strategies for Livestock
Dr. M.N. Sawaisonkamble

Dr. B. N. Ambore
6 Health Monitoring For High Conception Rate
Dr. A. U. Bhikane

7 Induction of Estrus In Anestrous Animals Dr. Mukund Amle

8 Handling And Management Of LN2 Containers Dr. S.C. Vora

9 Infertility in Bovines Dr. S. C. Vora

Morbid uterus palpation and identification of different

10 Dr. Mukund Amle
structures

11 Evaluation of Semen Dr. Mukund Amle

12 Record keeping in Artificial Insemination Dr. S. C. Vora

13 Follicular Dynamics And Oestrus Cycle Dr. S.S. Kulkarni

14 Climatology And Reproduction Dr. S.S. Kulkarni

15 Inflammatory Conditions Of The Uterus Dr. S. D. Moregaonkar

4
Sr.
List of Topics Name of Faculty
No.
16 Pharmacodynamic of Drug Molecule Dr. G.D.Ranvir

17 Clean Milk Production and Testing Dr. A. A. Devangare

18 Structural Dynamics of Female Reproductive Tract Dr. R. R. Mugale

19 Oestrous Related Behaviour And Heat Detection Dr. N. Z. Gaikwad

20 Infectious Infertility And Its Control Dr. A. V. Bhonsle

21 Therapeutic management of anoestrus in farm animals Dr. N M Markandeya

Dr. N M Markandeya
Need of Re-emphasizing Extension Activities of Artificial
22
Insemination Dr. S. D. Moregaonkar

Abortions in Dairy Cows: New Insights and Economic

23 Dr. S.B. Barbuddhe
Impact

Health Management for Optimum Production and

24 Dr. E. B. Chakurkar
Reproductive Performance in Dairy animals

Diagnosis of Tuberculosis, John‟s Disease and Sexuality

25 Dr. S. S.Rautmare
transmissible diseases (STDs) In Bovines

26 Accidents During Artificial Insemination : Be Careful Dr. G. U. Yadav

27 Non-inflammatory Conditions of Uterus Dr. S. D. Moregaonkar

28 Strict Hygiene and Sterilization for Artificial Insemination Dr. A. V. Bhonsle

29 Post – Thaw semen evaluation Dr. S.B. Daware

Dr. A. U. Bhikane
30 Role of Minerals and Vitamins in Reproduction
Dr. B. N. Ambore

31 Genetic Improvement of Indian Cattle Dr. M. P. Sawane

5
 High conception rate through artificial insemination
Dr. N M Markandeya and Dr. A D Patil
Veterinary College, Udgir 413 517
Artificial insemination technology has been proved beneficial in the world and realizing
benefits in terms of increased milk productivity and breeding efficiency cent percent animal
population is being bred through AI in number of countries. Artificial insemination has made male
factor constant in animal reproduction. However, unless carried out as per the physiological norms,
artificial insemination may not give expected conception rates. Joint front of herd owner, semen
bank and inseminator with frantic and earnest efforts can achieve the desired conception rate.
Services per conception (S/C), non return rate, pregnancy rate, calving rate and herd
reproductive status (HRS) are the important parameters to monitor female fertility and are
considered as measures of reproductive efficiency in dairy animals.
Conception rate is the proportion of cows that failed to return to service by thirty days after
the end of the month in which they were inseminated. Ideal conception rate is expected as 1.6
inseminations per conception.
Proper heat detection, Good quality semen, proper handling of semen, sound reproductive
health of the cow, strict hygienic procedure and timely AI at appropriate site in cervical region of
females in oestrus helps to achieve high fertility with artificial insemination and very high
conception rate.
Inseminator‟s role to collect the straw from container, proper thawing and loading of the
gun with deposition of semen in female reproductive tract is vital. Every animal in oestrus should
be attended most perfectly during the attempt of artificial insemination.
The prerequisite : Raising of farmer‟s awareness regarding the technology is most important
prerequisite in artificial insemination for high conception rate at field level Our livestock
population is reared under traditional practices. Vast majority cattle and buffaloes still remain
uncovered under artificial insemination services in nook and corner of the country. Actual number
of pregnancies obtained through artificial insemination is very few.
Use of single biotechnique of artificial insemination with all other traditional and routine
husbandry practices limits the role of the highly effective technology. Hence, optimizing and
advising technical advances in animal management systems is an essential pre-requisite for
extending artificial insemination services to field level. For improvement of female fertility,

6
artificial insemination needs to be coined with sexual health programme for improved milk
productivity.
There is common consensus amongst animal owners that natural service gives better
conception rates than inseminations. But there is no method of breeding which gives cent per cent
conceptions. Multifaceted advantages of AI should be made understood by the animal owners only
then AI can be popularized.
Farmers are interested in impregnating their animals without much consideration and
thought on method of breeding as either artificial insemination or natural service. Improvement of
farmer‟s awareness for success of the technology is also important. Educating farmers and to make
them understand the benefits of technology is the most difficult task for veterinarians at field level
and veterinarians should accept the challenge for rural development.
Factors affecting conception rate
Heat detection : Onus of heat detection is always with animal owner. AI is useful under the
conditions, which consists of regular and prompt heat detection at farmer‟s level. In absence of
heat detection, animals are not reported for AI. Untimely reporting or delayed reporting also limits
expected conception rate.
Time of insemination : Trained veterinarian is the best judge to decide the correct time of
insemination. Fertilization failures are expected due to non-maturation or aging of gametes with
asynchrony of their union. Timely inseminations with synchronous ovulation leads to higher
conceptions rates and hence timely inseminations are to be designed by the inseminators.
Number of Inseminations: Two or more number of AI attempts to suit in cases of ovulation delay
may improve conception rate. However it should be an exceptional attempt in problem cases only
as double inseminations are not practicable, possible and also economical. Generally, efforts
should be made to achieve conception through single insemination.
Stress effect of insemination: If disturbed at time of AI, poor chances of conceptions are expected
in the animal. Avoid struggling of animal at the time of AI as adrenaline ACTH gets secreted and it
blocks forward movement of sperms. Excitement of animals should be avoided before during and
even after insemination. Noise, vehicular traffic, beating, dragging, tightly fixing with crate creates
stress to the animal. Any known or unknown factor leading to stress lowers conceptions. Animals
under stress or nervous stage during oestrus fail to conceive.
Insemination after calving. : Optimum time for resumption of ovarian cyclicity coincides with
complete uterine repair at cellular level. Insemination in animals before proper establishment of

7
cyclicity fails to succeed. First post partum cycle may be defective as majority of animals are in
negative energy balance and hence too early insemination leads to lower conception rate.
Efficiency of inseminator. : It is universally accepted premise that only trained inseminators
should carry out artificial insemination, who fully understand pros and cons of the technique. The
inseminator should have thorough knowledge of physiopathology of reproduction. The training,
efficacy, experience, ability, attitude and approach of the inseminator plays pivotal role in the
success of artificial insemination programme. Precision and perfection of inseminators are the
important prerequisites for maximum and consistent results of artificial inseminations. Regular
refreshment of technical advances helps to improve efficiency.
There is no specific time and site of artificial insemination within reasonable limits. The
skill, which surely turns into conceptions, is only the best approach of any individual inseminator.
Inseminator should standardize his own technical and practical skill for improving pregnancy rate
instead of following blind steps of other colleagues. Unattended cases of inseminations presented
on Sundays and holidays also reduce conception rates.
Rejection of unfit cases: It is most practicable and clinical approach to refrain inseminations
during all abnormal and pathological oestrual stages, instead of attempting it for owner‟s
satisfaction. Sound health is indispensable for reproduction and hence animals with poor boy
conditions should be rejected for inseminations. Owner should recognize the fact the every animal
in oestrus may not be fit for insemination. All animals selected for inseminations must be in
physiological, normal oestrus. Refusal of unfit cases for insemination improves the conception rate.
Ovulatory delay. : Under non-infectious, cyclic and non-breeder category, this is the major
problem in animals. Ovulatory delay extends stage of oestrus and also leads to aging of capacitated
sperms. On delayed ovulation, egg degenerates due to non-fertilization and hence the conception
rate is reduced. Diagnosis of expected time of ovulation and inseminating the animal at appropriate
time is key to achieve ideal conception rate.
Use of hormones: Exogenous hormonal injections improve conception rate through prompt
ovulation, better development of CL, increase in level of progesterone and protection of conceptus
during the period of ovum. Commonly gonadotrophines releasing hormones are widely used in
clinical practice for improvement of conception rate. However, any approach involving
progesterone therapy for a longer period than natural luteal phase used for induction of oestrus will
reduce the conception rate.

8
Environmental effect: Conception rates are suppressed during hot season. Milking cows are more
severely affected than heifers. Variations and constant fluctuations in uterine temperatures decrease
survival of conceptus in uterus.
Nutritional effect: High plane of nutrition is essential for reproduction. Inadequate nutritive
factors alter microenvironment at ampulary and endometrial region leading to misconceptions.
Unusual and unsuitable feedstuff or estrogenic plants lower conceptions as their major effect is on
process of sperm transport in female reproductive tract. Thus optimum provision of all nutrients is
prerequisite for successful conceptions.
Tips to improve conception rate:
Check and effect regular assessment of frozen semen straws. 2. Maintain cold chain, follow
refilling of LN2 timely. 3. Handle biological containers carefully with avoiding shocks and
mechanical jolts. 4. Follow proper thawing procedure. The standard temperature of 370C for 30
seconds is recommended. Both temperature and the time are important to achieve high recovery
rate. 5. Protect artificial insemination gun carefully after loading till its use. 6.Select females for
AI carefully by thorough gynaeco-clinical investigations. 6. Improve self-efficiency for heat
detection in animals, timely AI, proper selection of site for semen deposition. 7. Be gentle while
handling ovaries of animals in oestrus. 8. Follow strict sterilization procedure before and during
insemination. 9. Do not inseminate during abnormal oestrus and pathological discharges. 10.Avoid
inseminations to first pubertal oestrus or first post partum oestrus. 11.There is no fixed time and
site for insemination. 12.Questionable semen quality leads to low conception rate. 13. Joint front
can improve the conceptions. 14.There is no effect of volume of semen inseminated on conception
rate. 15. Assess health score, soiling of perineum, mucus adhered to tail and thighs if any before
gynaeco-clinical examination of the animal.
It is not important to analyse what procedure is being followed at field level but it is
important to guide on standard practices and procedure of AI for high conception rate It is always
recommended to the inseminators to follow the procedure, which proves high conception rate and
it is necessary to avoid the procedures which lowers the conception rate.
In conclusion, it can be stated that artificial insemination is the national high way towards
prosperity of rural poor. Oestrus leading to successful conception and subsequent calving resulting
into milk production is expected at regular and ideal intervals. If the veterinarians accept the task of
cent percent artificial insemination programme as a service to nation, no child will sleep without a
cup of milk nor any Indian kitchen will remain without milk, which will in turn reduce starvation,

9
child mortality and many more social problems. Let us reorient ourselves to impregnate oestrual
cases through artificial insemination.

10
 Insemination Technique in Bovines
Dr. N M Markandeya and Dr. A D Patil
Veterinary College, Udgir 413 517
Artificial insemination is a technique in which high quality semen is deposited in the female
reproductive tract as per physiological laws. Proper time of insemination, optimum dose i.e.
Number of live motile spermatozoa and appropriate site of insemination are the important and
highly essential prerequisites of successful artificial insemination. Every animal presented for
insemination is entitled to best attention and efforts of the inseminator
Time of insemination 1. Animals first noticed in heat in morning hours (A.M.) should be
inseminated on the same day in evening (P.M.) and animals first noticed in heat in evening (P.M)
should be inseminated on next day morning (A.M.). 2.Too early or too late insemination leads to
repeat breeding. 3 Time of ovulation and time of insemination must be synchronized for successful
fertilization. 4. Fixing correct time of insemination depends on inseminator‟s diagnosis, ovarian
activity and expected duration of the oestrus phase.
Non-descript cows and buffaloes remain in oestrus for short period of 12 to 18 hours.
Descript cows; well-fed cows are generally in oestrus for 24 hours. Cress-bred cows and
exotic cows show oestrus extended upto 36 hours and even more. Problem breeders have delayed
oestrus phase of 48 to 72 hours. Buffaloes are generally in heat during night hours. There is no
precisely defined „best‟ time for AI. Under these circumstances, correct insemination time solely
depend as per the judgment of the inseminator and is always final.
Always confirm fern pattern before selecting animal for AI, which confirms the heat
/oestrus stage. The ferning examination helps to achieve upto 70% and 60% conception rate in
cattle and buffaloes respectively.
Number of sperms 1. Minimum 12 million to 15 million live sperms are required for successful
conception. 2. At least 35 to 40 per cent motile sperm percentage is expected in thawed
straw.3.Although only single sperm is required for fertilization, minimum concentration of sperms
is necessary at the site of fertilization. 4. Sample straw check is necessary at regular monthly
intervals and records the observations of the stock. 5. Irrespective of volume of semen and type of
straw, optimum number of sperms per insemination is important.
Oestrus stage is always susceptible for infection and therefore WBCs are present in the
uterus. One leukocyte engulfs three sperms i.e. spermiophagy. Only live sperms come in contact
with uterus as compared to dead sperms. Therefore, optimum sperm concentration is essential in

11
the straw. Additionally, concentration of hyaluronidase enzyme can be achieved only after having
presence of optimum number of sperms at the site of fertilization. Less than optimum number of
sperms in live and motile state defeats very purpose of insemination.
Insemination site 1. Intra-vaginal: more semen quantity is required and sperm loss is more,
hence not used for artificial insemination. 2.Intracervical: Mid-cervical site is most commonly
recommended site for insemination. 3. Intrauterine: Can be practiced, however it limits the role of
cervix to discard dead, non motile an abnormal sperms. Deposition of semen at the level of body of
uterus is more appropriate than inter corneal insemination.
The AI is a bio-technique and should be followed with scientific standard procedure and as
per physiological laws. Animals presented for inseminations are to be attended only after a short
rest in the clinic as generally animals are brought from distance. Following steps should be used to
carry out inseminations.
Recording of breeding history: 1. Record detail breeding history of the animal. 2. Check the
breeding sheet and data recorded by the farmer breeder, if any. 3. Check details of treatment
adapted to the animal during recent past. 4. Avoid inseminations during first pubertal and first post
partum oestrus. 5. Avoid too early breeding in heifers. 6. Also avoid animals exhibiting post
partum oestrus before 60 days of calving. 7. Check inter-oestrus intervals, record of repeat
inseminations and the dates of earlier inseminations. 8. Enquire the history and symptoms of the
oestrus with time of detection.
Gynaeco clinical examination: 1.Check external signs of oestrus and record changes in external
genitalia. 2. Per rectal examination is mandatory before each insemination for confirmation of
oestrus. 3. Check possibility of gestational oestrus, early pregnancy, mid cycle oestrus. 4. Check
follicular developments on the ovaries. 5. Confirm the oestrus stage and decide the appropriate
time of insemination in each case.
Select animals for insemination on body score condition. Do not select late heats for
inseminations. Never incline to owner‟s requests for inseminating unfit animals. Veterinarian‟s role
is most important for rejection of unfit animals for insemination.
Carrying out AI is rather easy but to diagnose whether cow is fit for insemination is
difficult. Technical skill and trained human resource is required to select animals for insemination.
Preparation of animal 1. Restrain the animal in cattle chute / crate / Travis properly. 2.
Thoroughly clean and wipe external genitalia. 3. Ensure cleanliness and use ample antiseptic to

12
clean external genitalia. Complete drying should follow 4. Cleaning. 5. Fix the tail on lateral side.
6. Assistance of one person is useful to monitor the animal.
Type of frozen semen straw: Only frozen semen straws, which are now being used for
inseminations in both cows and buffaloes. French straw ( Cassou method) consists of 12 cm long
straw with 0.5cc capacity and it consists of one end sealed with cotton plug. German straw
(Landshut method) consists of 6.5-cm. long semen straws with 0.30cc capacity and carries both
ends sealed by metal balls.
Thawing of frozen straw the procedure of thawing frozen semen dose of either German
(Landshut) mini straws or French (Cassou) medium straws remains the same. 1. Dip the forceps in
LN2 container for pre-cooling. 2. Lift the canister upto the level of neck of the container. 3. Collect
and grasp only one frozen semen straw at a time. 4. Never lift the canister to high above the level
of LN2 in any case. 5. Put the neck plug of the LN2 container after properly placing the canister. 6.
Air dry the straw for a single moment. 7. Dip the straw completely in lukewarm water for 30
seconds.8. Temperature of water used for thawing of frozen straw should be 35 to 370C. 9. Thaw
one straw at a time. 10. Thawing container should be of wide mouth type and also should
accommodate the straw horizontally.
Loading of AI gun : 1. Select proper AI gun as per the semen being used. 21. Lift the straw with
forceps from thawed water and wipe of the water from surface with tissue paper. 3. Hold the straw
vertically and adjust the air bubble towards the end from which the straw has to be cut. 4. Cut the
straw in the middle of the air bubble at right angle. 5. Load the AI gun with the cut end of the straw
at the forward point of gun. 6 Use sterilized AI sheath only and never reuse any sheath. 7. Wrap the
loaded gun with clean dry paper, towel to protect the same from dust, dirt and UV sun rays with
rains. 8. Remember pre-warming of gun and sheath is also necessary during cooler days.
Insemination proper : 1. Frozen thawed semen is deposited in female reproductive tract by recto-
vaginal method. 2. Pass left hand in the rectum and complete back racking. 3.Dilate the vulval lips
with assistance of helper. 4.Insert AI gun at an angle of 450s with orientation towards cervix. 5.
Never touch the anterior portion of AI gun to perineum or any object. 6. The portion of AI gun
should not come in contact with vestibular passage. 7.Make the AI gun horizontal and orient the tip
of AI gun towards os cervix. 8.Guide the tip of AI gun by left hand through rectum and insert the
gun into cervix. 9. Slowly pass the gun in os 10. Deposit the semen at mid cervical portion gently.
11 Remove AI gun very slowly and allow it to glide on the clitoris.

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 Clitoral massage is helpful to bring about ovulation. Cooling of perineum with water can be
practiced. Do not disturb the cow during insemination. Deliberateness and gentleness is highly
essential. The cow should not recognize slight pain during insemination.
Post AI care : 1. Always examine AI gun on removal for detecting blood tinged mucus, pus, and
back flow of semen. 2. Record the date of AI, bull used, straw details on animal sheet. 3. Discard
the used plastic sheath and straw properly.
Advise to Animal owner 1. Keep the animal at doorstep and withheld grazing just for the period
of oestrus cessation so as to avoid service by stray bull. 2. Provide ample water and feed as per
daily needs of the animal. 3. Be gentle with the nervous animal during the period of oestrus. 4.
Observe and record the period / time of cessation of oestrus signs. 5. Allow the animal to relax and
even to sit in the shed. 6.Do not follow the quacks and mis-beliefs. 7.Observe met-oestrus bleeding,
if any. 8. Observe the animal on 21st, 42nd day of insemination for repeat oestrus, if any. 10. Advise
to present the animal for pregnancy confirmation after 60 days of AI.
Points to be considered:1. Do not expose the semen straw / AI gun to direct sun or rain. 2. Do not
touch the frozen straw with bare hands / fingers without forceps. 3. Shake the straw in air to
remove excess LN2 from surface. 4. Do not put the straw back into canister once exposed to the air.
5. Use the straw after thawing within 5 minutes only. 6. Handle the insemination tube with light
touch. 7. There is nothing to be „prodded‟ out of the way or poked through with the AI gun. 8.
Gentleness and deliberateness are essential. 9. While insemination stand like a fencer.
Vaccinations and injections are totally different than inseminations. No un-trained person
should be allowed to inseminate the animals. Guidelines and directives for inseminations can be
followed but uniform rule could not be applied to the insemination procedure in all the animals.
Be bold for scientific norms. Extend the technology of artificial insemination in qualitative
terms with best possible conception rate. Mission to cover all breedable Indian animals under AI
technology is only possible through joint front of skilled professionals.

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 Nutritional Infertility In Bovines
Dr. N. M. Markandeya and Dr. A.U. Bhikane
Veterinary College, Udgir 413517
Every known food factor is indispensable for normal reproduction. Malnutrition leads to
lowered vitality, body resistance and fertility. Many practicing vets are convinced that there exist
profound effect of nutrients on reproduction and but very few are able to determine the exact
nutritional cause of reduced fertility.
Very little is known about how nutritional deficiencies or their excess cause in fertility.
They may act via hypothalamus and pituitary or directly influence on gonads thus influencing
steriodogenesis and endocrine function. However, herd reproductive health and profitability may
suffer, if there is underlying nutritional problem leading lowered fertility.
Different physiological processes have different priorities in receiving nutrients.
Depending on age and physiological status of the animal, nutrients are preferentially partitioned for
lactation, growth and fattening. Reproductive functions have a relatively low and last priority for
nutrient partitioning. Thus, in some instances and especially during scarcity, sub-clinical
deficiencies may manifest themselves as impaired reproduction.
Requirements for normal reproductive function in male are considerably less than in
female. In addition, the added demands of lactation are not present, so borderline nutritional
efficiencies are less likely to contribute to decreased male fertility.
In females, there are several time periods in which nutritional deficiencies are more likely
to affect reproduction. They correspond to times when metabolic demands or other physiological
process are greatest, yet reproductive function is also at a critical time period. These phases include
the period of rapid growth during puberty, parturition and peak lactation with resumption of
cyclicity. Peak lactation is the time when it is very difficult to meet the nutrient requirements of
the dairy cow and to impose on her the necessity of having a fertile oestrus and conceiving. First
calf heifers that are still growing and they have an additional demand.
The major 99.99 per cent animal matter is made up form four fundamental elements as H,
Co, N2, O2 and 7 micro minerals Viz. Calcium, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Potassium, Sodium, Chlorine,
and Magnesium. These elements exist as water, fat, protein and carbohydrates.
13. Energy effect: Energy is required for body cell functioning, maintenance of body
temperature, secretary processes and formation of new tissues.

15
 Of the energy supplied through ration, consumption and priorities of the same is generally
fixed. As 30 per cent goes unutilized waste in feces, 5 per cent is passed out through ruminal gases,
5 per cent is cleared through urine and 20 per cent is utilized for digestion, only 40 per cent net
energy remains for body processes. The energy is basically used for other physiological processes
like metabolism and growth followed by lactation and lastly for reproduction.
Energy levels have significant effect on ovarian activity as low energy than optimum level
leads first to ovarian inactivity. Deficient energy intake is the most significant nutritional factor in
anoestrus.
The most severe effect of inadequate nutrition is cessation of oestrus cyclicity and other less
severe conditions are silent oestrus, ovulatory defects, conception failure and early embryonic
mortality. Sub-maintenance feeding results in prolonged oestrus cycles, cessation of oestrus,
anovulation or ovulation without oestrus. Low progesterone concentrations are related with the low
energy levels.
Trophoblastic proteins and or endometrial secretary proteins might form biochemical
dialogue between mother and the conceptus that is essential for embryo survival. Progesterone
level is responsible for the production of these proteins. However, high plane of nutrition during
early pregnancy is associated with low conception.
Energy, which can be stored in body as carbohydrates is very limited and is sufficient for
just one day. Excess carbohydrates are converted and stored as fat. Fat obesity due to excess
feeding leads to fat deposition around ovaries and bursa, which interferes normal follicular
developments, ovulation and ovum transport. Fat deposition in endometrium also hinders
implantation.
Pubertal stage : Energy deficiency signs thin animal, inactive ovaries, delay in puberty. The onset
of puberty is closely related with energy in male and females and body weight is most important
factor. Effects of underfeeding are more pronounced when applied in the early post-natal than
prepubertal.
Housing and management of breeding age heifers are frequently less than optimum and also
there exists deficiency of energy in diet. During growth stage, adipose issue has lower priority than
lean tissue and nutrient restrictions may delay the acquisition of a minimum level of fatness desired
for the onset of puberty.
Plane of nutrition delays puberty by inhibiting the pulsatile release of GnRH from
hypothalamus and consequently of LH from pituitary. Since increase in pulsatile LH secretion

16
stimulates the development of ovarian follicles to preovulatory surge, its interruption due to under
nutrition might be the primary mechanism in delaying the onset of puberty.
Heifers on lower energy diet had lower serum progesterone concentration and elevated LH
concentration, suggesting that LH release was not impaired but there may be decreased ovarian
response to LH with restricted dietary intake.
Substances that mediate the effects of nutrition on LHRH relieve (through CNS) have not
been identified but neurons controlling LHRH release are sensitive to availability of metabolic
fuels. The circulating concentrations of insulin, growth hormone, certain amino acids, non-
esterified fatty acids and others act as signals of nutritional status.
Monensin, an ionophore commonly used as a feed additive in beef cattle rations to improve
average daily gain and feed efficiency decreases the age of onset of puberty in beef heifers.
Monensin supplementation increases the GnRH and estrogen induced LH response in prepubertal
heifers, which may be related to its effects on puberty.
Once cyclicity has commenced at puberty, it should continue uninterrupted throughout the
animal‟s life apart form pregnancy stages and feeding level does not appear to affect cyclicity
unless severe restrictions occur. Short term under nutrition has beneficial effect on conception rate,
which increases progesterone level required for pregnancy maintenance.
NRC energy requirements should not be exceeded on prepubertal heifers. Animals that are
fed excessively before and around time of puberty appear to have inadequate mammary secretary
tissue development and lower subsequent milk production. Heifers fed a high plane of nutrition
have increased mammary fat deposition and decreased secretary tissue at prepubertal age.
Heifer is under stress in post pubertal period because she is growing to physical maturity
and also conceiving with pregnancy maintenance. There is no evidence that growth restrictions in
early life will influence reproductive performance once the feeding of normal diet has been
implemented.
Liberal or high energy feeding early in life hastens onset of sperm production in male
animals, but moderate restrictions after two years of age are desirable for diet to avoid leg
weakness.
Postpartum period Parturition results in abrupt shifts in metabolic demands from nutrients,
which are generally spared from body reserve. Proteins and lipids stores are metabolized to support
sudden milk production. Rapid increase in energy requirements for milk production results in

17
negative energy balance. The stage starts a week before calving and reaches to severity in two
weeks of lactation.
Dairy cows in early lactation draw upon their body energy reserves to produce large
volumes of milk. Because maximum feed intake lags behind peak milk yield by several weeks, in
early lactation it is nearly impossible to achieve adequate energy intake to sustain production.
Production is maintained by using body reserve, primarily fat. Thus, there is considerable weight
loss during early lactation.
Commonly, veterinarians and owners consider negative association between high
production and fertility. Many studies have demonstrated no direct relationship between high
production and reduced fertility. Fertility, progesterone concentration and energy balance are
directly related with each other.
Provision of supplemental fat in the diet has beneficial effect on limiting energy imbalance
during post partum period and also on improvement of conception rate. As consistent increase in
plasma cholesterol levels will stimulate steroid synthesis and body health status.
It is important to maximize dry matter intake of high energy feed early in lactation, both for
maximum milk production and best reproductive performance. Post partum period should have
high energy feed to avoid weight loss. Dairy cows gaining weights are more likely to conceive.
Similarly, maximum energy intake should not extend beyond peak lactation, because this
may lead to over conditioning of the cow with severe consequences to health and fertility. Energy
intake should be increased up to peak milk yield and then decline with normal decline in
production. Excessive energy intake will result in fattening during late lactation and dry period.
Excess grain consumption has been reported to have adverse effects on fertility in several studies.
Over conditioned cows are predisposed to develop fat cow syndrome. Fatty infiltration of liver
leads to reduced fertility.
High quality forage availability is essential to maximize dry matter and energy intake.
Energy status has been frequently thought to be in direct relation with post-partum fertility. During
increased susceptibility of early post partum period, variety of peri-parturient diseases will
adversely effect on fertility.
B. Protein effect : Proteins are required for maintenance, growth, lactation and reproduction. The
effects of protein nutrition on reproductive process might be via the action of specific amino acids
that are needed for the synthesis of GnRH neuro- transmitter. Rations that provide adequate protein

18
for maintenance and growth are also adequate for reproduction. The level of energy is more
important for reproduction than protein.
Common deficiency is related with protein, phosphorus and vitamin A level in the diet.
Protein deficiency results in a delay in onset of puberty, increased days open, decreased dry matter
intake. Decreased dietary intakes are due to poor digestibility of ration.
Readily available proteins can furnish ammonia for growth and multiplication of rumen
microbes. Proteins digested by small intestines, which is furnished by a combination of microbial
protein synthesized in rumen and protein that is not readily available to ruminal degradation. The
amount and composition of the protein reaching the small intestines determines the productive
capacity of cow in terms of protein supplementation. Urea and non-protein nitrogen (NPN) sources
furnish ammonia that the rumen organisms can synthesis into protein.
Normally, 11 to 12 per cent crude protein levels are required to sustain adequate rumen
ammonia for normal rumen fermentation, digestion and dry matter intake. These levels are
adequate for normal reproduction in bulls, heifer and dry cows. Higher levels are required for
growth and lactation. Soybean can be used in animal feed as readily available protein source.
Very high or above the normal requirements of protein concentrations have negative effects
on fertility. 17 to 18 per cent crude proteins will increase production but is undesirable for
reproductive efficiency. Excess feeding of dietary proteins increase rumen ammonia, increase
blood urea, increase open days, increased services per conception and toxic effects on embryo.
Urea is a highly soluble source of ammonia and has been used commonly as protein source in
ruminants. NRC recommendation 1% of dry matter and slow ruminal adoption is also important.
Urea is a highly soluble source of ammonia and has been commonly recommended as
protein source to the ruminants. As per NRC recommendations, use of one per cent dry matter with
slow ruminal adoption of urea will be helpful.
When feeding higher levels of protein or NPN, it is best to provide some by pass protein so
that rumen ammonia levels do not become excessive.
C. Mineral effect: Soil is not only the principal source of trace elements entering the food chain
but is also a sink for elements from environmental sources. Minerals are required for reproduction
because of their cellular roles in metabolism, maintenance and growth. Minerals have specific
roles and requirements in reproductive tissues and the role and requirement may change as per the
physiological state of cyclicity or pregnancy. Mineral imbalances are thought to be associated with
infertility.

19
 Inorganic or mineral elements also called as major / macro minerals consists of calcium,
phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium and sulfur. Micro minerals or trace element
consists of iron, iodine, zinc, copper, manganese, cobalt molybdenum, selenium boron, lithium,
bromine and vanadium. Role of fluorine, chromium, tin, silicon, nickel and arsenic is not yet
proved. Most of the cases of reduced fertility are usually due to multiple mineral deficiencies.
Mineral requirements are too less in ruminants and their availabilities are also very small in
the feed. Indiscriminate and regular use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture during last 50 years
has totally imbalanced soil- plant- blood constitution of mineral status. Diagnosis of mineral
deficiencies is difficult as their signs are rarely pronounced and also because estimations are costly.
Calcium deficiency does not cause reproductive failure but Ca: P ratio matters much.
Hypocalcaemia limits absorption of other minerals. Hypocalcaemia leads to milk fever, dystocia,
retained placenta, metritis and delayed uterine involution. Phosphorus is most frequently associated
with reproductive abnormalities. Hyperposphatemia
D. Vitamin effect: Vitamins are supplied either through diet or they are synthesized in the body by
ruminal microbes and even by tissues. Depletion of feed source due to long storage, non-exposure
to sunlight limiting tissue synthesis and stressful conditions lead to vitamin deficiencies.
Adverse effect of vit A occurs during latter half of gestation as abortion, birth of dead calf,
dystocia, placental retention. Three doses of Vit. A therapy is recommended during mid gestation
and after parturition if green fodder is not available or animal has to pass through stressful summer.
Vitamin B is synthesized in bovine rumen and hence deficiencies are less likely to occur.
Adrenal cortex and corpus luteum contain high concentration of ascorbic acid. Vit E and vit C are
related with hormone productions but vit C is not reported to disturb reproduction. Vit D is
supplied in sun cured forages, grasses and is also synthesized from cholesterol in skin upon
exposure to sunlight but vit D has no direct role on reproduction. Antisterility factor vit E acts with
selenium and functions as antioxidant. Feeding sprouted oil seed is highly recommended for
fertility improvements.
Borderline nutritive deficiencies are manifested as impaired fertility before other clinical
symptoms are apparent. To identify or prevent nutritional problems, it is important that an effective
working relationship exists between the dairyman, veterinarian, nutritionist and feed salesman.
It is better to prevent nutritional deficiencies rather than to treat it.

20
 Reproductive Nutrition in Bovines
Dr. A. B. Kanduri
Veterinary College, Udgir

Introduction: -
In reproducing animals, as in growing animals there is an interaction between nutrition and
production. The influence of nutrition on reproduction begins early in the animal‟s life, as the plane
of nutrition in young animals can affect the age at which they reach puberty. In mature animals,
poor nutrition can reduce the production of ova and spermatozoa, so that the female either fails to
conceive or produce fewer offspring than normal. Generally much emphasis should be given on the
role of energy intake (general plane of nutrition) in reproduction, because deficiencies or excesses
of specific nutrients often affect reproduction through their influence on energy intake. In cattle the
main problem of fertility is that of obtaining reconception in cows two months after calving, at a
time when the nutritional demands of lactation are high and must often be met partly from the body
fat reserves. In dairy cows in New York state, over a period of 17 years when milk yield increased
by 33 %, the proportion of cows conceiving to their first insemination fell from 66 to 55%.

Requirement of energy and protein during growth & puberty: -

Puberty in cattle is markedly influenced by the level of nutrition at which animals have
been reared. In general terms, the faster an animal grows, the earlier it reaches sexual maturity.
This is illustrated in following table.

Age & size at puberty of Holstein cattle reared on different planes of nutrition.
Plane of Nutrition At Puberty
Sex (Percent of
accepted standard
Age (Weeks) Weight (Kg)
for TDN)
High (129) 37 270
Medium (93) 49 271
Female a
Low (61) 72 241
High (150) 37 292
Medium (100) 43 262
Male b
Low (60) 51 236
a : Sorenson A M et al. 1959 Bull. Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn, No.936.
b : Bratton R W et al. 1959 Bull. Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn, No.940.

21
 This table shows the effect of three planes of nutrition on the initiation of reproductive
ability in dairy cattle. Although in both sexes there were considerable differences in age at puberty
between the three treatments, difference in live weight were much smaller.
In female animals the primary determinant of fertility (i.e. weather or not animal conceives)
is the number of ova shed from the ovaries. In case of cattle the rate is normally one. It has been
suggested that high plane of nutrition increases ovulation rate by stimulating the pituitary gland to
produce more of the hormone involved in ovulation, leutinizing hormone. Another
endocrinological explanation is that a high plane of nutrition promotes a greater production of
insulin, which encourages the uptake of glucose and the synthesis of steroid hormone by the ovary.
In mammals, the spermatozoa, ova and the secretions associated with them represent only very
small quantities of matter. The average ejaculate of the bull, for example, contains 0.5 gm of dry
matter. It therefore seems reasonable to suppose that nutrient requirement for production of
spermatozoa and ova are likely to be inappreciable compared with the requirements for
maintenance and for process such as growth and lactation.
An adult male animal kept only for semen production would require no more than a
maintenance ration appropriate to their species and size. But in practice such animals are given
food well in excess of that required for maintenance in females of the same weight. There is no
reliable evidence that high planes of nutrition are beneficial for male fertility, though it is
recognized that underfeeding has deleterious effects. After mating the plane of nutrition should be
reduced to about the maintenance level. Higher levels of feeding after mating appear to lead to
losses of ova by stimulating the metabolism (i.e. destruction) of progesterone, the hormone
required for the establishment and maintenance of pregnancy.
Protein deficiency can be expected to influence reproduction through its effect on feed
intake. However, it has recently been suggested that a supplement of digestible protein that is
undegradable in the rumen (DUP) can increase the ovulation rate in cattle. It has also been
suggested that an excess of rumen degradable protein (RDP) in the diet of dairy cows can cause
ammonia toxicity, which in turn reduces fertility, as expressed by an increase in the number of
inseminations required to secure conception. Also a prolonged protein deficiency especially in
young animals leads to reproductive failure.
The production of ova and spermatozoa follow the attainment of sexual maturity (puberty),
and undernutrition during growing period delays puberty in both males and females of domestic
animals. This undernutrition during the growing period also affects the production of eggs and of

22
sperm after puberty. Generally amounts that are adequate for maintenance will meet requirements
for ova and sperm production.
Semen characteristics of Bulls Receiving 100, 120, and 140% 0f Recommended Maintenance
Requirement.

Semen Characteristics
Feeding level Sperm x 103
Volume (ml) Motility (%)
(Per mm3)
100% of maintenance 5.70 72.7 1219
120% of maintenance 5.64 73.4 1226
140% of maintenance 6.50 73.2 1220

[C. Branton, R.W. Bratton and G.W. Salisbury, Journal of Dairy Science. 30:1003-1013,1947.]

Low energy intake alone has been reported to markedly delay puberty, although in some
studies, energy was not the only dietary variable. High-energy intakes have also been shown to
affect reproduction. Too much energy may cause so much fat as to interfere with follicle
development on the ovaries in the female and with sperm production in the male, along with
decreased desire to mate in both. While at least part of the problem with low energy may be the
effect on hormone production, low protein intakes have been clearly shown to affect hormone
production. Reduced gonadotropic and sex hormones resulting from low protein intakes in turn
affect development of the sex organs, desire to mate, and production of sperm and ova. Reduced
hypophysial gonadotrophines are the major cause of reproductive malfunction in protein
deprivation. The leutinizing hormone seems especially sensitive.

Energy & Protein balance during Pre and Post-partum: -

Good milk production and numbers of calves per unit time are only obtained by achieving
early conception in heifers and a short inter-calving interval in adult cows. Energy is an important
nutrient for dairy cows both before and after calving and there is no substitute for energy in the diet
of ruminants. A balance of energy and protein is required, even before calving and in the dry
period. Energy deficiency before calving (below maintenance) should be avoided as well because
this leads already at this stage to metabolic stress and low conception rates in the following
lactation.
The negative effect of an insufficient energy provision before calving will be enhanced by
an energy deficiency after the following parturition. The importance of energy after parturition is
well known. Already in the first two to three weeks of lactation, energy from any source is
23
important for the onset of ovarian and, related to this, for uterine involution. Energy deficiency
leads to acyclia, silent heat, delayed ovulations and follicular cysts. Significant correlations exist
between fertility and weight loss or body condition, as indicators of negative energy balance in the
first weeks after calving.

Results in pregnancy, number of treatments and inseminations per pregnancy in cows with
different nutritional status and health.
Nutritional status/health
Energy deficiency liver
Parameter Energy deficiency excess
Normal damage
of protein
% of pregnancies 94.4 81.0 54.5
Treatments per cow 1.22 1.46 1.66
Inseminations/pregnancy 1.39 2.19 2.59
Interval treatment – conception
48.50 66.90 68.30
(days)
(Escherich and Lotthamer, 1987)

Cows gaining weight during early lactation have a higher conception rate and need fewer
services per conception compared to those losing weight.

Effects of a cow’s condition on conception rate

Cow’s Total Number Total Number Conception

Condition Services Pregnant Services/Conception Rate

Gaining Wt. 1368 911 1.50 67%

Losing Wt. 544 234 2.32 44%

Cows that lose an excessive amount of body condition or fat stores during early lactation
have longer intervals to first ovulation and first estrus (heat period), lower first service conception
rates and more days open.
Improvements in a cow‟s energy balance may be an important signal to the ovaries to start
cycling. Preliminary results from research trials indicate that energy balance may also influence
developing ova (eggs). When energy status becomes more positive, early post partum, diameter of
the largest follicle on day 10 post partum, increased double ovulation, increase the day of detection
of the first Corpus Luteum (CL) was earlier. These changes, thought to be aroused by increases in
LH-FSH, insulin, IGF, and other yet to be determined compounds as activated by improving
energy status. In order to avoid large negative energy, energy balance, and maximize DMI, well-
24
known conventional management practices are recommended. Supplemental fat may increase
energy status thereby improving follicular recruitment and growth. Fat supplement have been
shown to increase cholesterol, precursor of progesterone which may increase fertility.
Protein deficiencies in lactating cows may increase the incidence of silent heats (cow
releases the egg but she is not seen in heat) and lower conception rates while at the same time
decreasing feed intake and milk production. Excesses of protein (crude protein in the total diet
greater than 17-20%) have been implicated in lowering conception rates with increases seen in the
number of services per conception and days open. When an excess of degradable protein and/or a
deficiency of energy is fed, ammonia not incorporated into microbial protein is absorbed into the
blood stream. In turn, this excess ammonia and urea in the blood stream may decrease fertility at
the same time energy is diverted away from milk production and/or reproduction. Some studies
have indicated that blood urea nitrogen (BUN) above 20 mg/100 ml may decrease the chances of
pregnancy.
Recommends dietary concentration of 19% during the first 3 weeks post partum and 16-
18% thereafter, depending upon the amount of milk being produced. The reason for higher
recommendation (19%) just after calving is low DMI. During the first 10 weeks post partum, cows
also undergo tremendous changes as they shift from pregnant to non-pregnant states and prepare to
conceive again. The pituitary and hypothalamus undergo changes in control of metabolic and
reproductive hormones, uterus undergoes morphological and histological changes, and the ovary
undergoes recrudescence, i.e. out-break activity after a period of inactively of follicle recruitment
and growth leading to ovulation and formulation of CL. Breeding often initiated at 8-10 weeks post
partum under the influences of this dynamic metabolic scenario. If more protein is consumed that
can be effectively utilized, urea (primarily) and ammonia increase in body fluids despite increases
in hepatic concentrations or urea cycle enzymes. Urea concentration in blood (BUN) was increased
on average 2.54 gm/100 ml for each pound of dietary CP intake.
Mechanisms by which these negative effects occur are not clear. Concentration of
ammonia/urea or another unknown nitrogenous compound can be sufficiently high in the body
tissue to hamper fertilization, embryo development, and implantation of the conceptus, thereby
retarding genesis of a new calf. Some studies show that P4 concentrations in cows fed 15-20% CP
were lower than cows fed 13% CP. Feeding high amounts of protein increases concentrations of
nitrogenous compounds in blood. Urea has proved toxic to ova and sperm.

25
 Retrospective Review of Breeding Strategies for Livestock
Dr. P. B. Deshpande,(Deonikar) Dr.M. N. Sawaisonkamble,
Asstt.Commissioner of A.H. Regional Joint Commissioner of
Dist.A.I.Centre, Latur. Animal Husbandry, Latur.

Britishers adopted horse breeding for military purposes. However mixed farming has been
a practice of farmers since preindependance. Cattle were reared mainly for draft power, milk and
manure.
Upto 4th Five Year Plan, bull rearing was the concept as bullock power constituted major
agricultural requirement.
Milk production acquired top priority to satisfy urban demand of cheaper milk to urban
population. Developed countries also played their roll in pouring funds for mechanization of dairy
sector to liquidate their over productions.
Animal Husbandry Department of Maharashtra tried to preserve indigenous breeds by
posting them in rural areas for natural services till 1960-65. Schemes like registration of Deoni,
Khillar and Gavlav cattle were implemented in respective regional pockets of breed. However, due
to increasing demands of milk, the crossbreeding was introduced from 1967 onwards in certain
areas.
In accordance with the policy laid down in 1981, the crossbreed of N.D.cows with H.F.was
taken up in irrigated tracts and use of Jersey bull semen was introduced in non-irrigated tracts and
drought prone areas. Up gradation of local buffalo was done by Murrah/Mehasana buffalo a bull in
irrigated areas and Surati was used for non-irrigated/ draught prone areas. The policy delivered six
time rise of milk from 1062 thousand MT in 1970-71 to 6376 thousand MT in 2003-04. The share
of buffalo milk is to the extent of 46 % in 2003-04.
Apart from crossbreeding, the areas were also identified for preservation of Indigenous
germ plasm as per statement enclosed. The official inseminators are expected to inseminate or
breed indigenous cattles with respective breeding bulls only. The farmers have also a liberty to
adopt individual breeding plan for his personal needs.
Now the Govt.of India has announced a national policy on agriculture in July 2000. As a
sequel to this, National Livestock Policy has been identified and saline features of policy are
1. Stabilization of livestock population in respect of land load and its balance with growing
demands of livestock products.

26
 2. Low productive potentials in bovine population, poor coverage of A.I. and alarming
conception rates associated with feeds and fodder shortages.
3. Negligible grazing resources.
4. Livestock environment, Improvement of soil fertility through mannuring.
5. Livestock and human hygiene, hygienic production of livestock products.
Improvement of buffalo may not be concentrated on one or two defined breeds but a
biodiversity be maintained.
6. Creation of special zones for rearing of bullock/ bulls for sustainable breed conservation
7. Encouragement of breeders associations

Salient features in Animals Husbandry & dairy sector in last few year will explain how the
farmers in Maharashtra are responding to programme which are planned with their help, for their
development.
The roll of veterinarian is to stand as bridge between planning visionaries and end
beneficiaries that is farmers.
Annex

Breed District Tahasils

Deoni Latur Ahamedpur, Udgir, Chakur.
Khandhar , Mukhed, Deglur, Ahamedpur, Loha, Biloli,
Lal Khandhari Nanded
Nanded.
Gaolao Wardha Arvi, Karanga, Kharangana, Ashti.
Ahamednagar Akole.
Dangi
Nashik Igatpuri.
South Solapur, North Solapur, Mohol,Malshiras,Karmala,
Solapur
Sangola, Manglveda, Pandhapur ,Akkalkot,Madha,Barshi.
Khillar
Satara Man khandala, Khatav, Sangli.
Sangili Miraj, Kavate Mahankal, Jath,Athpadi,Khanapur ,Vita.
South Solapur,North Solapur, Akkalkot,Mohol,Barshi,
Pandhapuri Solapurs
Pandhapur , Manglveda, Malshiras.
Wardha Ashti, Karanga, Arvi.
Nagpuri/
Amravati Anjnggaon-surji, Chanaur Bazar.
Achalpuri
Akola Akot.

State Govt also reviewed its policy on the backdrop of National policy and adopted revised
breeding policy from Feb.2004 as per its G.R.No.LVS.102003 /Page No.467.ADF-4, dt.7th
Feb.2004.

27
 The policy changed is done considering increasing human population and its corresponding
demand of livestock products. The need of employment generation to educated unemployed and
necessity of preservation of pure and famous indigenous breeds. The vital roll of M.L.D.B. also
compelled Govt. this decision.
The important features of policy are as under: -
A- 1- The use of exotic jersey frozen semen is to be made on non-descript cattle.
13. The use of exotic H.F. frozen semen is to be made in areas with high irrigation
facilities for agriculture and with those who have skilled management practice and
sufficient green fodder.
3- Exotic level is to be strictly restricted to 50% only.
4- The limit of exotic level can be extended to 62-5 in areas, which are awakened in Animal
Husbandry and management fields with permission of Department and Govt.
The cows produced by adopting this policy will be called as MAHANANDINI and bulls
as MAHANAND.
13. With a view to preserve indigenous breeds, the treasures of Maharashtra like Dangi,
Khillar, Deoni, Lal Kandhari and Gavlav be produced in their defined home tracts by
adopting scientific and advanced technology.
C- 1- Breeding of Nagpuri and Pandharpuri be done in original home tracts by supplying frozen
semen of proven bulls.
13. Non-descript buffalo be bred with Murrah and Surati.
13. Murrah and Mahsana purebred frozen semen doses be utilized in urban and semi-urban
area.
13. The other rural area should be covered with Surati and Murrah breeds.

It will be binding to adopt this policy to Government and Government aided institutes and
individuals. If any organization or individual wants to deviate, can do so on the responsibility and
risk, however, the permission of Government to do so is essential. They are also required to see
that no damage is made to original indigenous breeds.

28
 Breeding policies of Government of India/Maharashtra
(Results as viewed by the authors)

Milk
Sr.
Period Policy Results production/Draft/
No.
Etc
Natural Breeding of horses for Quality up Military purpose
Pre-
1 military purposes gradation served
Independence
achieved Milk – 831TMT
Natural and artificial technique in Start of Indian Milk production
breeding. policy. 1062 TMT
Propagation of traditional home Home breeds
Post
breeds. paid attention
Independence
2 Cross breeding on specific less attention to
up to 1970-
military farms. milk production.
71
Natural breeding by posting
indigenous bulls with farmers and
village Panchayat.
Cross breeding of ND cows with Inception of Milk – 2003 TMT
HF in green zones and Jersey in scientific (1982 – 1983)
Dry zones. approach. Milk – 6376 TMT
3 1981-2003 Emphasis on enhancement of High milk
milk production attention towards production arena
up gradation of buffalo with looked.
Murrah and Surti.
Use of Jersey in Dry areas and HF More scientific Results awaited
in irrigated. approach.
Strict adherence of 50% exotic Creation of milk
2004 level. zones.
4
onwards Escalation up to 62.5% allowed in Biodiversity
developed areas. maintenance
Preservation of Indian breeds in angles.
specified Tahsils.

29
 Health Monitoring For High Conception Rate
Dr. B. N. Ambore & Dr. A. U. Bhikane
Veterinary College, Udgir
To enhance maximum possible production and reproduction, health status of the animal
should be well. There are several factors that cause a departure from the state of health interrupting
the performance of vital functions. Among these vital functions of the body one of the most
important is conception, the beginning of life, get impaired if the general health of the animal is not
optimum. The following factors should be considered to ensure the health status and indirectly the
reproductive processes.
1. MANAGEMENT:
A scientific animal husbandry practices should be followed to overcome the reproductive
problems. These include –
a. Hygienic conditions – Hygienic conditions should be maintained at every stage of management.
b. Environmental conditions –:
 Heat – during summer months causes decreased thyroid activity, which may lead to reduced
reproductive performance.
 Cold – excessive exposure to cold may cause failure of oestrus cycle in young growing
animals
 Humidity.
c. Production stress / physiological stress – High milk producing dairy animals may not conceive
early / easy following parturition due to negative energy balance.
d. Transportation stress – Long distance transportation stress leads to oestrus failure due to
absence of regressing corpus luteum and hormonal disturbances.
2. NUTRITION :
Nutrition is one of the important factor which influences reproduction usually by failure of
oestrus, cessation of oestrus and sometimes failure of conception / early embryonic death.
a. Overfeeding – Overfeeding leads to fattening of animal and in the overfat animal ovaries
are small and also fat deposition in the ovaries interferes normal ovulation and transport of
ovum. The extra fat in the ovaries also obstructs the development of follicles. While in the
bulls also overfat interferes with sperm production and libido.

30
 b. Underfeeding – Underfeeding results into delayed sexual maturity in heifers and also
cessation of oestrus cycle in all aged animals. Underfeeding may leads to deficiency of
energy, protein, phosphorus and vit-A.
When there is low energy, follicular atresia develops (failure to mature the follicles).
Hypoglycaemia at oestrus may affect the conception due to the lack of energy to
spermatozoa / fertilized ova, therefore all the breedable animals should be fed by adopting the
standard feeding practices so that they should be in a positive energy balance after calving to
realize the best conception rate.
c. Vitamin deficiency – Any vitamin deficiency as such is not associated with infertility, but
deficiency of vitamins may result in dystocia, abortion / still birth and also the advance
effect on the ovarian cycle.
d. Mineral deficiency – Along with all other vital functions of the body minerals also plays
an important role in improving fertility and life time efficiency of dairy animals,
particularly the deficiency of phosphorus, copper, iron, cobalt, iodine and selenium have
more influence on fertility.
Vitamin E and selenium: Helps in transportation of the spermatozoa to the site of fertilization by
improving uterine contractibility and Vit. E is also involved in synthesis of reproductive hormones
i.e. progesterone and estrogen.

3. COMPTON METABOLIC PROFILE TEST:

The laboratory evaluation of certain blood components on regular basis will reflect the
nutritional status of the animal.
 We can assess the qualitative and quantitative adequacy of the diet of cows expected to produce
a certain quantity of milk and also to return the animals to estrus within the desirable length of
time following parturition.
 It is a reliable test for early diagnosis of nutritional deficiency/metabolic imbalance.
 It is also useful for the selection of superior animals.
Thus by doing C.M.P.T. of herd, we can very well assess the nutritional demand of dairy
animals and indirectly the productive and reproductive performance of them.

31
Metabolic Diseases and Conception:
Among the metabolic diseases P.P.H. (post parturient haemoglobinuria) and ketosis have an
indirect effect on conception and fertility of animal. In PPH due to phosphorus deficiency and in
ketosis due to negative energy balance and hormonal imbalance of insulin and cortisol.
4. HEALTH CONTROL MEASURES:
To maintain the general health of animal the following practices should be routinely
adopted.
A. Deworming- Due to favorable climatic conditions i.e. hot and humid environment of majority
states of our country, gastrointestinal parasitism is more common which causes the nutritional
deficiencies as well as anoestrus. Animals with heavy worm load can show the clinical signs but
those with low grade of infestation may go unnoticed. In most of the cases without knowing the
primary cause we administer hormonal therapy for induction of oestrus. In many of cases worm
load may be the primary cause of anoestrus. The vitamin and mineral deficiencies and heavy
helmintic infestation are the major cause of anoestrus in dairy animals.
The gastrointestinal parasites are responsible for poor digestion and improper assimilation
of digested food resulting in nutritional deficiency.
It has been also recorded that the parasitic infestation also reduces the serum calcium and
inorganic phosphorus.
The parasitic worms also causes the decreased serum iron by blood sucking activity.
Thus the intestinal parasitism may lead to nutritional deficiencies along with macro and
micro mineral deficiency and which may lead to infertility, for that purpose the regular
anthelmintic treatment is necessary.
Principles to be followed to control parasitic diseases:
● Herd & its management ● Nutritional status ● Pasture management
● Shed/ house management ● Control of vector population ● Protection of young animals
Deworming Schedule –
● Age of first deworming – 3 days. ● then at monthly interval upto 6 months.
● Regular- thrice a year in animals above 6 months of age.

B. Spraying - The external parasites also causes the severe harmful effects on animal health.
 The ecto-parasites suck the blood, which may lead to anaemia.
 Severe itching of skin leads to restlessness and thus reduced appetite and water intake.

32
 Some ticks are responsible for transmission of the protozoan diseases such as babesiosis,
theileriosis etc.
 Loss of body weight in all animals.
All these effects of ectoparasites may impair the reproductive performance of the animals.
Therefore regular insecticide spraying on animal body as well as in the animal shed is essential.

C. Vaccination – So many infectious diseases are responsible to affect the reproductive

performance of dairy animals. All these diseases cause the abortions in different stages of
gestation. The cows those abort before 5 months of gestation hardly shows the retention of placenta
but those aborts after 5 months, retention of placenta is most common and which later complicates
the estrus and conception.
Following are the common diseases that causes abortion
A. Bacterial-
Most common - Brucellosis, Leptospirosis, Tuberculosis, Vibriosis
Least common - Haemorrhagic septicaemia, Anthrax, Salmonellosis, Listeriosis.
B. Viral-
Most common IBR, FMD
Least common BVD, RP, MCF
C. Protozoan- Babesiosis, Trypanosomiasis, Anaplasmosis, Toxoplasmosis
Trichomoniasis
D. Mycotic/fungal – Aspergilosis
Principles to be followed to control infectious diseases:
To avoid the infection of these diseases following control measures should be adopted –
 Maintenance of hygiene and sanitation.
 Infected animal should be isolated/ sold / slaughtered.
 Eliminate the source in infection
 Aborted foetus / placenta should be deeply buried
 Disinfections of infected area/houses.
 Prevent genital contact between infected and noninfected animals. (Adopt A.I.).
 Avoid stress due to – transportation, inclement weather, undernutrition
 Regular screening of herd for various tests like MRT, Tuberculin test etc.
 Regular vaccination.

33
 Induction of Estrus In Anestrous Animals
Dr. Mukund Amle
Veterinary College, Shirwal.

ESTRUS (Estrum): It is fairly well defined period characterized by sexual desire and the
acceptance of the male by the female domestic animals.
COWS: -
The intensity of estrus is weak, medium or intense. Majority of cows come in heat at night
& is detected early in the morning. Cow in heat exhibit partial in appetence due to excitement. She
prefer standing in byre, restlessness, nervousness moves anxiously in the field, not interested in
grazing, as the cow approaches estrus, she tends to sniff & lick the perineum of other cows. She
will access the receptivity of other cows by resting her chin on the rump or lion of other cows. She
arches her back and lumbar region during heat. Tail is slightly raised. The hairs of the tail head or
often ruffled &the skin some times excoriated by mounting by other cows. Bellowing is feature of
heat, marked drop in milk yield, frequent attempts of micturition. Rumination is slightly decreased
during heat.
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES:
1. Vulva & Vagina: - In estrus vulva is congested, edematous, turgid, wrinkles on vulva disappears,
and stands predominantly growth and thickening of vaginal epithelium becomes hyperemic and
congested. Vaginal PH is 7.32
2. Cervix: - Cervical and vaginal glands secrete increased amount of mucous (mucin). Cervix is
relaxed, alteration in physiochemical properties of cervical mucous. The genital discharge of
transparent mucous whose elasticity causes to hang in complete clear strands from the vulva to
the ground is called as bulling string. Mucous adhere the tail and flank of the cow in heat.
Viscosity of the mucous is decreased, ferning is maximum on mucous dried on glass slide in
the beginning, the oestrual discharge is thin, shiny, clear, odorless and hanging out. During
estrous, mucous is stringy, adhesive, transparent and copious and occasionally containing
exfoliated cells.
3. Uterus: - Erect, turgid, edematous. Uterine tone is maximal on rectal palpation. Endometrium
becomes hyperemic and congested.
4. Ovaries: - Usually 1 to 5 small follicles start growing but undergo atresia. During estrus one
follicle grows & ovulate. Ovarian follicle is smooth convex fluctuating glister like measuring
about 0.5inches.
34
5. Oviduct: - Tonic epithelium matures cilia active oviduct contracts fimbriated ends of oviduct
are assuming close affinity to the graffian follicle in the ovary.

HORMONAL CHANGES: -
During proestrus, the preovulatory follicles secret increasing amount of Oestradial. At this
stage cow may ride on other cows and begins to secretes cervical mucous. Basal level of milk or
plasma progesterone is reproductive confirmation of estrus. At the time of onset of estrus, pick
level of Oestradial trigger a source of LH that causes ovulation to occur about 10-12 hr. after the
end of estrus in cow. 0.5-0.80c raises body temperature during ovulation and drops at ovulation by
about 0.30c.
METHODS OF ESTRUS DETECTION
13. Per rectal examination: - To be undertaken by technician
2. Standing heat: - The best indication of estrus is when the female stands when mounted by male
or by other females. Cows are observed in loose house early in the morning & evening every day.
They are observed for standing heat when mounted by other cows. The non-pregnant cows are
watched for 20 to 30-min.each times for standing heat. Videotapes are also placed in the loose
room with video monitors and recorders.
3. Teaser bull / Androginised cows: - Teasers are surgically prepared bulls to prevent the release of
sperm or copulation or steers are treated with testosterone hormone or cow with cystic ovaries are
also used as teasers.
4. Chin ball-mating device: - A halters is fitted with a reservoir of dye to the teaser that released is
by the ball type mechanism that marks a line on the back of cow in heat. Chin ball marker leave on
ink mark upon the ridden cows indicating that standing & acceptance to mount have occurred.
5. Grease: - Grease is smeared on the brisket of the teaser cow.
6. Pressure detection on the cow: -The detectors are applied on point of maximum pressure during
monitoring particularly sacral spine. Her pressure sensitive devices change the colors when animal
stands for mounting, also called as heat mount detectors.
13. Estrus related odors (pheromones): - Dogs are train to detected the odors in vaginal
mucous, milk or urine of cow .a specific and distinct odor is present in the urogenital tract
of cow during estrus the odor is apparently disappear or greatly attenuated during diestrous.
Results indicate that dog can be trained to detect and respond to the odor associated with
estrous in cattle.

35
8. KaMar heat mount detectors: - they are more expensive and cow must be identified when they
are displaced during riding by other cows.
13. Closed Circuit Television with time lapsed video is quite effective.
10. Milk Progesterone assay: - Low progesterone level (0.02ng/ml) indicates that cow in estrus.
For a short time after service to the cow, cow stands with raised tail and arched back and
when such posture is adopted, it indicates that mating has occurred. Within tow days of natural
service there is occasional yellowish white discharge of mucus containing neutrophils and the
leukocytes from the uterus (heat period 12-14 hrs).
BUFFALO: -
Acceptance male is the more reliable sign of estrus in buffaloes. Discharge of clear mucus
from vulva, vulval edema, restlessness, frequent urination, vocalization, sniffing and licking of
genitalia of other animals, and drop in milk production are not reliable sign of estrus in buffaloes.
Estrus commences towards late evening with a peak sexual activity between 6 am and 6 pm.
EWES: -
Estrus period last for 24 to36 hrs in ewes. Estrus in ewes is relatively inconspicuous and is
not evident in absence of ram, hence the estrus is difficult to detect. In estrus ewes are restless seek
out the ram and together for „harem‟ (courtship). The vulva may be edematous and mucus
discharge from the vagina is scanty. The ewe may isolate her self from the rest of flock and
waggles her tail and moves it laterally. Ewes show a preference for the ram of their own breed or a
particular ram. Standing of the ewes is most easily noticed sign of estrus. Ewes do not exhibit
homosexual behavior but this may occasionally seen in a does. During estrus, irregular
cornification of the surface cells of vagina is noticed. Without presence of male, however estrus is
difficult to detect in both ewes and does. Ram paws with forefeet, rubs his head along ewe side,
nips her wool. Ram mounts and makes series probing pelvic thrust and than dismount. The
introduction of ram to ewes during the transition from anoestrus season, stimulate then to come in
heat and ovulate.
Vasectomised rams are commonly used to detect the estrus ewes with making crayons,
colored grease, and paint applied to the brisket of ram. The number of services received by an
estrus ewe average at least about 4. Ram may serve 8 to 38 ewes in a day.
DOES: -
Estrus duration last for 24 to 48 hrs. Sign of estrus are more conspicuous in does than ewes.
A doe in estrus in restless bleats frequently waggles her tail constantly and rapidly. She may have

36
reduced appetite decrease in milk production. Swelling and reddening of vulva in conjugation with
rapid wagging of tail and vocalization. Mucus discharge is scanty. Doe may occasionally exhibit
homosexual behavior but not the ewes. Without the presence of male, estrus is difficult to detect.
Buck show interest and will follow does 3 to 5 days before standing estrus occurs. This
suggests a proestrus activity in does. Goat‟s odor from the giants located in the back of head
between the horns
MARES: -
Estrous lasts for 7 days. Mares in estrus becomes restless and irritable, licks mare or
stallion. During estrus vulva becomes large and swollen, labial folds are loose and open on
examination labia is orange in a colour, wet and glossy and covered with a film of transparent
mucous. Vaginal mucosa is highly vascular and thin watery, mucoid discharge may accumulate in
vagina.
During diestrus only finger can be inserted in cervix. Mares assume status characteristics of
urination called as micturition posture. Urine is expelled in small amount at several successions
voids urine with repeated exposure of clitoris. Tall, had is often raised.
Clitoris is erected producing a typical sound called as wrinkling of vulva. Mares in estrus
leans her hind quarters, spreads her hind legs, lowers her pelvis, raise her tail to side. She takes a
considerable interest in courtship. At the same time she is aggressive and prone to bite or kick the
stallion when approached. Courtship between mare and stallion during estrus is aggressive and
violent she shows vicious temperament. Mares are receptive to stallion from 3-4 days depending
upon duration of estrus. Stallion usually exhibits “Flehman” reaction when mare is in heat.
Mare housed in a special teaser paddocks. Indication of acceptance of stallion by mare are
elevation of tail, spreading of legs, standing, frequent urination and counteraction of vulva.
SOW : -
Estrus lasts for 40-72 hrs. Onset of estrus is characterized by gradual changes in behavioral
pattern. Sows in heat seek the boar when he is with in the site and assume rigid stationary stands
and lardosis. Ears of sow become erect in response .Sow exhibit Muzzling action. She is restless
and mouth on other animals. Peculiar repeated sow beginning 3 day before heat emits grunt. Vulva
becomes swollen and congested and these features persist. Reddening of surrounding region.
Cervix is rigid and edematous, occasional mucous discharge, which is thin, vaginal epithelium
lining are thicker and keratinised. Estrus could be readily determined by pressing loin of sow with
the palms of both hands. Estrus sow will stand motionless with cocked ears. Immobilization

37
responded by sow can be elicited if attendant sits on sow by producing the voice of boar sound site
and of vasectomised boar are helpful to detect estrus.
Boar odour is released by salivary glands. Skin glands also produce an odour. Male
secretion of preputial pouch give an odour involved in sexual carpel glands is well differentiated in
both the sexes producing specialized.
Sexual receptivity lasts on an average of 40-60 hrs. Ova released 38-42 hrs after the onset
of estrus. The sow seeks boar in proestrus. She nozzles his testicles and flank and may mount him.
BITCH :-
Estrus lasts for 9 days and ovulation occurs between 2-4 days after commencement of heat.
Indication of estrus precedes the commencement of bleeding for several days. A day also before
the end of proestrus the attitude of bitch changes. She shows signs of courtship towards male
become restless. Seeks male for mating. During estrus she becomes stationary She allows male
stands, Display vulva by arching her and deviate and held her tail one side. Vulva swelling and
tummification are greatest on onset of stage of estrus.
Bloody discharge from vagina also watery, reddish or yellow as heat proceeds. During
proestrus she will accepts the male. The period of intense desire is during the first 2-3 days of
estrus, during which copulatry tie occurs lasting for 15-25 min. during proestrus and estrus there is
proliferation of vaginal epithelium, which undergoes stratification or cornification. In the height of
estrus there is shedding of keratinisation surface of all vaginal epithelium.
Since pheromone release is maximal at this stage, roaming bitches are often followed by a
pack of clogs usually packing and polluting the environment. Male investigates and lick anogenital
region of female. Female exhibit lardosis and doesn‟t allow mounting until she is in proper heat.
Methyl P-hydroxy benzoate, which stimulates the mounting reaction in male dog, was proposed as
a pheromone released from vagina of bitch. Olfaction is main determinant communication between
canine sexes
QUEEN:-
Cats are seasonally polyestrus. Shows estrus during late spring and early winter. Cats are
induced ovulators. Estrus cycle lasts about 3 weeks. Proestrus lasts for 1-3 days some cats may not
show regular patterns of estrus cycle and anoestrus lasts for 90 days.
Queens rub her head and neck against objects, rolling on the floor, refuses advances.
Doesn‟t stand stationary and doesn‟t allow intermission by tom .In estrus estrous discharge is
characterized by increased vacuolization for prolonged period. Rubbing head and neck against

38
objects and rolling on floor. Queen will elicit the attention of tom. Becomes on the chest and
forelegs, rising of pelvis, elevation of tail are typical features she presents a perineal region which
exposes a vulva. Minor vulval discharge may be observed but in general there no conspicuous
changes in estrus.
She allows grasping of neck and mounting. Tom licks anogenital region and is intensely
attracted towards the queen Ton sniffs and grooms the female. Grips the neck of queen and mouth
with vigorous pelvic thrust leading to intermission.

INDUCTION OF ESTRUS IN ANESTROUS ANIMALS

Double injection schedule of PGF2 alpha injection :-
Anoestrous females are examined per-rectally for the exploration of genitalia. The females
are injected with PGf2 alpha injection intramuscularly. The onset of estrus is recorded. Cows show
estrus within 72 hours. Those cows not showing estrus symptoms are given second dose of PGf2
alpha injection 11 days after the first injection. Estrous is induced and fixed time breeding is done
at 72 hours in those cows.
Long term progesterone therapy :
Medroxy Progesterone Acetate (MAP)
Melengesterol Acetate ( MGA)
Short term progesterone therapy :
Norgestomet (Ear Implant), PRID, CIDR
Exogenous P4 acts like an artificial CL and inhibits estrus
Withdrawal of P4 induce estrus

NORGESTAMET/ SYNCHROMATE-B EAR IMPLANT :

A small hydron polymer implant impregnated with 6mg of Norgestomet is inserted s\c on
the back of the ear of anoestrous animal. At the time of insertion 5mg of Oestradial valerate and
3mg of Norgestomet are injected intramuscularly (a single 2ml dose). The implant is removed
after 9 days. AI done at Fixed time AI at 48 and 60 hours
PROGESTERONE RELEASING INTRAVAGINAL DEVICE (PRID):
Stainless steel flat coil coated with an inert silicone rubber incorporating 1.55 g of
progesterone Contains a 10 mg of Oestradial benzoate capsule. Left in situ (Vagina) of female for

39
12 days and then withdrawn. Estrus occurs 2-3 days after withdrawal. Fixed time AI at 48 and 72
hours or only at 56 hours after removal.

PROGESTERONE RELEASING INTRAVAGINAL DEVICE (PRID CONTROLLED

INTERNAL DRUG RELEASING DEVICE (CIDR)
 T shaped silicone rubber, impregnated with progesterone and molded over a nylon spine.
• A small nylon tail attached to the end of the CIDR – protrudes from the vulva – for easy
removal.
• Contains 1.9 g of progesterone.
• Inserted in to the vagina of female using the applicator, left for 7 to 10 days and then
withdrawn.
• In cyclical animals a capsule containing 10 mg Oestradial benzoate is also inserted along
with CIDR
• Or prostaglandin can be given one day before withdrawal of insert.
• Fixed time AI at 60 and 72 hours after removal of CIDR is recommended.

40
 Handling And Management Of LN2 Containers
Dr. S.C. Vora
Veterinary College, Nagpur

Liquid nitrogen containers are very delicate by construction. Mishandling of LN2 containers
due to lack of knowledge results in premature destruction of the containers. Any damage to the
LN2 containers will reduce the efficiency of the container. This may result in increased evaporation
rate.
The liquid nitrogen container is double walled vessel. The inner chamber is suspended in
the outer chamber through neck tube, which is non-metal and bad conductor of the heat. This neck
tube prevents transfer of heat from outside to inside thereby preventing the rapid evaporation of
LN2.
Sudden moves and jerks vibrate the inner chamber. Thus side-to-side movement of the
inner chamber puts considerable stress on the neck tube and very often leads to mechanical
damage. The wall of the inner chamber is coated with high quality insulating material. Insulating
material is also filled in between the outer and inner chambers. Vacuum is created in between the
inner and the outer chambers. In the absence of the vacuum the LN2 would be rapid evaporation of
LN2 from the inner chamber.
A highly visible frost at the top of the LN2 container is the indicative of the rapid
evaporation.
Precautions during handling:
13. LN2 containers should be kept in a cool place, direct exposure to Sunlight and hot air
should
be avoided.
13. The room storing filled LN2 containers should be well ventilated.
13. Avoid direct contact of containers with hand floor.
13. Avoid moisture on floor.
13. Avoid injuries, drilling, puncturing, and scraping.
13. Do not play with vacuum knob.
7. Use trolley for transport of LN2 containers avoid rolling, pull or push with fiction on floor.
8. Do not put LN2 containers one over other.
9. Always keep the lid over the container (except during putting in or taking out frozen semen.)
10. Do not interchange canisters from other LN2 containers.
41
11. Fill the liquid nitrogen slowly.
12. Make regular checks of the LN2 level in the container. Any increase in the expected
evaporation rate should be taken seriously.
13. Do not put undesirable material in the LN2 containers.

42
 Infertility in Bovines
Dr. S. C. Vora
Veterinary College, Nagpur.

Infertility: Infertility is a temporary state of reduction of reproductive ability of animals.

Forms of infertility: Infertility in large animals broadly classified in three groups.
1. Congenital forms of infertility. 2. Functional forms of infertility.
3.Infections forms of infertility.
1. Congenital forms of infertility: -
Congenital forms of infertility are associated with animals possessing anomalies of the
gonads and /or the reproductive tracts. Following are the some of the congenital causing infertility.
a. Free Martin: Free Martins have been noted in cattle, sheep, and goats but are more common in
cattle in concern infertility in females that have been born co twined with a normal male.
b. Ovarian hypoplasia: One or both ovaries may be underdeveloped, frequently observed
congenital malformation. Unilateral, ovarian hypoplasia results in reduced fertility. Whenever it is
bilateral, both ovaries are hypo plastic tubular part of the reproductive tract remains infantile.
Estrus cycle does not occur.
c. Segmental aplasia of Mullerian ducts: Congenital malformations of the uterus occur in all
species of domestic animals. The most frequently observed malformation is segmental aplasia of
the uterus it may affect any part of tubular genitalia.
2.Functional form of infertility: -
Anoestrus: Anoestrus when referred to in connection with physiologic estrus cycle is
usually characterized by quiescent functionless ovaries and reproductive tract.
Anoestrus in animals is classified as under:
a. True anoestrus.
b. Sub estrus/ silent heat.
c. Anoestrus due to persistent CL
a) True anoestrus: Both ovaries are small, quiescent and inactive. Uterus is small and flaccid.
Reason for failure of normal activity may be due to insufficient release or production of
Gonadotrophines to cause folliculogenesis.
It is never a primary condition but is conditioned by various environmental influences,
which probably through the mediation of anterior pituitary via hypothalamus depress initially the

43
ovarian activity. The main external influences are light nutrition and environmental temperature
.The problem of shortage of feeds and fodders is well known in India.
Treatment:
If the cause is due to chronic debilitating conditions this may be corrected, so the female
returns to good condition and near normal weight. Additional levels TDN and other nutritious diet
needs to fed to this animals. Regular supply of green fodders and sufficient quantity of concentrates
within regular deforming is necessary.
Treatment by drugs and hormones:
1.Cocu tab. : 2 tab per day for 30 days
2.Cofecu tab : 1 tab for 20 days
3.Prajana cap. : 3 cap. For 2 days
4.Janova: 3 caps for 2 days
5. Estrona : 2 cap per day for 3 days
6. Fertivet : 1 tab/day for 5 days
(1% CuSo4, 125 ml is to be drenched before drug.)
7.Mineral mixture : 50 Gms. Per day for 30 days.
8. Inj. Receptal (GnRH injection) : 5 ml Intramuscular single dose.
9. Inj. Folligon (PMSG) : 1500-3000 i.u. I/M may be repeated
After 10-14 days
10.Progesterone treatment often associated with oestrogen has been
Used to induce ovarian activity post-partum.
11. Estrogen both natural and synthetic have been used to treat
Anoestrous.
Hormonal therapy for the treatment of the anoestrus is useful in selected herds when used in
healthy well-nourished animals.
B) Anoestrus due to persistent corpus luteum:
It is the condition where CL persists without pregnancy and inhibits the normal cyclicity. Is
also observed in pyometra, maceration and mummification. The persistent CL exerts an inhibitory
effect on anterior pituitary.

Treatment:
.Inj. Dinofertin (PGE2a) is the best treatment. : 25 mg I/m.

44
C) Silent estrus:
Reproductive organs are functional. Ovaries are undergoing cyclical changes but the
external signs of estrus are exhibited. On rectal examination a high proportion of these will have a
palpable CL, some may have a characteristic changes in the genital tract.
Treatment:
1. Natural prostaglandin (Dinoprost or in synthetic analogue cloprostenol) is an important aid in
management of sub estrus in cows/buffaloes.
2. Dinofertin injection 25 mg/im.
Only effective between 6-16 days of estrus cycle. When uncertainly overage of CL, second
dose of PGE2a should be injected after 11 days double insemination is practiced.
3. Clinical measures to improve detection of estrus e.g. Use of vasectomised bull.

INFECTITIOUS INFERTILITY
Infertility in the animals due to infection or disease is common in India. Infertility due to
some important infectious origin is as follows:
1) BRUCELLOSIS:
It is caused by gram –ve coco bacillus Brucella abortus. This disease is important not only
due to causing infertility problems in animals but also having zoonotic importance as causing
undulant fever in man.
Important symptoms of Brucellosis in herd is abortion, usually occurs from 6th to 9th month
of pregnancy (gestation). Retained placenta, metritis with a subsequent period of genital discharge
and infertility are the common squeal.
For diagnosis of brucella: MRT/BRT test for herds screening is highly successful in
indicating herds containing 1 or 2 brucella infected cows. For individual diagnosis and
confirmation serological tests should be carried out. Now a days ELISA is also used for Brucella
diagnosis.
Treatment:
Because of the intracellular location of the organisms most of the antibiotics have no
results. Symptomatic treatment should be carried out in aborting animals.
For prevention: Hygienic measures are essential. Vaccination in calves 5th to 7th of age with
strain- 19 vaccine may be used.

45
2) VIBRIOSIS:
It is caused by Compylobacter fetus venerealies spread at the time of coitus or at time of AI.
Infertility or failure of conception lasting for a period of 2-6 months. Infertility is observed due to
early death of embryo. Caused by C.foetus prolong irregular estrus cycle of 25-60 days are
common following the first service of susceptible female to an infected bull.
Treatment of individual cows by the I/U infusion of about 1 gm of Streptomycin together
with Penicillin.

3) TRICHOMONIASIS:
Infertility, early abortion and pyometra are the main symptoms of Trichomonas fetus
infection, protozoa responsible for economic losses in dairy herd.
INFERTILITY DUE TO NUTRITIONAL CAUSES
Most causes of the reduced fertility or infertility are usually due to multiple deficiencies. In
few cases only nutrients have a direct effect on fertility. Under feeding may be accompanied by
poor quality of feed and deficiencies of protein, phosphorus & vitamin-A. Protein deficiency is
usually accompanied by phosphorus deficiency and vitamin-A deficiency accompanied by protein
and phosphorus deficiency.
Young animals are more susceptible to nutritional deficiencies, which has consequent effect
upon growth, puberty and sexual maturity.
A) Under feeding or starvation (inanition):
It delays on set of puberty and sexual maturity in heifers &may cause inhabitation of estrus
cycle. In adult animals may cause failure of follicular development to maturity resulting in
follicular Artesia. Underfeeding also delay in occurrence of post partum estrus in cows.
B) Obesity:
Overfeeding causes obesity and may affect fertility in cattle. Obesity and sterility might
occur due to hypothyroidism. Deposition of fat in the ovarian bursa and ovaries may interfere with
normal ovulation and transport of ovum to the oviduct.
C) Protein deficiency:
Quantitatively rarely observed except due to underfeeding or where vitamin-A and
phosphorus deficiency occurs.
D) Carbohydrates deficiencies: -
It may cause inanition and loss of body weight and consequent effect on fertility.

46
E) Vitamins deficiencies: -
In cattle vitamin-A has considerable effect on fertility. Deficiency of vit-B is usually
accompanied by reduced appetite.
F) Mineral deficiencies:
1. Phosphorus deficiency usually tends to occur when diet low in protein are fed and area
where soil is deficient in phosphorus. Usual symptoms are delayed onset of puberty in heifers &
failure of postpartum estrus in cows.
2. Copper deficiency :It causes delayed puberty, anoestrus sub estrus or poor pregnancy
results.

3. Cobalt deficiencies: It can occur in association with copper deficiencies results in failure
of estrus and delayed onset of puberty.
4. Iodine deficiency: Hypo/ Hyper thyroidism reduces the secretion of Gonadotrophines
hormones by pituitary.
5. Iron deficiency: It results in anemia, debility, and lack of appetite and consequently
reduced intake of feed.
Treatment:
1. Mineral supplement: - Deltamin 50gm/day for 30 days.
2. Providing salt bricks.
3. Inj. of phosphorus.

47
 Morbid uterus palpation and identification of different structures
Dr. Mukund Amle
Veterinary College, Shirwal.

IDENTIFICATION OF DIFFERENT STRUCTURES IN FEMALE ANIMALS

A. RECTAL EXAMINATION OR PALPATION:
Rectal examination or palpation represents only practical domestic method permitting
direct examination of genital organs of cow, heifer of breeding age.
Equipments: -
Rubber or plastic sleeves with attached gloves is essential item not only for sanitary
reasons but also for protection. Record keeping almost as important as examination, it is therefore
advisable to palpate with hand that is not used for writing. Lubricant facilitates dilation of anal
sphincter and entry into rectum. Use of lubricant also reduces injury to rectal passage.
Restraint of Animal: -
In khoda (Travis) is advisable. First obstacle to entry into rectum is the anal sphincter so
pass the hand by making it cone shaped. Once dilated anus does not presents further difficulties.
Presence of hand into ampulla recti passage drawn out to elicit defecation reflex, which manifest
itself in peristalsis and tenesmus. Faeces must be explored with mucosa of rectum being only
structure between finger and organ to be examined. The removal of faeces from rectum is called as
backtrackings. If the hand is removed from rectum during the process of removing faecal matter
negative pressure is created on abdominal cavity &causes aspiration of air into rectum 7
consequent distention of intestine. Any attempt to examine through the wall of distended rectum
leads to trauma therefore should be avoided. Most common causes of rectal trauma are as follows
and elimination of them is highly helpful.
- To much force in manipulation.
- Manipulation in rectum distended by aspiration of air.
- Manipulation during peristaltic waves (tenesmus)
- Longer finger nails.
Pelvic or pubic frame provides an excellent hand mark for orientation during rectal examination of
genital tract.
Location & Examination of Cervix: -
It is located by first inserting arm just for enough to palpate pelvic inlet. Hand with finger is
rotated along one of the wall of pelvic cavity down to the floor over the side. Cervix is recognized
48
as a firm cylindrical nodular structure lying on middle line of pelvic floor. Examination of cervix
for size, form and position whether it is open or close.
The size of cervix depends on stage of reproduction and abnormalities. The size increases
with number of parturition / abortion, cervicitis and age. The position of cervix normally located in
pelvic cavity in cow. Suspension of cervix by broad ligament and indirectly by vagina permits
considerable freedom for movement. This freedom for movement however is greatly dependant
upon weight of uterine horn and body. With increase in weight of uterus it get fixed on pelvic brim
and is relatively immovable eg. in pregnancy after 70 days, early puerperium, pyometra,
mucometra, mummified fetus, ovarian/ uterine tumors etc.
The common clinically apparent abnormalities of cervix are cervicitis, cervical and para
cervical abscesses.
Examination of non-pregnant Uterus / Retraction of Uterus: -
Retraction or rolling of uterus is completed by grasping ventral intercornual ligament with
middle finger & pulling uterus back to the pelvic cavity.
A ) Retraction by indirect method:
After the cervix is located and found freely movable it is pulled back as far as possible.
Attempt is made to bring uterus up and close by moving retracted cervix upwards. Grasp the
anterior broad ligament by keeping the thumb underneath the body of uterus turning hand outward
lowering the bend finger and looking the broad ligament underneath. This broad ligament is
grasped in angle between ovarian of horn and ovary. By sliding the fingers along the anterior edge
will result in location of ovary. Median finger will lead to uterine horn. Horn is brought backwards
and fingers are slide further medially until good hold or ventral intercornual ligament is obtained.
This places the horn of uterus in posterior part of pelvic cavity & thus reaction is completed
B ) Retraction by direct method:
Retraction begins by grasping cervix and pulling it back as far as possible. The groove
between two horns is then followed forward until anterior edge of dorsal intercornual ligament is
palpated. Then traction is completed as above. Then question to be answered by per-rectal
examination of genital tract is whether pregnant or not pregnant.
Physiological alteration of clinical significance involves primary size, symmetry, shape and
tubularity. The tone of uterus during proestrus that is one to two days before estrus. Tones and
excitability of myometrium undergo gradual but marked change which reaches its peak when cow
or heifer shows sexual receptivity. Horns of uterus are turgid, swollen, coiled and also become

49
thicker contractibility of uterus diminishes. Uterus and luteal phase lacks tone and does not exhibit
marked excitability. Symmetry of horn changes due to calving, pregnancy and abnormal contents.
Abnormalities of uterus are freemartinism, white heifer disease, uterus unicornis, cervix
duplex, chronic nonproductive metritis, pyometra, abscess, tumors of uterus (lymph nodes).
Examination of Ovaries: -
Average dimensions of ovary are;
Length – From pole to pole.
Width - From surface to surface,
Height – From attached border to free border
Ovarian stroma with exception of corpus luteum and follicles is firm and nodular. Ovaries
are found to hand width at about 10-12 cm laterally from midline, approx 1 or 2 fingers anterior to
pelvic brim either at same level or bellow level of pelvic brim. Body of cervix and ovaries will lie
in same line. To catch them move thumb and fingers alternatively from the base of horn to tip and
then forward.
Palpable functional structures of ovary:
Periodicity of estrus cycle depends upon or associated with periodic development of G.F.
Ovulation is followed by development of C.L. (Yellow Body) and subsequent regression of CL
accompanied by development of new follicle. This cycle is repeated unless and until fertilization
takes place. Follicle on ovary is smooth, round, blister like, measures approx. 1 cm diameter to2 –
2.5 cm at peak of development. Fluctuation is felt under raised surface.
Development of CL begins with ovulation. Ovulation depression on ovary is found around
12-24 hrs. after ovulation as field with blood clot referred as CL haemorrhagicum. In next 5-7 days
proliferation and hypertrophy of luteal cells results in rapid development of CL more than 2 cm. in
diameter. From 8-17th day, the ovary contains fully developed CL, which go on regression further.
Palpable abnormalities of ovary are hypoplasia of ovary, follicular cyst, luteal cyst,
oophoritis and granulosa cell tumor.
Examination of oviduct and ovarian bursa : -
Because of functional significance of oviduct detection of abnormalities is very important.
Palpation of ovarian bursa involves locating mesoovarium, medial lateral to side of attachment of
ovary. All finger then bend and slide underneath mesoovarium into ovarian bursa. Spreading
fingers exposes bursa which is hooked in to thumb & lifted oviduct is then recognized on a cord
like structure, this might be followed to infundibulum laterally & uterine horn medially. In normal

50
animal ovarian bursa should be free from adhesion. Abnormalities of adhesions only those
attached, associated with enlargement of oviduct is detected clinically. Detectable abnormalities are
segmental aplasia of oviduct of hydrosalpinx pyosalpinx.

B. PER VAGINAL EXAMINATION : -

Vaginal examination is indicated only in certain selected cases. When indicated detailed
examine the external os of cervix, vaginal and vestibular mucosa & sub urethral diverticulum can
be performed with vaginoscope or vaginal speculum.
Types of speculum; 1.Glass speculum: Simple and economic
2. Plastic speculum : Easily sterilisable
3. Metal speculum: with or without looking arrangement (30, 40, 45cm).
Glass tube speculum is simplest and least expensive vaginoscpe it should be at least 4.5 cm
long 2.5-3 cm in diameter and made from glass (3mm thick).
Often animals are selected for vaginal examination after rectal examination. The external
genitalia perineal region has to be thoroughly cleaned with disinfectant solution. Cotton mobbing is
done. The speculum is lubricated with clear sterile lubricant and then inserted. The speculum must
have to be directed upward in order to pass over ishiatic and then horizontal forward to have with
handle of speculum in hand. The speculum jaws are closed while passing, Avoid entry in to
suburethral diverticulum and urinary meatus open jaws of speculum and passage is dilated use
hand like torch to observe interior of vagina.
The normal mucosa appears pink moist. Slight congestion is seen on mucosa of entire
genital tract at the time of estrus. Discharge of mucus from external os of cervix and its
accumulation on vaginal floor is commonly seen while doing vaginal examination during estrus.
Sign reflecting pathological conditions include discharge of purulent material from cervical canal,
exudates fond on vaginal floor. Marked congestion, papules or pustules or ulcers are seen on
vagina are seen on vagina and vestibule. Finding of tiny red elevation representing local
proliferation of lymphatic tissue in vestibular mucosa.
The elevations resembling granular vaginitis found primarily in the floor of vestibulum and
are present in 50% of all females at breeding age. Granules do not reflect a disease interfering with
fertility.

51
 Evaluation of Semen
Dr. Mukund Amle
Veterinary College, Shirwal.
MACROSCOPIC CHARACTERS:
The goal of semen evolution has been to predict fertility. The semen examination has great
diagnostic value in determining the cause, severity and degree of the pathological condition of
male genitalia. Naturally to have a high percentage of fertility it is essential that good quality
semen should be used for preservation and insemination. The main purpose of routine semen
examination is primarily to ensure the use of “normal” semen and further more the decision of
dilution rate.
Semen evaluation to be effective should be done with minimum delay after collection so
that the initial quality is not lost and the full potential is preserved. The samples showing
substandard quality should be discarded. For frozen semen the rejection rates are higher due to the
delicate processing methods.
Soon after the collection, till the evaluation and preliminary dilution are over, the semen
0
sample can be kept in water bath at 32 to 34 C. Fresh semen should not be stored for longer
periods prior to dilution (30 min. or more holding time increases the abnormal spermatozoa count.)
The neat semen sample should not expose to direct sunlight and cold storage (below 25oC)
Volume, colour, consistency, density and PH of the semen sample are the tests commonly
used for preliminary assessment of the quality of the semen sample.
1. VOLUME AND GENERAL APPEARANCE: -
Volume of the semen measured immediately after collection in a graduated tube. The
semen should have a uniform, opaque appearance, free from hairs, dirt, dung, pus, urine and
lubricant material. Dung and dirt usually accumulates at bottom of the tube while the lubricant
material usually remains at the top of the semen. Good quality semen usually has foam at the top,
immediately after the collection.
Low volume is not harmful, but if accompanied by low concentration, limits the number of
the doses produced. The volume of buffalo bulls is comparatively less than cow bulls and in the
same age group.
Factors affecting the volume of semen;
i. Age :- Younger bull produce low volume of the semen, which increases up to 6 years of age in
cow bull and up to 7 years of age in buffalo bulls.

52
ii. Size of the male : Volume is related to size and body weight of the bull and may be hereditary
trait also.
iii. Precollection sexual stimulation : Adequate sexual stimulation through false mounting and
proper restraint increase the volume of the semen .
iv. Frequency of semen collection :
First two ejaculates are nearly of equal volume and thereafter volume decreases. However, if the
interval of collection is more than 7 days, second ejaculation may yield comparatively higher
volume. Usually, volume remains nearly constant if frequency of collection is 3-7 days.
Volume reduces if collection is taken more frequently.
The semen volumes in different species are;

Sr. Volume of the Sr. Volume of the

Species Species
No. Semen / ejaculate No. Semen / ejaculate
1 Cow Bull 0.5 - 17 ( 4 ml ) 4 Boar 150 – 200 ml
2 Buffalo Bull 2.5 - 8.2 ( 3 ml) 5 Ram/ Buck 0.8 – 1.2 ( 1 ml)
3 Stallion 60 – 100 ml 6 Dog 2 – 19 ( 7 ml)

2. COLOUR : -
Colour of the semen is influenced by its consistency. Semen with watery consistency is
readily distinguished from that with a viscid consistency. The normal Colour of the semen is
grayish white to yellowish white. Creamy samples are usually observed in cow bulls, rams and
bucks, while they are usually milky white in buffalo bulls. Any abnormal colour may be indicating
pathological condition in the genital tract. Ejaculates with abnormal colour are discarded.
Varying shades of yellow colour are considered to be due to riboflavin content (which may
be inherited in some bulls) however it may be also indicate presence of pus or urine in the semen.
Reddish or pinkish colour indicates presence of blood and may be due to injury in the lower
part of the genital tract. Pinkish colour is seen due to degenerative changes
A grayish or brownish tinge to the semen may be due to presence of decomposed blood in it
and indicate an old injury in the upper part of genital tract. In haemospermia, where there is a
tumor or cold abscess on any part of reproductive tract gives brownish semen.
A greenish color may indicate purulent degeneration suggestive of pathological condition
of genitalia.

53
2. CONSISTENCY : -
The consistency or viscosity of semen gives a rough indication of the concentration of
spermatozoa. The normal bull semen may be creamy or milky in consistency depending on the
concentration of sperm. High quality semen should be thick, cloudy and should show swirls.
Cloudiness indicates vigorous activity of the spermatozoa. In certain pathological conditions of
testis, epididymis and accessory glands the consistency of semen becomes milky to watery.
Consistency greatly influences the colour of the semen. The approximate relation of colour,
consistency and the concentration of spermatozoa are as follows.

Colour Consistency No. of Sperms (millions / ml) Quality

Creamy Thick Over 2000 Excellent
Thin 1500 – 2000 Very good
Milky Thick 1000- 1500 Good
Thin 500- 1000 Fair
Cloudy 100- 500 Poor
Watery Below 100 Bad

4. DENSITY : -
It gives the rough estimation of the concentration of spermatozoa in the semen sample. It is
done holding the semen collection tube against natural light. The density gradation with
approximate concentration of spermatozoa is as follows,

Density Sperm Concentration Density Sperm Concentration

D Up to 400 millions/ml
DD 400 to 800 millions/ml D (D) 600 millions/ml
DDD 800 to1200 millions/ml DD (D) 1000 millions/ml
DDDD Above 1200 millions/ml DDD (D) 1100 millions/ml

5. HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION (pH):-

pH is estimated by 3 methods.
i. B.D.H. Capillator – pH indicators Bromothymol blue (pH range 6.0 – 7.6 ) and Bromocresol
purple (pH range 5.0 – 6.8 ) are used for this purpose. Equal quantity of semen and indicator
are taken in a watch glass. After thorough mixing, the mixture is taken in a capillary tube and
the color is matched with the colors of B.D.H.Capillator. The corresponding figure indicates
the pH of the semen.

54
 ii. Indicator paper :- A strip of the indicator paper is torn from the indicator book and the tip is
dipped in a drop of semen. The change of color is seen and is compared with color on indicator
book. The corresponding figure indicates pH of the semen.
Paper No. 5075 – pH range 5.0 – 7.5 & Paper No. 6590 – pH range 6.5 – 9.0
iii. pH Meter : - The best and the most accurate method. The PH of semen in various species is
as follows:

Species Acidic- Neutral pH Species Neutral to Alkaline pH

Cow Bull 6.4 – 6.8 Stallion 7.3 – 7.9
Buffalo Bull 6.2 – 6.6 Boar 7.3 – 7.9
Ram 5.9 – 6.8 Cat
Buck 5.9 – 6.8 Cock 7.02 – 7.18
Dog 4.9 – 6.9

The pH 7.0 and above of bull semen is observed in bull extensively used, incomplete
ejaculation, inflammatory / pathological condition testis, epididymis and seminal vesicle.
Highly motile semen is acidic where as poor motile and low concentration of sperm leads to
alkaline semen.
MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS
1. MASS ACTIVITY: –
Motility or movement of spermatozoa is an index of their activity and it represents the
quality of the semen. The live sperms are motile but all the immotile sperms are not dead. The
epididymal spermatozoa are motionless, but during the course of ejaculation, after coming in
contact with the accessory gland secretions, they gain vigorous motility. The spermatozoa motility
is judged as gross or mass activity and as individual motility.
Mass / Gross Activity:
Mass activity of the semen is examined immediately after collection. The collection tube
containing the semen sample is closed with an aluminum foil or cotton plug and is kept in a water
bath at around 30- 350c temperature. A drop of fresh undiluted semen is placed on a clean pre
warmed (370C) slide without applying cover slip and observed under the lower power of
microscope. Hanging drop preparation is most satisfactory but more difficult to prepare. Good
samples show a series of rapidly changing swirls, waves and currents of sperm motion. On the
basis of the mass movement of the spermatozoa, the semen is graded into the following 5
categories.

55
 Movement of sperm Grades
No mass activity. 0 Nil
Movements slightly vigorous but no eddies or currents formed + Poor
Wave formation with slight whirls which moves slowly across the field ++ Fair
Rapid and vigorous waves with whirls/eddies which change with rapidity +++ Good
Extremely rapid movements and churning of swirls and eddies + + + + V. Good

The type of movement is influenced by the size and depth of the drop examined, temperature
of the semen sample, rate of the sperms and sperm concentration. Semen samples with mass
activity grade at least + + + are accepted for A. I. purpose.

2. INITIAL MOTILITY:-
This gives rough idea of the % of motile sperms and their vigor. Four types of sperm
movements are observed.
 Progressive – Sperm moves fast in forward direction.
 Circular – Movements restricted to a radius of approximately the length of the sperm.
 Oscillatory – Side to side movements without change of place. ( in aged semen samples)
 Reverse – Observe very rarely.(Circular / reverse movements are usually signs of cold
shock)
Semen is diluted (1:100 or more) in an isotonic medium viz. normal saline, 3 % sodium
citrate dihydrate solution or Ringers bicarbonate solution. A drop of this dilution semen is placed
on a clean, pre-warmed slide (370C) and examined under low as well as high power of microscope,
using cover slip.
Semen samples with minimum motility score of + 3 are selected for further processing.
Semen samples with initially less than 60% live spermatozoa reduce fertility and are not good
preservation. Semen samples with initially less than 50% live spermatozoa have doubtful fertility.
The motility scoring is done as follows;

Approx.
S Motility
Movements of Spermatozoa sperm Grade
N Score
motility
1 Nil / No movements 0 0% Nil
2 Mostly weak and oscillatory. +1 20 % Poor
3 Motile sperm with rapid vigorous movements. +2 40 % Fair
4 Very rapidly, vigorous and progressive movement. +3 60 % Good
5 Most vigorous with progressive swirling activity. +4 80 % Very Good
6 Highly vigorous, progressive waves in all directions. +5 100 % Excellent
56
Factors affecting sperm motility: -
 Frequency of semen collection: - If the collection interval is more than one week, the
motility is better in second ejaculate. However, if collection interval is 3 -7 days, no difference
in motility between first & second ejaculate is noted. If collection is done on successive days
for a long period, the motility is greatly reduced.
 Season: - Spring season produce more motile semen than summer and winter. Hot and
humid climate is harmful for production of high motile sperms.
 Age: - Young bulls produce comparatively less motile semen. Motility increases with age
of bull.
Sudden drop in the motility of good quality semen may be due to faulty collection, faulty
handling of semen, and contamination or disease conditions like testicular degeneration.
It has been observed that some of the non-motile semen sample may gain progressive
motility on treatment with diluting media. (Especially in case of buffalo semen). Also some times
though the spermatozoa are alive, they are immotile initially.
3. ESTIMATION OF TOTAL CONCENTRATION: -
Macroscopic examinations like consistency and density of the semen samples provide a
rough estimate of the semen concentration. However, to provide optimum no. of live and motile
spermatozoa per dose of liquid or frozen semen, it is essential to estimate the actual concentration
of the spermatozoa in the semen samples. By knowing the initial concentration of the spermatozoa,
the dilution rate of the semen can be decided. It is generally accepted that at least 10-12 millions
motile and live sperms must be deposited in the cervix to obtain the optimum conception rate. For
achieving this, 10-15 millions and 20-25 millions spermatozoa are provided per dose of liquid or
frozen semen respectively.
Methods of estimation of sperm concentration: Opacity tube method, Photo-electric
colorimeter method and Direct count by use of Haemocytometer
a. Photo-electric colorimeter method:- This instrument measures the percentage of light
transmitted through a light-absorbing medium. The percentage of transmission is a function of the
concentration of the light-absorbing agent in the medium. The same principle is applied to estimate
the sperm concentration in the semen sample. Data in a tabular form is used to correlate the
percentage of transmission (meter reading) to corresponding sperm concentration.
b. Opacity tube method: - Density of the semen sample is compared with Barium sulphate or other
density standards.

57
c. Haemocytometer method: - Following solutions are required
i. Normal saline Diluting fluid, ii. Diluting fluid is prepared as-
Sodium citrate dihydrate 3.0 gm
Eosin yellow 100 mg
Formalin (commercial) 1 ml
Distilled water 100 ml
 Dilution of semen sample: - A dilution of 1:1000 is used for estimation of sperm
concentration. Using an ordinary 1ml glass pipette 0.1ml of semen sample is taken. It is transferred
into a test tube in which 9.9 ml of normal saline is added. This gives a 10 ml solution with 1:100
dilutions. 1ml of this solution is added to 9 ml of diluting fluid to get a 10 ml solution with a
dilution of 1:1000.

 Charging of haemocytometer:- The cover slip is fixed over the Neubauer‟s chamber slide
so that the colours of spectrum (Newton‟s rings) are seen at the interphase. After through mixing, a
representative drop of (1:1000) diluted semen sample is put at the edge of the cover slip with the
help of Pasteur pipette, so that the fluid covers the entire chamber.
 Counting of spermatozoa: The Neubauer‟s chamber is divided into 9 large primary squares,
each having an area of 1sq.mm. All these 9 squares are enclosed from all sides by treble lines. The
4 corner squares are again divided into 16 small squares each. The height of the chamber (depth)
formed after fixing the cover slip is 0.1mm.
The spermatozoa in 1sq.mm.are to be counted (i.e. spermatozoa in 16 small squares) for this Count
the spermatozoa in 16 small squares of all the 4 large corners squares (i.e. total 64 small squares)
and take average by dividing 4.
 Calculations: „N‟ no. Of sperms are present in 16 small squares.
Volume of fluid containing „N‟ sperms = Area (L x W) x Height
= 1mm x 1mm x 0.1mm
„N‟ No. of sperm in = 0.1mm3
10 N = 1mm3 (1 ml = 1000 mm3)
i.e. 1m. fluid contains 1000 x 10 „N‟ spermatozoa.
This fluid has 1:1000 dilution of semen.
Hence1ml of original (neat) semen contains = 1000 x 1000 x 10 „N‟ spermatozoa
= 10 „N‟ x 106 (million) spermatozoa.

58
Note : To avoid double counting of a sperm or omission of sperm, a procedure is followed in
counting. Those sperms lying on the top line and left hand line are included in that square while
those lying on bottom line and right hand line are excluded from that square.
Factors affecting sperm concentration:
a. Sexual excitement: Sexual excitement caused by restraint and false mount increases the
sperm concentration.
b. Frequency of collection: No variation in sperm concentration is observed when the
frequency of collection is 3-7 days. However concentration reduces when frequency is at 24-48 hrs
intervals. When collection interval is more than 9 days, 2nd ejaculate more concentration than 1st.
When collection interval is 3-7 days no difference between 1st and 2nd ejaculate is observed.
c. Season: has no significant effect on sperm concentration in cow bulls as well as buffalo
bulls.
d. Age: has no significant effect on sperm concentration, however, total output of spermatozoa
per ejaculate is increased in adult bulls.
e. Individual variation: Due to difference in genetic potential, the concentration varies.
f. Other factors: A sudden drop of sperm concentration can be attributed to overuse or
disease, if not, premature ejaculation or faculty collection. Disease conditions reducing the sperm
concentration cause of motility besides increase in abnormal sperms.)

3. LIVE AND DEAD COUNT OF SPERMATOZOA:

A high percentage of live and progressively motile vigorous sperms are essential for good
quality semen with high fertilizing capacity. The motility tests of semen (viz mass activity and
initial motility) have their limitations in estimating the quality of semen. A fairly high percentage
of dead spermatozoa may not be apparent in motility examinations because of the inactive sperms
are moved by the movements of live spermatozoa. Hence to substantiate/support the findings of the
motility tests it is essential to estimate the percentage of live and active spermatozoa.
Eosin-Nigrosin stain (Hancock, 1951) is used for staining of semen smears. Use of separate
solutions of Eosin yellow 5% and Nigrosin 10% Or Combined stain:- Contains eosin yellow 1.67
gm and Nigrosin 10gms in 100ml distilled water .The stain is prepared by dissolving the
ingredients in distilled water in a hot water bath finally the solution is filtered through The staining
mixture should be isotonic with the semen and its pH should range from 6.8-7.Temperature at
which the semen and stain are mixed and the duration of staining is very important factors. The

59
stain solution and the semen sample should be maintained at same temperature (optimum temp.
range :- 30-350c) in a water bath prior to mixing.
The drop of semen is taken in a watch glass, to which 2-4 drops of combined stain solution
/ 2 drops of separate stains are added. A time limit of about 2 minute is sufficient for proper mixing
of stain and semen sample. The smears are prepared by routine procedure and are air-dried.
Spermatozoa are observed under high power lens of microscope. The dead spermatozoa
take eosin stain and appear pink in colour while the live spermatozoa remain white. Nigrosin
provides uniform dark (purple) background.
Counting of spermatozoa: partially stained (more than half) spermatozoa are considered dead. In
all 333 sperms from different fields are counted by hand tally counter and the dead spermatozoa are
noted separately on the paper.
% of dead spermatozoa = No. of dead spermatozoa (N)  3/10 or 2 to 4 smears are prepared
using different sub samples of the same original sample from each smear 100 spermatozoa are
counted by hand tally counter and finally avg. is calculated to find out the dead spermatozoa.

Factors affecting live and dead % of spermatozoa:

a. Frequency of semen collection: If the collection interval is more than a week, the second
ejaculate may have more % of live spermatozoa. If the collection interval is once in two days to
once a week, the %may not markedly vary in1st & 2nd ejaculate. In successive ejaculates, the %
declines after 2nd ejaculate.
b. Age of male: may not have more effect. In general, bulls over 3 years age produce higher %of
live spermatozoa.
c. Season: lower live % is noted in hot humid season.

5. ABNORMAL COUNT OF SPERMATOZOA: -

First attention to spermatozoal aberrations was paid by Williams, (1920). It was further
emphasized as a valuable diagnostic aid in assessing the potential fertility of bulls by Williams and
Savage (1925,1927) and Lagerloff (1934).
The male fertility depends upon morphologically normal spermatozoa present in ejaculated
semen. A maximum of 15-20% of total abnormalities of sperms are does not affect much fertility
of male animals, however above 30 % total abnormalities are affect fertility. Most of workers agree

60
that semen of fertile bull should not have more than abnormalities of head 4%, mid piece 8 %, tail
2 % and free heads 6 % and total 20 %.
Factors affecting abnormal count of spermatozoa :
Several factors affect the abnormal count of the spermatozoa viz. defective
spermatogenesis, systemic diseases, inadequate nutrition, adverse environmental conditions,
handling, smearing and staining procedure, frequency of semen collection, age and genetic factors
which may increase the % of abnormalities.
The first two rapid ejaculates generally do not vary the % of abnormal spermatozoa but further
collections increase the incidence of abnormality. It has been observed that the frequency of
collection at 48 to 72 hrs from zebu bulls lowers the abnormality. Malmberg (1965) observed a
decrease in the proportion of abnormal sperms with the increase in the age of the bull.
Staining and preparation of slides:
Eosin –Nigrosin combines stain (Hancock, 1951) can be conveniently used for abnormal count of
sperms. The spermatozoa are observed under either high power or oil immersion lens of
microscope and total of 100 spermatozoa are counted from each slides using various fields.
(Making thin smears on clean slides helps to reduce the artifacts).
Classification of abnormal spermatozoa:
I. Classification suggested by Lagerloff (1944)
A) Pathological forms:
a) Head: Mirocephalic, Macrocephalic, Elongated, Narrow head Pear shaped, Round, Giant, small
free head, deformed head.
b) Midpiece: - Abaxial, Swollen, Filiform, Coiled, Bent, Double.
c) Tail: - Coiled, Bent, Short, Double.
d) Underdeveloped spermatozoa: -head mostly rounded with tail coiled around the head.
Immature forms
e) Proximal protoplasmic droplet: - bend on midpiece close to the head.
f) Distal protoplasmic droplet: - bend on midpiece close to the main piece of tail.
II. Classification suggested by Blom (1948), Bishop etal (1951)
a. Primary abnormalities (Defective spermatogenesis due to disorders in seminiferous tubules or
germinal epithelium):- Pyriform head ,tapering head, narrow head, dwarf head , giant head, short
thick head , other abnormal shaped heads, loose abnormal heads, loose abnormal head, normal

61
head with highly coiled tails, double forms of head / tail / middle piece, Abaxial attachment of
midpeice.
b. Secondary abnormalities (due to degenerative changes occur in their passage through efferent
ducts, epididymis and vas deference.): - Detached normal head, Proximal and distal protoplasmic
droplet, bent tail, and detached galea capitis.
c. Tertiary abnormalities (are due to faulty handling of semen, excessive agitation, over heating.
cold shocks, erroneous methods of slide preparing, staining etc.)
eg. Loosely coiled midpiece or tail.
II. Recent classification suggested by Blom (1971)
A. Major sperm defects: - Underdeveloped sperm, double forms, acrosome defect (knobbed
sperm), decapitated sperm defect, diadem defect, pear shaped head, head narrow at the base, head
with abnormal contour, small abnormal head, free pathological head, corkscrew defect, other
middle piece defects (including tail stump), proximal protoplasmic droplet, pseudo droplet, dog
defect.
B. Minor sperm defects:- Narrow heads, small normal heads, giant & short broad heads,
normal free head, detached acrosomal cap, abaxial attachment, distal protoplasmic droplet, simple
bent or coiled tail, terminally coiled tail.
IV. Certain morphological sperm defects of hereditary origin.
A. Defects of sperm Head:-
1. Decapitated sperm defect:- (disintegration of sperm) :- virtual absence of intact sperm in
semen. Ejaculate contains only free heads & tails. Sexual behavior & clinical examination of
genitalia do not show any abnormality. Seen in jersey bull.
2. Knobbed sperm (acrosome) defect: - Sperm count and motility normal but 90% sperm show
abnormal acrosome. Common in HF also noted in boars.
3. Diadem defect: - (pouch formation of nuclear envelope):- Pouch is formed by invagination
of nuclear membrane. It appears as sparkling, round or elongated white sport in the head. These
structures give impression that a neck less has been tied around neck of spermatozoa. It is associate
with disturbance in spermatogenesis. Noted in bovines & porcine.
A. Defects of midpiece: -
1. Corkscrew sperm defect: - Characterized by an irregular distribution of mitochondrial
sheath. The incidence of proximal protoplasmic droplets is high observed in aged bulls & in
associated with testicular degeneration in some cases observed in young bulls also.

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2. Psuedo droplet defect: - Local thickening somewhere along midpiece. Initial motility, poor
concentration & genitalia normal.
B. Tail defects: -
1. Dag defect. Strongly coiled tail
Other cells found in semen: -
1.Medusa formations: these are portions of from ciliated epithelium from the efferent ducts of testis
and have brush like projection. These cells are seen in great number in sever testicular hypoplasia.
1. Primordial spermiogenic cells
2. Spermatid / spermocytes
3. Free floating protoplasmic droplet
4. Giant multinucleated cells seen in testicular hypoplasia or degeneration.
5. Preputial cells
6. Leucocytes because of infection in genital tract,
7. Erythrocytes are the other types of cells found in semen.
8. Degenerating sperm cell cluster seen in testicular degeneration.

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 Record keeping in Artificial Insemination
Dr. S. C. Vora
Veterinary College, Nagpur.

Records is the only sensible basis for taking decisions about alterations in policy (such as
changes in stoking rate or the introduction of new animals) the only way of ascertaining whether
the targets of reproductive.
Information comes from records through their proper collection and critical analysis the
record should include the following elements.
1. Individual Card /record (Female record)
For each animal on which life events of the animals can be listed in chronological order.
The information stored on cards would include:
a) Name /identity (ID): _______________________________
b) Date of birth: _______________________________
c) Location number: _______________________________
d) Calving date for each location :_______________________________
e) Problems at calving: _______________________________
f) Retention of fetal membranes: _______________________________
g) Any vulval discharge: _______________________________
h) Date of estrus: ________________________________
i) Service date: _______________________________
j) Pregnancy diagnosis (PD): _______________________________
k) Veterinary treatments & dates: _______________________________
l) Drying off dates: ________________________________
m) Dates culled with reasons: _______________________________
A) Semen record:
1) Bull name/number.:____________________________________
2) Date of Semen collection. _______________________________
3) Time of Semen collection._______________________________
4) Total ejaculate number._________________________________
5) Volume( ml)._________________________________________
6) Reaction time.________________________________________
7) Colour______________________________________________
64
8) Consistency__________________________________________
9) Mass activity_________________________________________
10) Percent motility.______________________________________
11) pH________________________________________________
12) Live spermatozoa.__________________________________ %
13) Sperm concentration ________________________(x 10 6 /ml)
14) Abnormal sperms.__________________________________%
a) Head________________________________________%
b) Mid piece____________________________________%
c) Tail piece_____________________________________%
d) Total________________________________________%
15) Dilutor used________________________________________
16) Dilution rate ________________________________________

B) Bull performance record:

Name /No. of bull___________________ Date of birth/Age___________
Breed_________ Dams milk yield______ Sires dam milk yield_________
Dams dam milk yield_________________ Daughters milk yield_________

Semen status Cow/buffalo

No Result Signature
Date of Pregnant/ of Remarks
Chilled Motility Name/No. owner A.I. Non preg. Inseminator
frozen

Conception Rate ;
1) Ist insemination: ________________%
2) II nd insemination: ______________ %
3) IIIrd insemination: _______________ %
Overall: _____________________%

65
 Follicular Dynamics And Oestrus Cycle
Dr. S.S. Kulkarni
Veterinary College, Udgir.

A) Follicular development, stages of follicles, structure, follicular fluid.

B) Gametogenesis (oogenesis)
C) Ovulation and a brief note on fertilization
D) Oestrus cycle
E) Times of insemination / service
Fertilization requires two gametes – one male and the other sperm. The female gamete is
called as the ovum and the male gamete as the sperm. The male gamete is formed in the gonad
testis and the female gamete is formed in the female gonad ovary.
Formation of female gamete / appearance of female gamete on the scene is complicated and
dramatic. The female gamete is enclosed in a mature follicle formed in the parenchyma (germinal
epithelium) of ovary. A follicle is collection of a particular type of cells enclosing a cavity filled
with fluid. A mature follicle is the one, which encloses a gamete almost ready for fertilization. (I.e.
in the oocyte stage). It is essential that this gamete should be made available at the proper site for
fertilization at a proper time, where the sperm unites with the ovum. The structure of the mature
follicle is as shown in the figure. It is also called as Graffian follicle and is only one in the
monotocus (cattle, buffaloe, horse etc.)animals but can be many in polytocus (sheep, goats, pigs,
dogs) animals. It consists of a fluid inside its cavity. It is called as follicular fluid. It is produced
from peripheral plasma by the transudation across the follicle basement lamina. The follicular fluid
is rich in various substances like hormones particularly estrogens, prostaglandins, gonadotrophines,
prolactin, androgens, progestins, etc. It also contains beta-carotene, vitamins, bilirubin,
proteoglycans (PG), glucosaminaoglycans (GAGS), minerals and salts, immunoglobulins,
enzymes, amino acids, etc. the follicles develop in different stages.
The stages of development of follicle are –
1) Primordial follicles
2) Growing follicles
3) Mature follicle and
4) Atretic follicles.
Primordial follicles are single layered follicles enclosing one or two oocytes of diameter
size 20 – 30 , showing no signs of growth. These are found in large number in young age. They

66
appear in resting stage showing no signs of growth for many years upto puberty. Some of these
develop beyond this stage. They are called as the growing follicles.
Growing follicles are in the intermediate stage. They show no thecal layer and no antrum.
They are seen in two stages of growth hence called as primary growing follicles and secondary
growing follicles.
The primary growing follicles have single layer of epithelium covering over a slightly
larger oocyte (46 – 60 ) and the secondary follicle has two / more epithelial layers covering a still
larger oocyte of diameter 60 – 80 . The most important feature of the growing follicles is their
tendency of mitotic divisions, which are fast and continuous. In the later stages of the secondary
growth of follicles, changes in the structure of oocyte are also seen. Zona pellucida starts appearing
around the oocyte. Follicle is seen to be separated from the stroma / medulla and moves towards
central part of the ovary. At puberty, about 200 such growing follicles are seen. These follicles
further grow fast and some of them grow more dominantly then the others attaining therefore a
larger size than others. One such, the most dominant of all develops as the mature or graffian
follicle.
Graffian follicle is a large sized follicle having in it many cell layers divided into thecal and
follicular cells. The thecal layers are – theca externa and theca interna. The follicular cell layer is
called as membrana granulose, which surrounds the cavity of follicle, called as antrum. The antrum
is filled with follicular fluid or liquor folliculi, which contains proteins and estrogens. In graffian
follicle mitotic activity is persistent in the cells. At one end of the antrum, an outgrowth is
developed, which is called as cumulus oophorus or discus proligerus. This outgrowth actually
contains the oocyte. The oocyte attains a diameter size of 80 – 120 mm and is then also covered
with the vitelline and perivitelline space and zona pellucida.
The diameter if the graffian follicle varies from species to species as follows.
Mare 25 – 75 mm Cows 12 – 19 mm
Sow 8 – 12 mm Buffaloes and ewes 5 –10 mm
Bitch and cats 2 mm Human beings 9 – 12 mm
According to the species one or more graffian follicles develop whereas the others regress.
The regressing follicles are called as the atretic / luteinising / anovular follicles.
The growth of the follicles occurs in waves particularly at various stages of the oestrus
cycle in different species. The most dominant one matures first and at a proper time it ruptures to
release its oocyte in the fallopian tube (oviduct) where at a proper time gets fertilized by the sperm.

67
The release of the oocyte (and its further development to a mature ovum) is called as ovulation and
is an important event in the complicated reproductive physiology of female.
The follicular fluid plays many functions. It regulates the functions of granulosa cells.
Initiates follicular growth and steroidogenesis. It also helps in oocyte maturation, ovulation and
formation of corpus luteum. The provides the volume at the time of ovulation and environment for
the sperm metabolism, capacitation, fertilization and early embryonic development. Due to many
stimulatory and inhibitory factors, the follicular fluid can regulate the follicular cycle. Its
composition also changes in various stages of the oestrus cycle.
Ovulation:
Rupture of mature follicle and release of the mature ovum / oocyte in the fallopian tube is
called as ovulation. It occurs due to combination of effects of physiological, biochemical and
biophysical mechanisms. It is characterized by –
i) Cytoplasmic and nuclear maturation of oocyte
ii) Disruption of cumulous cell cohesiveness among the granulosa cells
iii) Thinning and rupture of external follicular wall.
Reactionary Changes:
These changes are brought about by the reversal of surge of gonadotrophines from FSH to
LH surge. Also the estrogens have a priming action on the receptors to LH.
FSH priorly induces increase in the number of LH receptors in follicular cells.
LH stimulation induces the formation of cAMP in the follicle and steroidogenic activity is
increased.
The steroids in major, estrogens stimulate the proliferation of follicular cells and
collagenolysis. Inflammatory cellular changes occur to release histamine, migrate leucocyte and
activate the prostaglandins.
Prostaglandins stimulate second phase of cAMP synthesis and increased blood flow.
The tensile strength of collagen is reduced.
Intrafollicular pressure increases, which occurs to be the momentary and physical factor
causing the rupture of follicle.
Eventual Changes:
Several tissue layers separate the oocyte form the outside of follicle i.e. surface epithelium,
tunica albuginea, theca externa, basement membrane and the membrana granulosa over it. Al these
are broken in ovulation.

68
 The ovulatory follicle gets maximum microcirculation (or vice versa i.e. the most vascular
follicle ovulates at the end ) under the effect of LH.
On the follicular enlarged surface, at only one point blood supply is less. This avascular
area is the point of rupture at ovulation.
For this rupture, lysosomes in the epithelial cells covering follicle are responsible. They
enlarge and rupture to release hydrolases, which destroy albuginea cells and thecal cells. Due to
this the epithelial cover over the follicle is thinned out at the stigmal point.
The stigma bulges over the surface of ovary and becomes completely avascular.
Also the proteolytic enzymes produced by granulosa cells and / or by surrounding
fibroblasts in response to LH, Progesterone and Prostaglandins – contribute to dissociation and
decomposition of cellular layers surrounding the apex of preovulatory follicle.
Lysosomal rupture occurs under the effect of prostaglandins e.g. PGF2.
Gonadotrophines free off the oocyte / cumulus oophorus inside the follicle.
Ovarian contractions occur under the effect of prostaglandins thus facilitating the rupture of
follicle.
The stigma ruptures due to increase in the Intrafollicular pressure and some of the
follicular fluid is released alongwith viscous glycoprotein mass embedding the oocyte.
PGF2 also acts to produce plasminogen activator. Plasmin is essential for tissue cell
migration and mixing of theca and granulosa cells during CL formation.
Ovogenesis :
As in spermatogenesis, the ovogenesis starts from the primordial germ cells in female,
which develop into oognia.
Oogonia undergo many mitotic divisions and primary oocytes are formed. This is the last
phase of conversion into primary oocyte being meiotic.
The formation of primary oocyte is completed even before or shortly after the birth.
The primary oocyte has – Ooplasm / vitellus i.e. cytoplasm and a nucleus / germinal
vesicle, and is covered by follicular epithelium.
Follicular cells develop into follicles.
The nucleus in primary oocyte is dormant / resting / dictyate upto the development of
follicle to preovulatory stage.
Further changes in oocyte and nucleus are dependent on LH level.
The follicular cells proliferate and develop into membrana granulosa.

69
 Normally only one oocyte in a follicle (except in fetal ovaries and bithches) develops in one
follicle.
The cell membrane of the oocyte is called as vitelline membrane to which follicular cells
are closely attached. On development of follicle, zona pellucida formed between vitelline
membrane and the inner granulosa cells / corona radiata.
Cells of corona radiata and oocyte plasma membrane send processes to follicular cells /
granulosa cells, thus nourshing the oocyte.
Also, during development of follicles, lacunae develop and extend more and more to
develop into antrum – into which projects a mass of granulosa cells with oocyte and form cumulus
oophorus.
When the development of follicle stops, another meiotic or maturation divisions occur.
Nucleus migrates towards plasma membrane, nucleoli disappear, nuclear membrane
disappears and chromosomes divide. 1st polar body is formed by extrusion of half the chromatin
and a small amount of cytoplasm.
The first meiosis occurs at different stages in different species of animals. Mostly it is
completed few hours before ovulation. In this, secondary oocyte is formed.
In dogs and horses, but it occurs after ovulation. In dogs it is delayed (7 days) hence longer
viability of oocytes in oviduct.
Secondary oocyte undergoes 2nd meiosis (sometimes on stimulation by the sperm) before
fertilization. Second polar body is also formed.
Ootid is then formed. The first polar body divides into two.
The unfertilized ovum however degenerates and undergoes fragmentation.
Oestrus Cycle :
It is the cyclical repetition of various events and changes in the reproductive tract,
endocrine balance and accordingly behaviour of the female animals, leading to a phasic rise in the
receptivity of female for the male, leading to conception and pregnancy.
It is developed in phase like follicular phase and luteal phase.
The follicular phase comprises of two stages i.e. proestrus and estrus and is characterized
by the development, selection and maturation of follicles, dominance of FSH and estrogens,
intensive behaviour towards sexual activity, increased motility and secretory activities in the
histological structures of the reproductive tract.

70
The luteal phase comprises of two stages i.e. metestrus and diestrus, largely marked by quiescence
in terms of behaviour, motility and secretions of reproductive tract and dominance of LH and
progesterone later.
Proestrus is a preparatory stage, wherein the blood supply to the reproductive organs starts
increasing, motility and secretion of the tract start, the behavioural signs also are changed mildly.
The occasional changes in behaviour are observed.
Oestrus is the intensified manifestation of the changes observed in proestrus. The most
important change in the animal is increased sexual receptivity of the animal shown towards the
male. The later part of estrus is also marked by ovulation in most of the species of animals.
Met estrus is a short period, which simply is the initiation of drastic change in endocrine,
circulatory and behavioral changes. It is the stage of transition. It is marked by the reversal of
estrogenic surge to the progesterone surge. By this time the ovulation is almost complete and the
oocyte also starts developing to further maturity in preparation for the fertilization.
Diestrus is the stage of decline in the changes occurred due to endocrine shifts. However,
since the corpus luteum is neither completely regressed nor it is aggressively producing
progesterone hence is as if narrowed end of the events of oestrus cycle. It occurs when the animal
is not conceived due to the ongoing oestrus cycle. Therefore the corpus luteum now in this stage
starts regressing and the progesteronic effect is also not persistent. In absence of conception the
female now simply waits for the slow end of diestrus and the oestrus cycle so that it can switch
over to the next one after complete regression of the corpus luteum.
The cycle is repeated if the conception and pregnancy thereof does not occur. If the
conception and pregnancy occurs thereof the cycle recurs only after successful completion of
gestation and recovery of the organs by involution.
The length of the oestrus cycle though varies in different animal species, it is by and large
in the range of 21 – 25 days (as shown in the table).
The study and observation of the events in oestrus cycle are essential in order to adjudge the
period of estrus and ovulation so as the make first the mating or artificial insemination possible at a
proper time when the male and female gametes in their viable and most capacious stage for
fertilization in the female reproductive tract.
On field level the history and observation are the most crucial keys to come over to the
decision of time of male service or artificial insemination. Therefore the veterinarian‟s job becomes
more difficult as he / she has to rely on the most unreliable information provided by the owner of

71
the animal. In such a situation, speculation of the stages of oestrus helps in prediction of the events
in the tract of the animals and then in turn manages the preparation of mating, semen collection or
artificial insemination. The synchronization of information available from the owner and the
clinical observation / examination of the animal is more essential. Although difficult, it is agreeable
that, the judgment / diagnosis of the reproductive events fetches a great name, fame and success to
the veterinarian‟s job on field level.

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 Climatology And Reproduction
Dr. S.S. Kulkarni
Veterinary College, Udgir.

The climate is the set of a number of meteorological parameters including temperature,

relative humidity, precipitation, wind velocity, pressure etc. however, the most important of all
these parameters is the temperature as the changes in temperature make changes in all other
parameters. The changes in ambient i.e. surrounding temperature also bring about adjustments in
body temperature by making physiological adjustments. In intense and drastic changes in climatic
parameters, animal is put to climatic stress in an attempt to withstand this change. The aberrations
in BMR, thermoregulation, respiration, enzyme production, digestion, hormone secretion, growth,
reproduction, production are evident.
The range of temperature in which the animals have to make minimum efforts to maintain
their body temperature and the range within which they do not feel the discomfort due to heat or
cold and the range in which their BMR is not drastically altered, is called as thermo neutral zone.
The two extremities of thermoneutral zone are called as the lower and higher critical temperature.
The responses of animals to exposure to the changes in temperature above and below these two
extremities are shown in the illustration on the other page. These responses are stressful. The stress
of response to these changes affects their health status and also energy transformations, affecting in
turn the various physiological performances including the reproductive ability.
The effects of changes in climate / weather are either direct and / or indirect. The direct
effects are due to the direct exposure to various climatic factors and are in the form of rates of loss
or production of heat from their body. The indirect effects are due to the changes in resources like
food, fauna, plants and water as well as the minerals and other requirements of nutrition. (e.g.
scarcity of greens and water in summer and hot conditions).
The effects on the reproductive performance are brought through effects on :
i) Puberty : high temperature delays the puberty.
ii) Sexual activity: high temperature also adds to the stress and therefore affects the sexual
activity. (e.g. summer sterility)
iii) Semen production: sperms collected during winter show greater utilization of fructose and
produce high lactic acid. Also bovine semen frozen in fall gives high conception rate.
iv) Estrous cycle: increase in ambient temperature lengthens estrous cycle but shortens estrus
proper in cattle. Incidence of estrus in buffaloes is more in cooler months of September to

73
 February and least in March and August. Buffaloes calving in summer or fall resume ovarian
cyclicity earlier than those in winter and spring. Also decline in day length and cooler ambient
temperature favours cyclicity.
v) Estrus behaviour : high temperature shortens estrus period and also reduces intensity. The
behaviour in buffaloes is also affected by diurnal influence thus estrus is more silent in
buffaloes in summer than in winter and also the incidence is more between 6.00 pm and 6.00
am.
vi) Conception rate : Temperature reduces conception rate. High ambient temperature on the day
next to insemination reduces conception rate. In India, the conception rate is highest in the end
October and lowest in June. Heat stress leads to failure of luteolysis and thus extends the
estrous cycle.
vii) Embryo survivability : Heat stress causes failure of fertilization and early embryo mortality.
Bovine embryo is sensitive to maternal heat stress during first two weeks.
viii) Fetal growth : Smaller calves are born due to exposure to high temperature. Effect on growth
and gonadal development is predominant. The role of gonadotrophines is pivotal through
hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.
Endocrine Effects :
Increased temperature leads to increased prolactin levels thus reducing the intensity of
estrus.
Melatonin, secretion of pineal gland, is responsible for the photoperiodic control and
induction of estrous cycle.
Plasma LH level is lowered in high temperature in summer; the effect being more
prominent in high humidity with temperature.
Plasma progesterone level is also reduced in high temperature.
Adrenal responsiveness to ACTH is lowered at high temperature.
High inhibin in winter is related with reproductive ability; inhibin in blood is lowered
pronouncedly in environmental stress.
Thermal stress and photoperiodism alters hypothalamo-hypophyseal adrenal and ovarian
responsiveness as well as affects pineal function. This produces changes in hormonal availability
influencing physiological responses leading to lowered fertility.
Scope:
1) Enhancement of growth rate for early maturity.

74
2) Development of endocrine methods for set time of artificial insemination.
3) Application of pregnancy proteins for fertility improvement.
4) Development of simple methods for estrus detection.
5) Managemental improvement including –
i) Modification of physical microenvironment around the animal
ii) Genetic development by less sensitive breeds
iii) Reducing fiber intake within limits for proper rumen metabolism.
6) Gene identification for heat resistance.

75
76
 Inflammatory Conditions Of The Uterus
Dr. S. D. Moregaonkar
Veterinary College, Udgir

Definitions:

a) Inflammation limited in extent to the endometrium is termed as endometritis

(Acute/chronic/subacute).
b) Inflammation of the entire thickness of the wall is called as metritis (uterus as a whole).
c) Inflammation of the serosa is known as perimetritis.
d) Inflammations of the suspensary ligament are known as parametritis.
This classification is to some extent useful index of the severity if a reaction and of the
pathogenesis.
Endometritis:
a) Acute Supportive Endometritis:
It is the inflammation of the endometrium of the uterine mucosa. It is a mildest form of
infection later on it spreads to all other parts of uterus
Etiology:
1) Infectious: Post coitus infections caused by trichomonas feotus and comphylobacter foetus
or by pyogenic cocci and coliforms of low pathogenicity
2) Irritants: Introduction of too hot fluids or too irritating chemicals into the uterus thereby
injuring its delicate mucosa.
Grossly/macroscopically:
1. There are no gross lesions seen in this simple form of endometritis.
2. The mucosa may be swollen, red and rough instead of having a normal smooth Surface and
is covered with fragments of necrotic material.
3. An increased secretion of tenacious mucous may be visible.
Histologically/Microscopically:
 In the mild catarrhal form the blood vessels are engorged and there may be slight but diffuse
infiltration of inflammatory cells like lymphocytes, plasma cells and macrophages (in the
stroma) with slight disamation of the superficial epithelium.
 In more severe form invariably involve all the layers of the wall and must be considered as
metritis.

77
Sequlae:
 Though it is mild in appearance if it is not attended properly it effects conception.
 If the endometritis is more severe or persists for a longer time, accumulative damage to the
endometria may render the cows sterile.
 The inflammatory exudate being toxic is lethal to the ovum whether fertilized or not.
 The condition may progress to the chronic stage when permanent sterility may supervene.
Puerperium in cattle: More severe grade of endometritis is common in the puerperium in cattle.
Grossly: Uterus is enlarged and flabby and collapsed rather lumen contain chocolate coloured
lochia, which is slightly tenacious and often without foul odour. Uterine content may become dirty
grayish coloured later on.
 The endometrium is congested and swollen and the intercotyledonary areas are ragged and
flattered with shreds of mucosa free in lumen.
 Petechial (small) haemorrhage is common in congested mucosa.
Microscopically:
 There is prominent leucocytic infiltration in the stroma involving all mucosal elements
including the glands.
 Suppuration and superficial necrosis produces the tattered mucosa. The surface is comparable
to a pyogenic membrane.
b) Chronic non-supportive endometritis:
Can be met with in which there is heavy infiltration of leucocytes mostly plasma cells in the
mucosa, therefore it becomes thickened.
 This thickening is not uniform because of the fixed position of the outlet ducts of the gland and
so it assumed a polyploid appearance and hence known as “Chronic polypoid endometritis”.
 Because of proliferation and subsequent contraction of the superficial connective tissue
(periglandular fibrosis) the mouth of the gland may be closed rendering them cystic. The
condition is known as “Chronic cystic endometritis”.
 Recovery from acute phase of the infection often results in chronic endometritis where
leucocytes are removed. With greater or less degree of endometrial destruction and
replacement by granulation scar tissue (Fibrous C.T.), which on contraction produces atrophy
of the glands and the mucosa, resulting in “Chronic atrophic endometritis”.

78
 In cows the mucosa in chronic endometritis may undergo degeneration and subsequently be
calcified (dystrophic calcification of necrotic portions) the condition is known as “endometritis
calcification” which may some times extensive enough that the lining of the uterus feels
gravelly hard to cut-gritting sound.
Metritis:
In this condition all the layers of the uterine wall show evidence of acute inflammation.
Etiology:
1) Infection – (bacterial infection): The organism that invades the uterus are corynebacterium
pyogenes, streptococci, staphycoccci, E-coli, spherophorous, clostridium species, Tubeculosis and
other chronic granulomatous infections.
2) Factors :- The infection being facilitated by the fallowing factors- initial injury, traumatic injury
during parturition, dystocia. Mechanical injuries by the obstetrical instruments, projecting foetal
bones after embryotomy, excessively warm irrigating fluids, chemical antiseptics and disinfectants
introduced into the uterus.
3) Predisposing factors:
 The parturient uterus with its lochia is a good medium for the growth of the bacteria.
 Retained placenta and albuminous exudate are also ideal for the propagation of the
microorganisms and so infection is common in those animals in which lochia is plentiful
and involution is delayed.
 Due to weaned and injured uterine musculature in prolonged dystocia may lead to retained
placenta and lochia formation.
 Nutritional deficiencies and endocrine and hormonal disturbances are considered as
predisposing factors preparing soil for infection.
Routes of infection:
1) Ascending infection: From vagina – most important and common route.
2) Descending infection: From abdominal cavity through fallopian tube.
3) Through lymphatics: From the peritoneum – peritonitis.
4) Haemotogenous: This is important in tuberculosis.

Classification of metritis: Depending upon the virulence and nature of the organisms metritis
may be classified as follows.

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(a) Acute catarrhal metritis: This is an acute endometritis as described earlier. It is difficult to
differentiate from uterus during estrous cycle and metritis.
(b) Acute supportive metritis: This condition arises form infection by pyogenic organisms is a
frequent complication of dystocia, retained placenta or abortion.
Macroscopically:
 The mucosa of the uterus is very much reddened, thickened rough and is covered over by a
purulent (fetid), scant or abundant often reddish, dirty yellow or red black-coloured exudates.
 The mucosa may be covered by and contain shreds of disintegrated fetal membranes.
 The uterine wall is thickened and friable.
 The submucosa is edematous and infiltrated with leucocytes.
 In myometrium – infection permeates bundles and individual muscle fibers, which undergo
granular degeneration.(Zenker‟s degeneration).
 The serosa also shows inflammatory changes.
Microscopically:
 The mucosa (endometrium) is infiltrated by large number of neutrophils.
 After several days macrophage, lymphocytes and plasma cells infiltrate the endometrial
stroma.
 Infection extending into the uterine veins (mesometrium) result in thrombosis of those
vessels. Which may result in haemorrhages and infarction.
c) Pyometra/ Chronic Supportive Metritis: (Pyo-pus, metra- uterus).
 Pyometra is an acute/chronic supportive infection of the uterus with accumulation of pus in
the uterine lumen. But usually this term is applied to chronic supportive metritis.
 Pyometra is relatively common in the bitch, cow and mare and uncommon condition in the
ewe and the sow, but the circumstances under which the disease develops in these species
very.
 A functionally closed cervix usually prevents the escape of pus. Also, the discharge may be
prevented by congenital or acquired cervical stenosis.
Pyometra in the cow
Etiology:
 Pyometra in cow is also associated with corpus luteum activity in the ovary. However, in
cow uterine diseases causes the C.L. to persist and maintain high level of progesterone.

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 The retention of the C.L. appears to be due to a reduction in or inhibition of the synthesis
and release of the luteolytic factor, prostaglandin F2  by the diseased endometrium.
 It occurs broadly at two periods.
a) During early post parturient period following dystocia, retained placenta and metritis.
b) After breeding, as a result of venereal infection with early embryonic death. Insemination during
the luteal phase of the cycle or similar operation during luteal phase, which can introduce
contamination into the uterus during this phase, can mimic venereal infection.
Pathogenesis:
Secreted progesterone during retained luteal tissue endows the uterus with high degree of
susceptibility to infection, maintains functional closure of the cervix and inhibits myometrial
contractility.
Etiology:
 In cattle pyometra is encountered as a result of retention of placenta. The retained placenta
putrifies since it is a very good medium for bacteria to thrive.
 Incomplete involution of uterus may be an associated factor.
 Infectious causes: (Mostly haematogenous). Trichomonas fetus infection is a common
cause Hemolytic Streptoeocci, Staphylococci, Coliforms, Actinomyces pyogens and pseudomonas
is also evolved, after breeding operations.
Macroscopically:
 The amount of pus retained in the uterus of cow with pymetra varies from a few milliliters
to more than several litters.
 It is thick, rather mucinous and creamy or grayish green in colour.
 It may be discharged through the vulva, soiling the tail and the perineum (as cervix has no
seal of mucus).
 When animal lies down due to pressure on the abdomen and due to gravitational force it
may flow out.
 The uterus is dilated and involution may not be complete.
 The wall of the uterus is thick, doughy and paretic but in long standing cases (especially
with mucometra) the walls are thin or fibrosed.
 Pyosalpinx and perimetritis may coexist.
Microscopically:

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 Microscopic appearance is similar to endometritis viz. congestion of blood vessels.
 Infiltration of inflammatory cells especially neutrophils, lymphocytes and plasma cells
under the epithelium.
Sequlae:
 Pyometra seldom spontaneously resolve.
 Condition is not usually life threatening as it is in bitches.
 Unless cyclic activity can be retained the condition will persist.
Sequlae of metritis and endometritis
 Many of the milder cases of endometritis may recover health and fertility spontaneously.
 Many of the acute cases of metritis are fatal despite therapy.
 Among the residual and complicating condition may lead to chronic endometritis, uterine
abscesses, parametritis salpingitis, pyemia and pyometra.
 Pyelonephritis is an occasional complcation seen.
 Acute deaths from metritis usually result from toxaemia or septicemia (pyemia). Long
standing cases bacteremia and septic emboli result in metastatic infection of other organs
and tissue the tissue most often involved in metastatic infection is valvular endocardium
joints, myocardium and lungs.
Uterine Abscesses :
 These are not commonly observed.
 Localization of an infection to one part of the uterine wall is thought to follow severe
metritis.
 Localized traumatic injury to the infected endometrium.
 Uterine abscesses are observed more frequently in cattle than in other species.
 There appears to be a relationship between frequency of abscesses and uterine
manipulations involving the use of instruments.
 In cattle most large abscesses are located in the dorsal wall of the uterine body. This is the
area most subject to trauma during the passage of insemination pipettes (guns) and uterine
catheters.
Sequlae:
 Abscesses that develop fallowing severe metritis is usually small (1-3 cm) and do not have
preferential sites.

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 Large abscesses, which may reach 15 cm in diameter, are usually well encapsulated.
 There may be some perimetrial adhesion and in few instances rupture into peritoneal cavity
or an adjacent hallow viscous.
Parametritis and Perimetritis:
 It is usually extra genital focus.
 It is chronic adhesive peritonitis involving the genital tract. (Perimetritis).
Etiology:
 Few virulent infections spread to the supporting ligaments (parametritis).
 Perimetritis and parametritis in cattle usually follow manual manipulation of the ovary,
pyosalpinx, obstetrical operation, removal of retained placenta and uterine irrigations.
 In conditions like obstetrical operation removal of retained placenta and uterine irrigations
there may be accidental perforation or rupture of uterus.
Sequlae:
 The extent of the adhesion may very from a few fibrous bands to dense connective tissue,
which obscures the contour of the organs and fixes them to adjacent viscera.
 Abscesses may form with the adhesions of the ovarian bursa and rectovaginal pouch.

83
 Pharmacodynamic of Drug Molecule : Special Reference to Female
Reporductive Disorders, Infertility and Abortions
Dr. G.D.Ranvir
Veterinary College, Udgir

Introduction :
Reproduction is essential for existence of species and its progeny for survival and
sustenance in an ecosystem. In vertebrates especially in human beings and animals it has operated
by central nervous system and endocrine system. The endocrine system operates in co-ordination
with the central nervous system for the release of target hormones. The pharmacodynamics of
endocrine system may differ from the more classical pharmacodynamics of drug molecule. Most of
the reproductive problems associated either with deficiency or excess of target hormone,
parahormones (PGs, erythropoietin, dihydrocholecalciferol etc.), that regulate or modulate function
of target organ or tissue. Most economically important reproductive disorders in animal are
infertility, anoestrus, repeat breeding, prolapse of genital organs and abortion, it may be due to
deficiency or excess of hormones, vitamins, minerals, infections and some other factors, which can
be corrected with replacement therapy using hormonal preparations, parahormones, antibiotics,
herbal medication and some other drugs. It is therefore almost essential the clinician or physician to
get acquainted with the knowledge of the dynamics of the drug molecule while treating as such the
reproductive disorders in farm animals.
Mechanism of Action of Drug Molecule : Hormones, parahormones or drugs act on target organ
or tissue by two distinct mechanisms.
1. Direct interactions with target hormone receptors : The hormone receptors are the
specialized proteins having binding sites (ligand gated domain and effector domain) with which
hormones / drug bind and appears to change confirmation of receptor to elicit biochemical and
physiological effects. Specialized hormone receptors that are located on target cell surface are G
protein coupled receptors (G1 &G2) tyrosine kinase linked receptors which has extra cellular
(ligand binding) and intracellular domains (catalytic), steroid receptors are intracellular receptors
for steroidal hormones. The enzymes, nicotinic, colinnergic, glutamate, GABA, glycine, 5
hydroxytreptamine and G-protein receptors are located on cell membrane. The protein kinase,
tyrosine kinase, tyrosine phosphatages, guanylyl cyclase, ligand gated ion channels and special G-
proteinare located in the cytoplasm, where as cytosolic receptors are located intranuclear site;
where drug bind to cause cascade of biochemical reactions initiating stimulatory or inhibitory

84
effects on the target organ or tissue depends on activation of specialized protein molecule and
enzymes system. Apparently hormones are exposed to all cells, but only target cells respond and
able elicit its effect. A specific receptors traps particular hormone such as peptide hormones
(adrenocorticoin and gonadal) by cell membrane receptors, steroid hormones by cytoplasmc
receptors and thyroid hormone by intra-nuclear chromatin cell receptors.
2. Interference with permeability and transport process of drug molecule or hormones across
cell membrane: Some carriers at subcellular level interfere with transport of substrate and make
the subcellular substrate more available at target site, the process is totally independent of release
of another hormones such as insulin which increase glucose uptake by somatotrophs facilitating
entrance of amino acids through cell membrane for synthesis of proteins. Globulin act as transport
protein for estradiol and testosterone where as adrenocoticoids and progesterone are transported by
corticosteroid binding globulin.
The alternative possibilities in the mechanism of action of steroid hormone production is
activation of adenyl cyclase causes conversion of ATP to cAMP there by increased cAMP favors
glycogenolysis and glucose 6 phosphate production through activation of enzyme phosphorilase.
The glucose 6 phosphate metabolized and reduced to NADPH. The molecular oxygen and NADPH
convert cholesterol to pregnenolone and then progesterone. LH directly stimulate NADPH
formation through activation of glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase independent to cAMP. Similar
mechanism may operate in case of FSH and prolactin and possibly other protein hormones. The
TSH stimulate production of thyroxin (T4) and triiodothyroxin (T3) which influence metabolism of
carbohydrate and protein thus vital for proper functioning of reproductive system and growth of
embryo.
Therapies for Various Disorder of Female reproduction : The reproductive disorders may vary
based on etiology. Some disorders and their therapeutic management are as below:
Anoestrus with CL: Stilbesterol @ 0.5 -1 mg /kg /day orally in dog, causes regression of
persistent CL due to uterine pathology. Combination of oestrogen and corticosteroid (preferably
prednisolone) is also good & successful. PGF2a 25 -30 mg i/m administer on day of oestrus
between 8 -12 days or 30 mg PGF2a i/m with 10 days gap, causes functional and morphological
regression of CL, inducing oestrus followed by ovulation with normal fertility in 2-5 days after
treatment. Manual ennucleation of CL is also effective.
Silent heat: Extra feeding of oil cake 0.25-0.5 kg / animal / day for a month improves the cyclic
estrous. PGF2a 250-500 µg I/m is effective at the time of active CL. Intrauterine infusion

85
carbachol 1 mg before AI and following heat is done with success. Fertvet tab (clomifine citrate)
for 15 days and 400 mg of Vitamin E for 10 days treatment give encouraging results. Intravaginal
tamponing of uterus with lugol‟s iodine solution with 20 ml of 1 % infusion when CL slowing
regression is tried with success.
Weak heat: Feeding of germinated grams 15-20 kg / animal/ day improve the health status &
oestrus cycle in the animals. Intramuscular administration of PGF2a @ 25-30 mg on day of oestrus
betweem 8-12 days becoming effective. During pro-oestrus phase testosterone propionate 5 mg i/m
is given, it stimulate follicle for androgen secretion which act on CNS and enhanced oestrus
symptoms. Injection progesteron 5 mg i/m may be given, provided that the treatment may
precipitate infection and cause endometritis hence usually avoided. Parenteral administration of
Vitamin E and selenium 500 mg and 40 mg respectively or cap. Avion (Vitamin E) 400 mg x 4 for
a week with 120 mg of sodium selenite orally once improve the condition.
Anoestrus with absence of CL or inactive ovaries with non-functional CL: Feeding more
concentrated feed, germinated grams and green grass improve the condition. Deworming with
either or Albendazole, fenbendazole using bolus dose @ 7.5–10 mg/kg and 5-10mg/kg respectively
in advocated. Mineral supplements with vitamins (Wellman forte / sulllievite-M / Vitablend AD3)
Liver stimulant & liver extracts with vitamin B12, injection vitamin A (prepalin forte) 2 ml daily
for 10 days, vitamin E injection ( vitacap/ Hovit) 500 mg i/m daily for 7 days. Tonophosphan
injection 5-10 ml daily for 7 days. Additionally massage with tamponing of lugol‟s iodine solution
twice a week for month treatment is ensues. If animal fails to respond to this treatment herbal heat
inducers may be used ( prajana/ utrolin / sajani / janova / vertikit).
Cystic ovarian degeneration: Manual rupture of cyst on ovary, oestrogen provokes LH release
and increase progesterone level. LH injection 11000-30000 IU i/m cause luteiolysis and increase
plasma progesterone concentration after 4-11 days. Combination therapy of LH & GnRH 3000 &
500 IU respectively or LH & PGF2a after HCG treatment 25 mg & 30 mg i/v for 7 days which
induce précised and early oestrus in animals. Iodine deficiency and thyroid hypofunction may be
precipitate as etiology, hence oral feeding of potassium iodide 3-10 g for 16 days enable to recover
71% and for 20 days 100 % recovery.
Synchronization of oestrus: Injection oxytocin 75-150 IU i/m prevents development of CL in
early stage of cycle. Exogenous oestrogens: estradiol velerate 5 mg by i/v prolonged luteiolytic
effect at mid cycle in ruminate but not in horse and pig. Other oral exogenous progesterone
preparations (MAP [6-methyl-17-acetoxy progesterone}, CAP {6-chloro-6-dihydroxy-17-acetoxy

86
progesterone}, Melengesterol acetate, MGA, OHPA {dihydroxy progesterone actophenide},
progestagenes {proloned anoestrous period extendind 6 months to 1 year, not recommende},
“Crestar” progesterone implant s/c). preferably implants are used for the synchronization of
oestrus. PGF2a injection 0.5 mg in to uterine horn on two consecutive days or 30 mg on 2,3,4 days
in 6 and 16 days of cycle exert luteiolytic effect and extend cycle length.
Embryonic mortality after 16 days of AI: can be avoided by intra-uterine infusion of gentamicin
200 mg within 18-24 hrs of AI. Administrations of HCG / LH 1500-2000 IU i/m on day of AI
cause secretion of progesterone & uterine milk to nourish ovum prier to nidation thereby prevent
embryonic mortality.
Repeat breeding: Treatment of delayed ovulatory animals with HCG / LH 1500-3000 IU i/m on
day of AI increases conception rate where as injection HCG / LH used in next oestrus after one
shot of HCG / LH on day of AI or injection GnRH ( Receptal/ fetagyl/ Hoechest/ intervet)
intramuscularly in ovulatory animals with better performance. Bromocryptin 1 mg by intrauterine
on day of oestrus or Tab Proctinal (bromocryptine) 2.5 mg x 4 on day of AI used for delayed
ovulatory animals. Cooperglin (copper glycerate) 10 ml on day of AI causes release of LH and
ovulation. In delayed ovulation when CL is palpable injection PGF2a 25-50 mg i/m following heat
is given and AI is taken up about 80 hrs of post injection.
Line of treatment for repeat breeding: Combination of cifran 20 ml, metrogyl 20 ml is given by
intrauterine infusion for 5 days starting on day of oestrus has good results and avoids AI. In next
cycle dextrose solution 500 ml I/v prier 2 hrs of AI with 20 % dextrose solution intrauterine 1 hr
prier to AI is given and after treatment AI is done. Immediately after AI HCG 500 IU is given by
i/v and 2.5 g x 4 bromocryptine ( proctinal) on day of AI is given. Half hour of AI oxytocin 30 IU
is given by i/m route. After completion of AI exogenous progesterone is given at least for 10 days
(preferably as implants).
Uterine inertia (Atonic uterus): to enable tone of uterus oxytocin 30-50 IU i/m is given; CL fails
to regress in deficient oxytocin. Progesterone deficiency replenish with injection of progesterone
1500 IU and Vitamin C (Redoxan) 500 mg on day of AI which stimulate formation of CL and
secretion of progesterone.
Infertility / pseudopregnancy: due to excess secretion of oestrogen might be due to embryonic
death of fetus leads to psedo-pregnancy and infertility this can be treated with HCG/LH and
vitamin C. Failure of nidation of fertilized ovum can be established by injecting HCG/ LH 1500 IU
on day of AI which leads to formation of large CL and adequate secretion of progesterone. The

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broad spectrum antibiotics (Ommamycin/ Omnacillin/ Munomycin) also indicated at different
dates of AI to reduce infection.
Abortions: Infectious abortion can be treated by using broad spectrum antibiotics including
dihydrostreptomycin, streptopenicillin, tetracyclines, gentamicin, potentiated sulphonamides,
acriflavin (1 % dye) antiseptics like H2O2, lugol‟s iodine , metronidazole (Trichomoniasis 25-50
mg /kg for 5 days treatment). Threatened abortions and premature labour can be prevented by using
uterine relaxants and antispasmodic drugs such as beta adrenoreceptor antagonists like terbutaline,
ritodrine, orciprenaline and salbutamol however, less frequently used for this purpose due to potent
effect on other systems. Isoxsuprine 0.5 mg / kg i/m (in all species) exerts its effect by inhibition of
spontaneous and oxytocin induced contraction on pregnant gravid uterus within 15 minutes after
injection and the effect lasts for 2 hours. It is also used for delaying parturition for managemental
conveniences.
Disorders due to vitamins and minerals: Vitamin A deficiency does not affect at preliminary
stage but at later part of the pregnancy leads to abortion, still birth, night blindness, retention of
placenta, septic metritis lacrimation, keratinization of epithelial tissue anorexia and weight loss.
Vitamin E and selenium protect animal cell from oxidative damage by free radicals (biosynergistic
action), it has also role in progesterone and oestrogen synthesis, enhance free radicals by reducing
NADPH which is required for biosynthesis of steroid hormones and cholesterol (precursor of
hormones). The micro minerals like phosphorus, Zink, cobalt, copper, iron, magnesium cadmium
leads to failure of oestrus, still birth, weak calf but not abortions and can be well replenished with
supplementation of multi-mineral and multi-vitamin preparations. Phosphorus can be supplemented
in the form of dicalcium phosphate.
Pathological conditions of uterus: bleomycin, vincrytine, tamoxifen may be used for treating
mammary or ovarian tumors. The inflammatory conditions associated with the uterus such as
metritis, endometritis treated with combination of 5 % povidine iodine (betadine) 50 ml, distilled
water 50 ml and amoxicillin & cloxacillin 1000 mg by intrauterine infusion for 3 -4 days with
injection Vetclox fort ( amoxicillin & cloxacillin) 5-10 mg/kg i/m for 5 days and additionally
PGF2a 25 mg i/m indicated for evacuation of pus & mucoprulent discharge and to regress CL. As a
supportive therapy antibiotics, Vitamin E (400 mg orally) sodium selenite (150 mg orally)
levamisol (15ml s/c) and zink sulphate (5 mg orally) are indicated. The antibiotics control
infection, Vitamin E, levamisol and zink sulphate stimulates immunity and selenium improves
uterine tone. The pyometra treatment aims for evacuation of pus / mucoprulent discharge,

88
regression of CL, induction of regular oestrus. It can be treated by using estradiol valverate
(progynon depot, 10 mg) 25-40 mg i/m leads to initiate profuse discharge within 48 hrs. but prolog
use leads to adhesion and sterility. Oxytocin should be given after 24 hrs in later treatment along
with antibiotics by i/m or i/v route. PGF2a and analogues used modestly to regress CL, dilate
cervix, and expulsion of the content of uterus along with Vit E and selenium for faster recovery.

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 Clean Milk Production and Testing
Dr. A. A. Devangare
Veterinary College, Udgir

The main theme of this training programme organized for livestock development officers
working in field is to refresh the knowledge about Artificial Insemination.
The chapter which is allotted to me is on clean milk production which is important to the
dairy farmers, this topic is of least importance from practitioners point of view because all we
veterinarian have interest in Medicine, Sucrgery and Gynaecological cases.
There are 3 different types of organizations functioning in the organized sector namely
private, Government/Semi Government and cooperative.
Private sector mainly produces western dairy products Government/Semi Government
dairies mainly handle liquid milk and cooperative sector handles both liquid milk and milk
products.
Approximatly 48% milk is handled as liquid milk/market milk and 52% is used for
preparation of milk products.
Obviously milk is mainly produced in the rural areas and its major market is the Urban
towns and hence the major challenge lies in reducing the distance gap between the rural producer
and urban customers as well as transporting milk from surplus area to deficit areas.
This has been overcome by establishing the concept of National milk Grid in which
transportation of milk over long distance by rail and road takers from surplus to deficit area is
done.
Then started pasteurization and bottling of milk on large scale for organized distribution at
Arey, Worli, Madras, Culcutta and Delhi.
Then milk plants are established under five year plans for Diary Development all over India
in 1951.
This market milk industry may be said to have started in 1950-51 when central Diary of
Arey milk colony was commissioned and went into stream.
It is heartening to note that the dairy industry in India has taken up unthinkable rapid strides
during the past three decades. The milk production registered a quantum jump from 22.5 MT in
1970-71, to 31.6 MT in 1980-81, 53.9 MT in 1990-91 and 86.3 MT in 2000-01, making India the
largest producer of milk in world i.e. India ranks 1st in milk production.

90
 Though India ranks 1st the per capita consumption in Indian peoples is 226 gms/day/head.
There is increase in per capita consumption from 114 gms in 1974–75 to 226 gms in 2003–04
which is less than recommended level by medical authorities i.e. 280 gms due to increased
population,.
Dairying in India has emerged as an important subsector accounting for nearly two thirds
livestock population and in national income next to agriculture. Through improved breeding,
feeding and management programmes there has been marked improvement in the country‟s milk
production and productivity of milk animals.
The weaknesses that are found in dairy industry are due to lack of appropriate technologies
such as
 Lack of awareness about clean milk production.
 Underdeveloped raw milk collection systems.
 Seasonal fluctuations in milk production pattern.
 Species wise variation (buffalo, cow, goat etc.) in milk quality received.
 Poor productivity of cattle.
 Absence of proper data records which is essential for preparing development programmes.
 Dairy development programmes have not been fully implemented as per the needs of the region
in different agroclimatic zones.
 Lack of infrastructure for offering dairy business management programmes to dairy trained
personnel.
 Lack of marketing avenues for dairy produce.
 Amongs all of there weaknesses important one is lack of awareness about clean milk
production.& lack of infrastructure for offering dairy business management programmes to
dairy trained personnel.
Milk being highly perishable is spoiled if not handled carefully and processed well in time
milk being an excellent culture for bacteria, can serve as a carrier for these and other disease
producing microorganisms. Therefore it is essential that milch animals are protected from disease
and milk and milk products should be handled, transported, processed under most hygienic
conditions. The prevailing conditions under which milk is produced in villages, are not conducive
because of wide spread illiteracy and economic backwardness. The potential sources of bacteria
are feeds, water, air, soil, dung, human and utensils/equipment used for handling milk i.e. the
internal and external factors.
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 Clean milk production means production of milk without dirt, dust, bacteria, viruses etc.
which is safe for human consumption or for processing it for preparation of various milk products.
From the practical point of view the subject can be divided into two parts namely sources of
contamination and control measures at farm level.
Sources of contamination and control at production level :
Sources of
Desirable features for clean milk production
contamination of milk
(A) Internal factors
(a) Mastitis udder 1. Test milk by drawing few streams of fore milk on strip cups.
Milk from infected 2. Test by Hotis test or Californian mastitis test. If positive-discard
udder acts as source of milk.
bacteria. 3. All positive reactors must be milked at the end of milking of all
healthy cows.
(b) Fore milk Remove first few streams from each teat to reduce bacterial count in
remaining milk.
(B) External factors
1. Cow (a) Skin Healthy, clean, well groomed one hour before milking, hind quarter
washed, tail tied with legs at milking time.
(b) Udder Washed, wiped with clean towel, soaked in antiseptic solution, kept dry
at milking time.
2. Milker Healthy, nails cut, clean hands, white dress, head covered with white
cap. Clean habits (no spitting and talking at milking time). Hands
washed with 200 ppm chlorine solution.
3. Utensils Stainless steel or galvanized iron metal, clean and sterilized, small open
top (dome shape). Washed with chlorine solution before use or 2%
Benzytol solution.
4. Barn White washed, free of cob webs and bad odour, floor clean and
disinfected. Well lighted and ventilated.
5. Method of milking Full hand (fisting), in case of small teats stripping, dry hand milking.
6. Feed and water Free of weeds that have objectionable smell, no dusty roughage at
milking time and clean and safe water.
7. Handling and Freshly drawn milk is at about 380C which is highly suited for bacterial
cooling of milk growth. Therefore milk be rapidly cooled to below 100C.

Diseases spread through unclean milk :

i) Through cows :
1. Tuberculosis 2. Milk- sickness 3. Undulent fever 4. Pox 5. Anthrax
ii) Through milkers :
1. Typhoid 2. Paratyphoid 3. Dysentry 4. Diarrhoea
5. Diptheria 6. Scarlet fever 7. Cholera 8. Septic sore throat
9. Gastro enteritis

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Testing of milk :
As milk is the most important article of our food; the Public health Department has laid
certain standards for milk. Therefore in order to ensure standard supplies of milk some quality
control measures are to be performed at all the stages i.e. at production, procurement and
processing level. It is not possible to subject all samples to regular and elaborate chemical and
bacteriological analysis. But at the procurement level rapid examination has to be carried out on
each and every sample of milk for qualitative tests including organoleptic tests and quantitative
examination of fat and SNF present in milk.
Qualitative tests –
1) Organoleptic test – By sense organs to judge quality good/bad of milk by smell, colour, taste.
2) Clot on boiling test – To determine developed acidity and suitability of milk for heat processing.
3) Alcohol test – For rapid assessment of stability of milk for processing.
4) Acidity test – To judge keeping quality and hat stability.
Quantitative test –
1) Fat test – Most important test to be carried out while processing raw milk. The price of milk is
generally decided on its fat content.
Method 1) Gerber method 2) Using milk tester.
2) SNF test : Estimation of SNF in milk is as important as estimation of fat.
Method – 1) Gravimetric method 2) Richmand‟s scale 3) Formula method.

Detection of adulterants : The modes of adulteration commonly encountered in market samples

are 1) Removal of fat by skimming.
2) Addition of separated milk or skim milk to whole milk.
3) Addition of water.
4) Addition of starch and cane sugar for rising density to prevent detection of added water
by lactometer.
Detection of preservations :
Milk and other dairy products are required by public health laws to be free from
preservatives. If milk containing preservatives is accepted, the treated milk or milk product when
subsequently offered for sale may contain preservatives and render the seller liable to contain
preservatives and render the seller liable to prosecution besides constituting a hazzard to health.

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No preservative shall be added to milk except in the case of samples which have to be preserved
for chemical examination. Commonly used preservatives are H2O2, formalin, mercuric chloride,
dichromate of potash etc.
Recording of Milk :
1) Day to day recording – Morning and Evening
2) Lactationwise recording

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 Structural Dynamics of Female Reproductive Tract
Dr. R. R. Mugale
Veterinary College, Udgir.

The female reproductive organs which are actually involved in the act of natural coitus or
during the process of artificial insemination are vulva, vagina and cervix uteri. The gross and
histological appearance of these organs in adult and mature females is described as follows.
1] Vulva :- It is the external genitalia in females and appears as the terminal part of the uro- genital
tract. It continuous vagina backwards and opens on the surface of body below the anus. It has two
commissures. The superior commissure is separated from the anus with a length of 50 mm while
the inferior commissure is pointed and has number of long hairs. The labial skin contains number
of sebaceous and sweat gland. It is about 10-12 cm from the superior commissure. The cavity of
vulva is shorter above and longer below. There is no clear-cut demarcation between vulva and
vagina but the transverse folds carrying the urethral opening marks the termination of vagina and
beginning of the vulva. The size and appearance of vulva varies according to the age and
reproductive status of the animal. The vulval lips are soft, thin normally wrinkled but becomes
thick and turgid when the cow is in oestrus.
Relations :- The vulva is related to rectum above, the pelvic floor below and two sacrosciatic
ligaments, internal pudic vessels and the semi membranosus muscles laterally.
1.1 Structures present on the floor of vulva.
1.1.1 The external urethral opening is a longitudinal slit, placed on median line of the floor of
vulva. It is surrounded by large mucous fold, which acts as a valve to direct the flow of
urine to outside and prevents its entrance in to the vagina.
1.1.2 Hymen :- It is a semilunar fold of mucous membrane attached to the walls at the junction
of vagina and vulva. It establishes an imperfect separation between vagina and vulva. It
gets ruptured during the first act of coitus & remains as a low notched folds during the
life.
1.1.3 Vestibular glands :- These are placed on either side of urethral opening lying in the
lateral wall of the vulva.

1.1.4 Clitoris :-It is composed of errectile tissue which corresponds to corpus cavernosum of
the penis. It is lodged in a shallow fossa in the inferior commissure of vulva.

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Histology of Vulva :- The mucous membrane lining the vulva is pale with a rosy tint colour in
cow while red in mare and bitch. It is continuous with vagina in front and with the skin at the free
margin of vulval lips. The ducts of Bartholin gland opens on the mucous membrane about 6 cm
from vulval lips & secrets a thick viscid fluid during estrus. The vulval lips shows circular or
sphincter like muscles which keeps them in close opposition.
2] Vagina :- It is a tubular passage which succeeds the uterus. It extends backwards though the
pelvic cavity and terminates at the vulva. It is about 20-25 cm in length and it becomes larger in
pregnant cows. It serves as a copulatory organ & passage for expulsion of fetus during parturition.
Relations : It is related to rectum above, the urinary bladder & pelvic part of urethra below and
the walls of pelvis laterally.
Histology of Vagina :- The wall of vagina shows mucosa, submucosa, tunica muscularis and
serosa. The mucous membrane is pink in colour and shows transverse folds. The lining epithelium
is stratified squamous type. The growth of vaginal epithelium is increased during oestrus in ewes
and sow. The epithelium is covered by a sticky, grayish secretion during diestrus and anestrus in
mare. The muscular coat has inver and outer circular smooth muscle bundles. The contraction of
these muscles have important role in psychosexual responses and possibly sperm transport. The
lateral parts of the floor of vagina shows Canals of Gartner which are the remnants of Wolffian
ducts.
3. Cervix :- It is the neck of uterus or cervix uteri, which is the posterior constricted sphincter
like structure projecting caudally into vagina. It is about 7.5 to 10 cm to long and 2-6 cm thick. It
acts as a passage for transport of sperms during estrus. The wall of cervix is the thickest part of
uterus. The cervical canal shows spiral folds of mucous membrane. These folds are prominent in
cow and ewes while in sow, the folds are corkscrew like which adapts to the spiral twisting of the
tip of the penis of boar.
Histology of Cervix :- The cervix presents tunica mucosa, tunica muscularis and tunica serosa
layers. The mucosa shows conspicuous folds which further subdivides into a fern like secondary
folds. The mucous secreting cells are predominant. The cells shows greater secretary activity
during oestrus. The special glands present in the cervical mucosa are ovula nabothi , secretes a
thick mucous which acts as seal during gestation while the glands of Bartholin produces thick
viscid fluid during estrus. The smooth muscles form the main substance at the annular folds of the
cervical canal. The serosa shows connective tissue fibers with cellular stroma, vessels and nerve
endings.

96
 Oestrous Related Behaviour And Heat Detection
Dr. N. Z. Gaikwad
Veterinary College, Udgir

Introduction:
Three characteristics of female mammals are of particular importance in their effect of
successful mating behaviour : attractiveness, proceptivity and receptivity. Attractiveness or
attractivity, is measured by the extent to which a male evokes a sexual responses from males. This
will depend upon odours which she produce, visual qualities etc.and on her proceptivity, the extent
of invitation. Receptivity is the willingness of the female to accept courtship and copulatory
attempts by the male. Variations occure in the degree of attractivness, proceptivity and receptivity
in oestrus female animals.
Natural matings have the effect of shortening the duration of oestrus in cattle. It is reported
that the period of receptivity in cattle is shortened by as much as 8 hours when natural
circumstances are provided and repeated matings take place. Also when some female animals are
teased with vasectomised males, the duration of oestrus is slightly shorter than otherwise. This
seems that oestrus is not under endogenous control alone and that its manifestation is subject, in
part, to environmental factors.
Oestrus :
It is the state during which the female seeks and accepts the male. The bevavioural features
are synchronized with various physiological changes of the entire genital system essential for
mating and fertilization. The signs of oestrus are characterized for each species but variations occur
between individuals. Seasonal and diurnal variations occur in oestrus manifestations.
Behavioural characteristics of heat in cattles :
Restless behaviour, raises and twitches tail, arches back, and stretches, roams bellowing,
mounts or stands to be mounted, vulva sniffed by other cows. When oestrus is shown, behaviour in
general changes and many of the animal‟s usual behavioural routines become disturbed. There are
often alterations, and reductions, in feeding and resting.
Features of oestrous intensity :
Oestrous in cattle can sometimes be virtually undetectable, this state being referred as
„Silent heat‟ or „Silant ovulation. It constitutes a problem in swine, cattle and horse breeding.
While sub-oestrus indicates a very low intensity of oestrus. In cows silent ovulation and sub-
oestrus can be detected by repeated manual palpation of ovaries per rectum so as to ascertain
97
progressive cyclical changes in the ovary of the anoestrus subject. The animal in sub-oestrus is
potentially fertile although mating capacity is absent.
Aberrances of oestrus :
Anoestrus is the condition in which a female animal fails to show cyclic recurrence of
oestrus. Anoestrus normally occurs, of course, when the animal is pregnant or when it is in its non-
pregnant season. As many as 2% of pregnant cattle show oestrus during pregnancy.
Onset of oestrus :
The onset of oestrus in cattle seems to occur at random at any hour of the day or night,
although more mutual riding behaviour is shown at night. The cattle in tropical climate shows
higher frequency of oestrus during night.
Vocalization in oestrus :
Cattle in general employ vocalizations in oestrus to make attention of male. In addition the
vocalization of males appear to have considerable effect on the manifestation of oestrus in the
female. Cattle bellow and bleat while in oestrus.
Duration of oestrus :
The true oestrus period of cattle lasts 18-24 hours. A significant seasonal variation occurs in
the average duration of bovine oestrus. Oestrus has an average duration of 15 hours in the spring as
compared with 20 hour in the autumn. The oestrus period has been considered to be shortened by
mating. Heifers when mated to vasectomies bulls tend to ovulate earlier than those not mated. The
periods of receptivity is shortened in many cows after natural service.
Post-partum oestrus :
Since complete involution of the uterus requires several weeks following parturition in all
animals. Cattle show a much more delayed heat after calving and this heat is further delayed if the
subject is nursing a calf or is being milked frequently in each day. In red Sindhi cows after calving
, cows whose calves were weaned at birth returned to oestrus in 110 days as compared with 157
days for cows whose calves were not weaned. In most European breeds of cattle the first oestrus
occurs at an average of 31.7 days after normal calvings. The wide variation in the heat interval in
dairy cattle is commonly taken to be associated with the rate of milk production, with high
producing cows taking longer to show the first post portum heat. Cows running with a bull after
calving show heat about 27 days earlier than similar cows without exposer to a bull. The heat
interval is commonly about six months after calving among dairy cattle which nurse their calves.

98
Typical oestrus behaviour in cattle:
Signs of oestrus include general restlessness, raising and switching the tail, arching or
stretching of back, roaming and bellowing. The most noticeable element of behaviour, however, is
the mutual riding which takes place between the oestrus subject conspecifies. The other
behavioural oestrus signs in cattle include-
 There may be an increase in general activity termed as restlessness.
 The oestrus cow bellows more than usual.
 Grooming activities, in the form of licking other animals, are increased.
 Typically, oestrus cow frequently makes mounting attempts on cattle. When several
cattle in a group have been prompted to mount each other, through the initial activity of
oestrus cow, it may become difficult for an observer to identify the cow in the group
which is in true oestrus, but when one animal in particular is standing to be mounted by
others it is usually the animal in oestrus.
 Oestrus lasts for a period of 12-24 hours and it is commonly observed to be of shortest
duration in young cattle.
Behavioural signs of bovine oestrus :
Sr. INTENSITY OF DISPLAY
BEHAVIOURAL SIGNS
No. INTENSE INTERMEDIATE WEAK
1. Restlessness ++++ + -
2. Bellowing +++ ++ +
3. Licking other animals ++ ++ +
4. Mounting other animals +++ ++ +
5. Standing to be mounted ++++ +++ +++
6. Jerky movement of lumbosacral ++ ++ +
region
7. Arching and stretching the back ++ ++ +
8. Appetite reduction + - -

Oestrus in Buffaloes :
Oestrus : The oestrus in buffaloes is manifested by changes in reproductive system and behaviour.
The intensity of oestrus behaviour in Indian buffaloes has been found to be much less than the
cows. The usual weak symptoms of oestrus in normal breeding season (October to February)
become still weaker during hot months of summer (April to June) season.
Diurenal trend of oestrus behaviour has been observed in most of the buffaloes. In about
83% Indian buffaloes signs of oestrus have been recorded between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. About

99
37.65% occurrence of oestrus in the morning, 33.33% in evening and rest 29.02% in other hours of
day.
Due to high incidence of silent heat large number of buffaloes are left unbred. The silant
heat has been observed in 14.6% and anovular heat in 6.5% buffaloes after first calving.
The frequent urination was the most reliable behaviour of oestrus in Surti buffaloes. The
animals urinate small quantity every 4-6 minutes during the oestrus period. No definite pattern of
heat was observed in summer but most of the animals came in heat during evening and were out of
heat by early morning. During monsoon the oestrus commences in afternoon, which is detected by
mucus discharge from vagina in quietly sitting position. In winter, the symptoms of oestrus
appeared during late night and early morning.
Oestrus period : The duration of oestrus was longer in aged than in young buffaloes. The intensity
of heat was good in 17.6, fair in 27.4 and weak in 54.9% buffaloes. In young murrah buffaloes
average oestrus period has been observed to be 29 (24-72) hours.
Postpartum oestrus : Re-establishment of oestrus behaviour in female is essential for the normal
reproductive performances. Average postpartum oestrus interval in Indian buffaloes 35 (24-50)
days. in Murrah buffaloes it was 149 days and in Surti 125 days. The shortesr mean interval 63
days was observed in October calvers and longest 229 days in February calvers. In summer bred
Murrah buffaloes the average postpartum oestrus interval was 137 days and in nondescript
buffaloes it was 130 days.
Behavioural signs of oestrus in Surti buffaloes during different seasons :

Sr. Medium
Symptoms Peak Winter Low Summer
No. Monsoon
1. Bellowing Absent Present Absent
2. Mucus Discharge Present Present Few animals showed
3. Swollen Vulva In few animals Present Absent
4. Activity Present Present Absent
5. Frequent Urination Present Present Present
6. Uterine Tone Present Present Present in few animals
7. Open Cervix Present Present Present
Nature of cervical Periodic thick Frequent thin Patchy thick opaque
8. discharge yellowish glassy very less
copious

Effect of successful mating behaviour :

 Attractiveness – Odours, visual qualities produce by female.
 Proceptivity - Extent of invitation.
100
  Receptivity – Willingness of female to accept courtship and copulatory attempts by
male.
Oestrus is under control of endogenous and in part to environomental factor :
 Natural mating have the effect of shortening the duration of oestrus in cattle.
 Receptivity in cattle is shortened by 8 hours when natural circumstances are provided
and repeated mating takes place.
 Female animals teased with vasoctomised males, the duration of oestrus shorter.
Oestrus in cattle :
 Oestrus is the state during which the female seeks and accepts the male.
 The bevavioural features are synchronized with various physiological changes of the
entire genital system essential for mating and fertilization.
 Seasonal and diurnal variations occur in oestrus manifestations.
Behavioural characteristics of heat in cattles :
 Restless behaviour, raises and twitches tail, arches back, and stretches, roams
bellowing, mounts or stands to be mounted, vulva sniffed by other cows.
 There are often alterations, and reductions, in feeding and resting.

Features of oestrous intensity :

 Silent heat/ silent ovulation where oestrus can some time undetectable.
 Sub-oestrus indicates a very low intensity of oestrus, potentially fertile although mating
capacity is absent.
 In cows silent ovulation and sub-oestrus can be detected by repeated manual palpation
of ovaries per rectum so as to ascertain progressive cyclical changes in the ovary of the
anoestrus subject.
Aberrances of oestrus :
 Anoestrus is the condition in which a female animal fails to show cyclic recurrence of
oestrus.
 Anoestrus normally occurs, of course, when the animal is pregnant or when it is in its
non-pregnant season.
 As many as 2% of pregnant cattle show oestrus during pregnancy.

101
Onset of oestrus :
 The onset of oestrus in cattle seems to occur at random at any hour of the day or night,
although more mutual riding behaviour is shown at night.
 The cattle in tropical climate shows higher frequency of oestrus during night.
Vocalization in oestrus :
 Cattle in general employ vocalizations in oestrus to make attention of male.
 In addition the vocalization of males appear to have considerable effect on the
manifestation of oestrus in the female.
 Cattle bellow and bleat while in oestrus.
Duration of oestrus :
 The true oestrus period of cattle lasts 18-24 hours.
 A significant seasonal variation occurs in the average duration of bovine oestrus.
 Oestrus has an average duration of 15 hours in the spring as compared with 20 hour in
the autumn.
 Heifers when mated to vasectomies bulls tend to ovulate earlier than those not mated.

Post-partum oestrus :
 Since complete involution of the uterus requires several weeks following parturition in
all animals.
 Cattle show a much more delayed heat after calving and this heat is further delayed if
the subject is nursing a calf or is being milked frequently in each day.
 In red Sindhi cows after calving , cows whose calves were weaned at birth returned to
oestrus in 110 days as compared with 157 days for cows whose calves were not weaned.
 The wide variation in the heat interval in dairy cattle is commonly taken to be
associated with the rate of milk production, with high producing cows taking longer to
show the first post portum heat.
 Cows running with a bull after calving show heat about 27 days earlier than similar
cows without exposer to a bull.
 The heat interval is commonly about six months after calving among dairy cattle which
nurse their calves.

102
Typical oestrus behaviour in cattle:
Signs of oestrus include general restlessness, raising and switching the tail, arching or
stretching of back, roaming and bellowing. The other behavioural oestrus signs in cattle include -
 There may be an increase in general activity termed as restlessness.
 The oestrus cow bellows more than usual.
 Grooming activities, in the form of licking other animals, are increased.
 Typically, oestrus cow frequently makes mounting attempts on cattle. When several
cattle in a group have been prompted to mount each other, through the initial activity of
oestrus cow, it may become difficult for an observer to identify the cow in the group
which is in true oestrus, but when one animal in particular is standing to be mounted by
others it is usually the animal in oestrus.
 Oestrus lasts for a period of 12-24 hours and it is commonly observed to be of shortest
duration in young cattle.

Behavioural signs of oestrus :

Sr. BEHAVIOURAL INTENSITY OF DISPLAY
No. SIGNS INTENSE INTERMEDIATE WEAK
1. Restlessness ++++ + -
2. Bellowing +++ ++ +
3. Licking other animals ++ ++ +
4. Mounting other animals +++ ++ +
5. Standing to be mounted ++++ +++ +++
Jerky movement of
6. ++ ++ +
lumbosacral region
Arching and stretching
7. ++ ++ +
the back
8. Appetite reduction + - -

Oestrus in Buffaloes :
Oestrus :
 The oestrus in buffaloes is manifested by changes in reproductive system and
behaviour.
 The intensity of oestrus behaviour in Indian buffaloes has been found to be much less
than the cows.

103
  The usual weak symptoms of oestrus in normal breeding season (October to February)
become still weaker during hot months of summer (April to June) season.
 Diurenal trend of oestrus behaviour has been observed in most of the buffaloes.
 In about 83% Indian buffaloes signs of oestrus have been recorded between 6 p.m. and
6 a.m. About 37.65% occurrence of oestrus in the morning, 33.33% in evening and rest
29.02% in other hours of day.
 Due to high incidence of silent heat large number of buffaloes are left unbred. The silent
heat has been observed in 14.6% and an ovular heat in 6.5% buffaloes after first
calving.
Onset of oestrus :
 No definite pattern of heat was observed in summer but most of the animals came in
heat during evening and were out of heat by early morning.
 The frequent urination was the most reliable behaviour of oestrus in Surti buffaloes.
 During monsoon the oestrus commences in afternoon, which is detected by mucus
discharge from vagina in quietly sitting position.
 In winter, the symptoms of oestrus appeared during late night and early morning.
Oestrus period :
 The duration of oestrus was longer in aged than in young buffaloes.
 The intensity of heat was good in 17.6, fair in 27.4 and weak in 54.9% buffaloes.
 In young murrah buffaloes average oestrus period has been observed to be 29 (24-72)
hours.
Postpartum oestrus :
 Average postpartum oestrus interval in Indian buffaloes 35 (24-50) days.
 In Murrah buffaloes it was 149 days and in Surti 125 days.
 The shortesr mean interval 63 days was observed in October calvers and longest 229
days in February calvers.
 In summer bred Murrah buffaloes the average postpartum oestrus interval was 137 days
and in nondescript buffaloes it was 130 days.
Oestrus behaviour in buffaloes :
 The frequent urination was the most reliable behaviour of oestrus.
 The animals urinate small quantity every 4-6 minutes during the oestrus period.

104
Behavioural signs of oestrus in buffaloes during different seasons :
Sr. Medium Peak
Symptoms Low Summer
No. Monsoon Winter
1. Bellowing Absent Present Absent
2. Mucus Discharge Present Present Few animals showed
3. Swollen Vulva In few animals Present Absent
4. Activity Present Present Absent
5. Frequent Urination Present Present Present
6. Uterine Tone Present Present Present in few animals
7. Open Cervix Present Present Present
Nature of cervical Periodic thick Frequent Patchy thick opaque
8. discharge yellowish thin glassy very less
copious

105
 Infectious Infertility And Its Control
Dr. A. V. Bhonsle
Veterinary College, Udgir

*Infectious causes of most common diseases related to infertility can be divided into following
categories:

A. Bacterial Infections B. Viral Infections C. Other Infections

Brucellosis Infectious postular vulvovaginitis Trichomoniasis
Vibriosis Akabane Disease Endometritis
Leptospirosis Blue tongue Pyometra,Cervicitis,Vaginitis

BRUCELLOSIS : Brucellosis is a genitourinary infection of sheep. Cattle, pigs and other

animals. In man Malta fever is characterized by an acute septicemic phase followed by a chronic
stage that may extend over many years and may involve many tissues.
Brucellosis is wide spread and of major economic importance in most countries of the
world, particularly amongst dairy cattle. In India the incidence of brucellosis in cattle military
farms was 11.3% .In Orissa % was high varied from 17.2 to 34.5% while in UP it was 6%.
Brucellosis is also important from the viewpoint of human health, the disease is important
because the causative organisms can cause Undulant / Malta fever in man, also orchitis which
renders the person sterile. Abortion storms are also seen in human being. Most cases in humans
are occupational and occurs in farmers, veterinarians, butchers, etc,. Losses in animal production
due to this disease can be of major economic importance and is primarily because of
 decreased milk production by aborting cows and
 the common sequale of this disease is infertility increases the period between lactations and
in an infected herd the average intercalving period may be prolonged by several months.
 There is loss of calves and interference with the breeding programme and is also important in
beef cattle.
Transmission :
 Brucella abortus achieves its greatest concentration in the contents of pregnant uterus,the
fetus and the fetal membranes these are the major source of infection.
 Transmitted through ingestion, penetration of the intact skin and conjunctiva ,by coitus and
by contaminated milk.
 Ingestion of pasture or other feedstuffs contaminated by discharges from iinfected cows ios
by far the commonest method(as organisms can survive and infectivity

106
Pathogenesis:
Brucella abortus has a predilection for the pregnant uterus, udder, testicle and accessory
male sex glands, lymph nodes, joint capsules in bursae.
After invasion. Localization in lymph nodes . Spleen. Mammary gland and Iliac lymph nodes.
 In calves infection persists in lymph nodes but it is not permanent, as localization does not
occur in immature udder and uterus.
 In adult, non-pregnant cow, localization occurs in udder and uterus. Infected udder though
clinically normal they are important as a source of infection for calves or humans drinking
the milk and because they are the basis for agglutination tests or milk or whey test.
 When invasion of gravid uterus leads to severe ulcerative endometritis for the inter-
cotyledonary spaces.
 Next invaded are allanto-chorion, fetal fluids, placental cotyledons and villi are destroyed.
Clinical signs:
Cows:
 Abortion in last trimester.  Retention of placenta  Septicaemia
In Bulls:
 Orchitis and epididymitis – One or both Scrotal sacsmay be affected Painful swelling to twice
the normal size.
 Testis –liquefaction and fibrosis
 Non-suppurative synovitis,fistulus withers,poll evil.

Human being:
 Malaise  Chilling,fever 7-21 days after infection
 Drenching sweats in the late afternoon or evening  Periodic nocturnal fever
 Bodyache,headache,occasionally localized infections.
Diagnosis of Brucellosis:
Material to be collected: Brucellosis: Paired serum, heart blood and abomasal contents of
aborted fetous, placenta with 2-3 cotyledons, vaginal swabs in PBS, in separate bottle on ice,
whole fetous, if small, on ice. Neat semen in sterile vial or semen straw on ice.
1. Isolation & identification of Brucella organisms
2. Rose Bengal Plate Test:

107
 One of the cheap and convenient serological tests used for serodiagnosis of Brucellosis.
In this case the antigen contains suspension of Brucella organism stained by Rose Bengal, pH
3.6. The acidic Ph reduces non-specific agglutinin present in bovine sera .In this test 0.3 ml of
antigen and 0.3 ml of serum is mixed on a slide or plate and observed for development of clumps
which indicates positive infection. The test gives positive reaction in recently infected animals
and negative reaction in calves which one recently vaccinated. In this test positive reaction
appears earlier than SAT.
3. Serum Agglutination Test:
SAT serum agglutination test is widely used for the detection of infection in cattle by
using standard antigen. Tube agglutination test is more commonly used. Equal volumes of serial
dilutions of patient‟s serum and standard antigen are mixed and incubated at 37o C for 24 hours.
Titre of 50% agglutination at 1:40 or more is indicative of infection. A titre of 1:20 is
doubtful and animal should be tested again after few weeks. Young calves which becomes
infected develops titre but become negative by 6 months of age but calves which contracts the
disease after 6 months of age or later, develops agglutinins which persists for long time and are
clearly diagnostic.
Prior heating of serum at 56oC for 30 minutes by using 4% saline as the diluent removes
non-agglutinating antibodies.
4. Complement Fixation Test:
More specific and sensitive for routine tests. This test is useful in both early and chronic
disease as it detects IgG antibodies.
5. Castaneda Strip Test (Surface Fixation Test):
Simple and suitable for screening. Its principle is – antibody is able to fix a colored
antigen of Brucella on a strip of filter paper, preventing its movement along the paper when is
applied over saline.
6. Rapid/Field Test:
Take a drop of blood on slide, add Brucella colored antigen spread it in 2 cm area-if
clumps (agglutination) seen within 2 mins ,it is indicative of Brucellosis.
7. Milk Ring Test:
One drop of (0.03ml) stained brucella antigen standardized against international standard
serum is added to 1 ml of whole milk that has been kept in refrigerator overnight. Read the test

108
after incubation for 1 hour at 37o C.A positive reaction is indicated by a stained cream layer over
white column of milk.
8. DOT-ELISA:
Used for routine testing of bovine serum in some countries instead of CFT.
Control:
 Identification and elimination of infected animal
 Hygeinic disposal of aborted fetus and fetal membranes
 Quarantine
 Use of vaccine :
Cotton strain-19 calf hood vaccine
Br.abortus 45/20 vaccine
Rev 1 Sheep and goat.

INFECTIOUS BOVINE RHINOTRACHEITIS :

Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis/infectious pustular vulvovaginitis (IBR/IPV), caused by
bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV1), is a disease of domestic and wild cattle. BHV1 is a member of the
genus Varicellovirus in the subfamily alphaherpesvirinae, which belongs to the Herpesviridae
family. The virus is distributed world-wide, but has been eradicated from Denmark and
Switzerland and control Programmes have started in other countries. The IBR is an emerging
disease posing threat to the dairy industry and economically important disease due to OIE norms.
The disease is characterised by two forms :
1. Respiratory form : clinical signs of the upper respiratory tract, such as a (muco)purulent nasal
discharge, and by conjunctivitis. Secondary bacterial infections can lead to more severe
respiratory disease.
2. Genital Form : The virus infects the genital tract and cause pustular vulvovaginitis and
balanoposthitis.
Cinical signs:
The most prominent clinical signs after an incubation period of 2-4 days,

109
 Serous nasal discharge, salivation, fever, inappetance.
 Within a few days the nasal and ocular discharges change to Mucopurulent .
 Necrotic lesions in the nose may progress to pustules and ulcers covered by a
pseudomembrane that obstructs the upper airways and leads to mouth breathing

 Infection may induce abortion and a reduction in milk yield

 In calves infected with BHV1, a systemic disease may develop, with focal necrotic lesions
in viscera and possibly a prominent gastroenteritis.
 Many infections run a subclinical course
 Secondary bacterial infections with, for example, Pasteurella spp., can give rise to more
severe clinical signs due to the deeper airways being affected
 Where natural mating is practised, genital infection can lead to pustular vulvovaginitis or
balanoposthitis ,Characterised by mild to severe necrotic lesions in vaginal or preputial
mucosae
 After artificial insemination with infected semen, endometritis can arise.
Pathogenesis:
The virus enters the animal via the nose and replicates to high titres in mucous membranes of
the upper respiratory tract and in the tonsils.

It subsequently disseminates to conjunctivae and by neuronal axonal transport reaches the

trigeminal ganglion.

A low level viraemia can occasionally occur.

After genital infection, BHV1 replicates in mucous membranes of the vagina or prepuce, and
becomes latent in sacral ganglia.

The viral DNA remains in the neurons of the ganglia probably for the entire life of the host.
Stress, such as transport and parturition, can induce reactivation of the latent infection.

Consequently, the virus may be shed intermittently into the environment.

The semen of an infected bull may contain BHV1 and the virus can thus be transmitted by
natural mating and artificial insemination (13).

Pathological Lesions:
The primary lesion is a focal necrosis of nasal, laryngeal, tracheal or genital mucous
membranes s probably the direct sequele of virus replication and its subsequent cytopathic
effect (CPE).
The lesions may coalesce to form large pustules that consist of massive infiltrates of
leukocytes. When secondary bacterial infections are involved, a pneumonia may develop.
Immunity :
Protective immunity after infection is not lifelong: cattle can be reinfected. Maternal
antibodies are transferred via colostrum to the young calf, which is consequently protected
against BHV1-induced disease (11).
Maternal antibodies have a biological half-life of about 3 weeks, but may be detected
occasionally in animals up to 6 months old, and rarely in animals over this age.
Diagnosis:
1. Virus isolation : cell cultures of bovine origin are used, for example, secondary lung or
kidney cells or the Madin/Darby bovine kidney cell line. The virus produces a cytopathic effect
in 2-4 days. It is identified by neutralisation or antigen detection methods using monospecific
antisera or monoclonal antibodies. The BHV1 isolates can be further subtyped by DNA
restriction enzyme analysis.
Collection of samples
 Nasal swabs are collected from several (from five to ten) affected cattle in
the early phase of the infection. These cattle still have serous rather than
mucopurulent nasal discharge.

 In case of vulvovaginitis or balanoposthitis, swabs are taken from the genitals. The
swabs should be vigorously rubbed against the mucosal surfaces.
 The prepuce can also be washed with saline, and the washing fluid is then collected.
 The specimens are suspended in transport medium (cell culture medium containing
antibiotics and 2-10% fetal bovine serum to protect the virus from inactivation), cooled
at 4°C, and rapidly submitted to the laboratory.
 During necropsy, mucous membranes of the respiratory tract, and portions of the tonsil,
lung, and bronchial lymph nodes, are collected for virus detection. In case of abortion,
the fetal liver, lung, spleen, kidney and a placental cotyledon are examined. Samples
should be sent to the laboratory as quickly as possible, on ice.
2. Serological tests: The virus neutralisation test and various enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assays (ELISA) are most widely used for antibody detection. Antibodies can be detected in
milk with an ELISA.
3. For, various Viral DNA detection methods PCR been developed, and the polymerase chain
reaction technique may prove to be particularly useful for testing semen samples.
Control:
1. Strict quarantine for new induction in the herd./ Movement control : Ideally, a 2-3-week
quarantine period is imposed for newly introduced cattle. Only cattle that are BHV1-
seronegative are then admitted to the herd.
2. Regular screening of breeding bulls for IBR (Serological / Isolation of virus from Semen).
3. Slaughter of cattle with serologic evidence.
4. Vaccination is a common preventive measure. Vaccines usually prevent the development of
clinical signs and reduce the shedding of virus after infection. However, one disadvantage of
the use of conventional vaccines is the inability to distinguish between antibodies induced by
vaccination or infection. This interferes with programmes to eliminate the virus from farms,
regions or countries, that are based on serology. By using gene-deleted or subunit vaccines that
lack a specified (glyco)protein, this problem can be overcome - examples include the BHV1
gE-negative vaccines that are available currently in various countries (8). A companion
diagnostic test is used that detects only antibodies to the deleted glycoprotein, and thus enables
differentiation between vaccinated animals and those infected with wild-type virus (or
vaccinated with conventional vaccines). These tools allow the identification of infected cattle in
vaccinated populations, and improves the prospects for widescale eradication of BHV1.
Use of Inactivated oil adjuvant vaccine for cattle and buffalo against Infectious Bovine
Rhinotracheitis (Vaccines have limitations-problem of masking latent infection.)

Commercial vaccine available:

Inactivated oil adjuvant vaccine for cattle and buffalo against Infectious Bovine
Rhinotracheitis (IBR) caused by bovine herpes virus (BHV-1).

Composition : Indian standard strain of Bovine herpesvirus.

Indications :
1. Heifers, cows and buffaloes should be vaccinated one month in advance or at the time of
insemination to prevent BHV-1 induced infections.

2. Breeding bulls should also be vaccinated one month before commencing semen collection
regime.
3. Monitor serum antibodies before the vaccination for evaluating the immune status of the
animals.

Note :

1. Pregnant animals can be vaccinated after seromonitoring in first two quarters of pregnancy.
2. Bulls having history of infection and shedding the virus can be vaccinated. Natural service or
semen collection for Artificial Insemination should be started only after the virus is completely
eliminated from the semen with confirmatory tests eg. ELISA and virus isolation.

Administration and Dosage :

Age of Booster
Animal Dosage Revaccination
PrimaryVaccine Vaccination
At any age (4-6) 11 to 12 weeks
Cattle and Annually (after primary
2 ml SC/IM week in case of after primary
Buffalo vaccination)
Calf) vaccination

Transport only under cold chain conditions. Presentation : Vial of 20 ml ( 10 doses).

 Therapeutic management of anoestrus in farm animals
Dr. N M Markandeya
Veterinary college, Udgir

Anoestrus is the major infertility problem in farm animals. It is important to note that
anoestrus is a abroad term, which indicates the lack of oestrus expression at an expected time.
The meaning depends on age, weight, breed and history. Delay in expression of oestrus is
beyond accepted average in anoestrus. It must be understood that a period of sexual quietness in
animals is shown by complete absence of oestrus cycles.
Anoestrum as fertility problem may be true when animals have small inactive ovaries
with no palpable GF and functioning CL on ovary with toneless uterus on three consecutive
G/C examinations at ten days interval. Anoestrus condition is physiologically expected during
pre pubertal stage, pregnancy, puerperal period and senile age but all other times animal
should cycle regularly and manifest oestrus.
The condition differs from suboestrus or silent oestrous. There are continuos oestrus
cycles without any behavioral signs in suboestrus condition. Weak and silent heat
continues unnoticed and the condition is presumed to be anoestrus. However palpable ovarian
activity (GF/CL) is noticeable in subestrus.
The incidence of anoestrus in bovines is considerably high and it is a worldwide
problem. Delayed maturity, post partum anoestrus and post service anoestrus leads to economic
losses. The problem of anoestrus is caused by various etiological factors that are interdependent
and also complicated.
The incidence and management of the anoestrus have been recognised as age old
problems in cattle breeding and there is wealth of documentation on various therapies to induce
estrus in cow and buffaloes.
Treatment consideration
Treatment of anoestrous depends on cause, diagnostic facility, availability of drugs,
acceptability/ response to the drug by the animal, dose of the drug, duration of the drug
response and health status of the animal. Cost of the treatment and easy availability of drugs in
the market are also important in case of rural poors.
Vague generalizations and empirical treatments are futile on many occasions.
Treatment for anoestrus should not be undertaken unless body score condition and nutritive
standard is optimum in animals.
 Treatment of anoestrous is practiced in both therapeutic as well as preventive manner.
Although vast majority cases are presented to the clinic for therapeutic course, preventive
approach is expected under modern and economic dairy management.
Alleviation of all stress factors of the animal by improved managemental practices with
corrections in housing, feeding, watering, grooming, exercise is highly essential at doorstep of
farmer breeder. This is possible only through mass education, veterinary extension and practical
demonstrations by the veterinarian.
The first approach in the line of anoestrous treatment should be emphasized on
correcting nutritive management. The optimum and balanced diet should be worked out in
anoestrus cases according to the blood biochemical analysis. Unless the blood biochemical
levels are optimised, no treatment should be undertaken.
The animal should first get maintenance ration for a period of fifteen days and then
steaming up can be practiced with additional ration. Many animals resume ovarian cyclicity due
to correction of nutritive requirements as a flushing effect.
Levels of co, cu, fe and Mn have shown to be lower than normal in both anoestrus and
anaemic animals and hence supplementation of macro and micro mineral nutrition is beneficial.
Use of iodine, calcium, phosphorus, copper, cobalt and vitamins are commonly practiced in oral
or injectable form.
Health of the animal is another important aspect in case of anoestrus. Chronic
debilitating diseases should be treated first. In particular, parasiticide spray for ecto parasites
and deworming therapy should be carried out. Skin infections, wounds, allopacia should be
corrected by appropriate treatments. Skin luster should return to normalcy and it should be
shiny. Similarly all the clinical diagnostic indices should become normal.
Stimulatory approach
Ovarian massage is known to stimulate the cyclicity in some anoestrous cases. It is
proved that the cervical stimulation with lugol‟s iodine at very low concentration as paint or
intrauterine infusion gives better response in inducing oestrus.
Fertivet(AR-EX Lab.), Clofert–vet(Sigma) like chemical preparation carry clomephene
citrate which has LH like effect in induction of ovulatory oestrus. Considering nonhormonal
property of the drug, clomephene citrate is preferred by practicing veterinarians.
Herbal treatments
Animals with gaining body weights always show tendency of resuming cyclicity. Quite
often it is observed that the animals with optimum health, nutrition and management also show
anoestrus. These animals require stimulus and ignition like effect to start ovarian cyclicity. The
required stimulus can be very well charged with herbal preparations.
 Herbal therapies are cheap and they have no side effects. Similarly herbal treatments are
convenient to administer (orally) and their nonhormonal properties render field vets to use them
regularly. There are very many herbal drugs marketed like Prajana (Natural remedies), janova
(Daber aurvedic), Hitali (Mycon pharma), Sajani (Sarabhai zydus), Oestrona (Rakesh pharma),
Heatquick (LR pharma), for induction of oestrus.
Prajana is most widely used herbal drug. Although the aforesaid herbal drugs contain
various ingredients in various concentrations, all are used with a common principle of their
oestrogenic property.
The beneficial effect of Prajana for induction of oestrus appears almost similar to the
response obtained by the use of various synthetic oestrogenic preparations. The oestrogenic
activity is potentiated due to presence of histaminic activity of Prajana leading to hyperaemia
including decidua formation for implantation of fertilized egg. The product Prajana acts by
helping the full complex balance of hormones to produce ovulatory heat. It does not contain
sterioidal activity, but is believed rather to depend on an influence on the prostaglandin-
leucotriene cascade. Because Prajana acts as a trigger to normal biological processes, its use has
no effect on lactation. Induction of post partum oestrus as a preventive means 40 days after
calving has shown better effect with herbal drugs than hormones.
Hormonal therapies
Application of hormonal treatments in anoestrous cases should be used judiciously and
only under the guidance of a trained veterinarian. Generally hormones are used for speedy
results. Induction of oestrous (behavioural overt signs) should be aimed to have ovulatory
response and subsequent conception. Hormonal treatments may prove unsatisfactory and
produce unexpected results if correction of managemental and nutritional errors is aimed with
hormonal treatment.
Circulating levels of endogenous hormones cannot be estimated easily and repeatedly on
hospital /farm levels and hence the use of exogenous hormones leads to “shooting in the dark”
and the results are always valueless.
GnRH
Only GnRH treatments (Fertygyl, Receptal) in noncyclic cattle are not much
encouraging. GnRH treatment might increase the probability of maternal recognition thus
reducing embryonic loss and improving pregnancy rate of preceding AI through prolonging life
of CL.
GnRH treatments after a week or two after parturition gives negative effect in animals
with uterine infections but positive effects with healthy uterine involution process. The
application of GnRH two weeks after calving would enhance the chances of early resumption of
cyclicity in post partum dairy lows. Following fertagyl treatment, level of progesterone
increases either by ovulation & formation of CL or by full luteinization.
Gonadotrophins
Use of gonadotrophins is of much less value in the treatment of true anoestrum. It is
well established that FSH level is always optimum even in anoestrus stage. LH levels are low
and episodic release is not continued in anoestrus. Since FSH and LH are protein hormones,
their repeated use may possibly form antibodies.
Non pituitary gonadotrophins are preferred for the treatment of anoestrus. PMSG (FSH)
and HCG (LH) are used either seperately or in combination. However, exogenous LH is more
commonly preferred due to low values of endogenous source or low sensitivity at ovarian level.
PMSG may lead to multiple follicular developments.
Progesterone
Progesterone is widely used in the treatment of anoestrus with prime consideration of its
safety. The withdrawal effect of the progestrone is essential for priming of hypothalamic –
pituitary axis for initiation of next oestrous cycle. In true anoustrous cases, Induced hormonal
dioestrus by progestrone is suddenly ended (like luteolysis) at removal of implant/injection of
progesterone and a proestrous sequence occurs spontaneously resulting in oestrus and
ovulation.
In case only progesterone priming is not sufficient to induce oestrus and ovulation,
gonadotrophins with long halflife (Non pituitary gonadotrophins, eCG/HCG) are essentially
required.
Oestrogens
No pretreatment of progesterone prior to oestradiol will lead to oestrous without
ovulation as there is no LH surge. Oestradiol administered after progesterone withdrawal can
stimulate the onset of an ovulatory „cascade‟ of LH.
Oestradiol could produce oestrus and ovulation if administered during a spontaneous
proestrus following a hormonal dioestus produced by progesterone. The recognised positive
feed back effects of ODB to stimulate pulsatile release of gonadotrophins can be utilized to treat
successfully anovulatory anoestrus. These feed back effects occur after priming the
hypothalamic pituitary system with progesterone.
Multiple hormones
Silastic implant impregnated with Norgestomet ie.synthetic progestogen is marketed as
Crester. Norgestomet is a very potent synthetic progestin with a potency factor of 100 to 200
times that of the endogenous progesterone. Crester treatment requires no heat detection and
fixed time AI can be carried out.
 Crester is a synchronisation method in cyclic animal based on short term progestrone
treatment in combination with an anti luteotropic factor .The implant mimics CL without
physically interfering with reproductive tract. The injection endures that natural CL has
regressed at the time of implant removal.
In true anoestrus, the Norgestoment will prime the reproductive system and will also
inhibit secretion of pituitary gonodotrophins. With formation of artificial CL by norgestomet
implant, it is possible to regress available ovarian CL by oestradiol valerate and immidiate
imposing of block on pituitary by norgestomet through crester injection. PMSG given at the
time of implant removal will stimulate follicular growth to induce fertile oestrus.
PRID & CIDR are intravaginal devices releasing natural progestenone over a period of
time. Mode of action is similar to Crestar but the luteolytic effect/ component is provided as an
Oestradiol benzoate capsule attached to PRID or injection of either Oestradiol or PG in CIDR.
With PRID & CIDR treatments heat detection is always necessary for appropriate time of AI.
Never forget that no remedy can create fertility in animals. It is possible to boost and
exercise control fertility in productive dairy animal.
 Need of Re-emphasizing Extension Activities of Artificial Insemination
Dr. N. M. Markandeya and
Dr. S. D. Moregaonkar
Veterinary College, Udgir.

Artificial insemination is not a new technology for Indian farmers. Although six
decades have been passed since its inception, the biotechnique has not covered even one fifth
of total cattle population in India. Here is an insight on new extension strategies to improve
Artificial insemination programme for strengthening Indian dairy economics. Simultaneously,
carrot and stick policy is also essential to achieve national goals and to uplift rural economics.

Animal husbandry sector is like a blood of country‟s rural economics. Indian livestock
is widely distributed in the hands of small farmers and landless laborers across the country. This
sector nearly contributes one-fourth share in country‟s agricultural output. Progress has been
made in terms of research, production and system establishments in the field of animal sciences.
Number of technologies have been invented, standardized and advocated by the scientists to
boost production potential in Indian cattle.
The perpetual status of economic backwardness of rural people has made them security
oriented. Their fatalistic attitude, apathy and aversion to change the traditional tracks to modern
technologies make them reluctant to accept advances and even cooperation to the veterinarians.
Illiteracy and failures of co-operative dairy unions leading to net financial losses of only animal
owners are other related problems.
Veterinarian is the nucleus of rural development. In the days of ever changing global
economic policy, progress of rural poor and upliftment of living standard of rural people should
be the prime consideration of all learned professionals. Veterinarians should play a role of
exponent of live stock development programme at field level.
Artificial insemination is a biotechnique. It took nearly two hundred years for its
standardization and simplification. This technique is proved most useful in leading countries all
over the world. Artificial insemination is not a new technology for Indian farmers. The
technique is being attempted on field level since last sixty years in our country. However, still it
has remained yet to be utilized by mass and society as an adaptable technology in rural India.
Although six decades have been passed since its inception, the biotechnique has not covered
even one fifth of total cattle population in the country.
Reality Bites
Vast majority cattle and buffaloes still remain uncovered under artificial insemination
services in nook and corner of the country. Actual number of pregnancies obtained through
artificial insemination is very few. Farmers are interested in impregnating their animals without
much consideration and thought on method of breeding as either artificial insemination or
natural service.
Progress and advancement in animal husbandry sector is possible only through adopting
artificial insemination. This fact needs to be emphasised with farmers through effective
extension methods. It should be made very clear that farmers are paying exorbitant costs and
also incurring heavy losses of potential income only due to non-adaptability of such modern
techniques. Mis-beliefs and mis-concepts should first be cleared from the minds of rural people
to create impact of artificial insemination.
In progressive pockets, farmers themselves are working for finding new formulations,
crop varieties, methods, practices in agricultural sector. However, the same trend is not seen
animal husbandry. It is ground reality that farmers, animal owners are always talking about
Embryo Transfer and curiosities about it at field level. The technology in simplified,
standardized form will be made available for the benefit of farmers in near future but adoption
of the technique at field level by the farmers is questionable just like artificial insemination.
Available technologies are of no use, unless made adaptable either voluntarily or under
compulsion and we are loosing the amount spent on research.
Some state governments have imposed quantitative targets on field veterinarianns.
Hence quality is being superimposed by quantity in implementation of artificial insemination
programme. There is no logic in fixing quantitative targets in technology implementation where
quality work is questionable at field level due to non cooperation of animal owners.
Extension programmes can not run without sufficient funds. At present, there is no
separate financial layout for veterinary extension education programmes in any state or even in
central animal husbandry budget.
There are technological, economic, socio-religious, psychological, situational,
infrastructure, managerial and communicational constraints in transfer of artificial insemination
programme to the doorstep of farmers. However; improvement of animal production potential is
only possible through the biotechnology.
There are lapses and failures on the part of owners. Close observation of dairy cattle for
oestrus detection is an onus of dairymen. However, apathy towards scientific rearing of
animals, lack of knowledge of merits and demerits of artificial insemination, lack of approach
to vets etc. are the real constraints in rural India.
 At every village level, crate / travis facilities are most essential not only for routine
veterinary practice but also for effective artificial insemination. In absence of proper restraints,
the stress (release of ACTH) hampers the process of sperm transport in female reproductive
tract and further conception.
Even today the modern tools of communications are not readily available to rural poor
animal owners and absence of reporting system is failure in implementation of artificial
insemination. Telephones and mobiles have not yet reached in the rural India. Phone facilities
are not available with veterinarians to get visit call for artificial insemination from villagers.
Unskilled inseminators like lay inseminators, non veterinarians, diploma holders, lady
inseminators, short term trained members of milk union may be economically viable in running
artificial insemination activity, but it is virtually loosing the technology. Ground reality is that
infertility problems are ever increasing and cropping up due to such untrained persons.
It is most frustrating fact that statutory body of central government is not passing strict
rules for refraining non vets to undertake artificial insemination work. As per existing rules, non
veterinarians can not carry out work of injecting animals but they are not prevented to
inseminate animals. State universities under the shield of autonomous status perusing for short
term courses on artificial insemination for employment generation to illiterates and non
professionals.
Lack of defined breeding policy is yet another limitation and all native breeds are on the
verge of extinction due to non-discriminate inseminations and breedings. There is a deep impact
on the minds of Indian people regarding „ holy cow‟. This is probably the reason why the
people are afraid of accepting the technology and refraining the adoption of artificial
insemination.
There is a misconception that artificial insemination is only mind for crossbreeding and
inclusion of foreign blood in local cattle. However, it is sure that artificial insemination should
be used to preserve local, champion productive breeds. This needs to be emphasised properly in
the minds of rural people and here lies the importance of extension education programme.
Extension skills
In the light of aforesaid constraints, it is necessary to redefine artificial insemination
extension activities in India. Artificial insemination should be considered as a „national
programme‟ and it should get status like „pulse polio‟ or „leprosy eradication” or even superior
than family planning. Impact of extension activities is much pronounced in Indian villages.
Artificial insemination extension strategies need to be linked with media. Modern media
is still not fully explored for animal husbandry development programme. Print, broadcast and
display media can reach in a short time to millions of people and they are cost effective.
 Mass propaganda covering large rural section should be well planned just like a „Zero
rinder pest programme‟ of the past. It can be achieved through television, radio, daily new
papers, posters, banners and at places through internet communications.
The idea of inclusion of songs, poems, street show, dramatization, stage show will
create a super impact in rural India. Preparation of audio and video cassettes can also be
effective. These methods have not been still used for communicating scientific aspects of
artificial insemination in India.
Public fairs are the places to gather villagers in sizable numbers at their own accord.
Mostly local fairs, yatras, jatras, urusas etc. can be well trapped for advertisements and
publicity of artificial insemination by the veterinary departments. Extension opportunity at
these public events should be cashed properly and effectively.
Folk songs, local dramas ( Lavani, kathaputatali, Nautanki ) puppet show , exhibitions
are some areas of effective extension programme for success of artificial insemination in rural
India.
Post card, postal tickets even bus tickets can effectively be used for advertisement of
artificial insemination. Idiot box ads are more brain storming for the rural people and hence,
television clips can be used for wide publicity of artificial insemination.
It is possible to pursue for unanimous resolutions of all people of that village in „Gram
panchayat‟ for cent per cent artificial insemination system adoption through oaths, sign
campaigns, consents etc. Equally possible is the arranging a „Mass oath‟ of villagers at public
places for adoption of technology. This will definitely increase positive determination of
people towards artificial insemination.
A district level “artificial insemination vigilance committee ‟‟ consisting of experts can
be established for checks on maintain of LN2 chain, semen straw quality, procedures followed
by technicians, complaints of farmers, special clinical cases etc. This committee will also work
on fact finding aspects of artificial insemination targets. Accordingly committee will regulate
the artificial insemination system in between government and field level concerned persons.
It is also necessary that there should have been some legal enforcement for animal
owners regarding adoption and implementation of artificial insemination activity. Carrot and
stick policy is necessary in democratic India than only the huge amount spent on artificial
insemination will be justified through expected results.
Government use to campaign for important activities with help of all available
infrastructure and human resource. For artificial insemination financing agencies like banks,
insurance sector, cooperative dairy societies and private sectors like feed, drug or equipment
manufacturing companies can implement necessary compulsions of adaptation of only artificial
insemination system of breeding. It is possible to plan even subsidies, bonus, incentives can be
granted for both adoption of artificial insemination by the animal owners and also for persons
enhancing or perusing the work.
The training, efficacy, attitude and approach of the inseminator play pivotal role in the
success of artificial insemination programme. It is universally accepted premise that only
trained inseminators should carry out artificial insemination who fully understand pros and cons
of the technique. It is most practicable and clinical approach to refrain inseminations during all
abnormal and pathological oestrual stages, instead of attempting it for owner‟s satisfaction.
Unless carried out as per the physiological norms, artificial insemination many not give
expected conception rates. Every animal in oestrus is to be attended most perfectly during the
attempt of artificial insemination and every animal is entitled for best efforts of Veterinarian.
Vaccination type rough approach is no longer expected in artificial insemination.
There is no specific time and site of artificial insemination within reasonable limits. The
skill, which surely turns into conceptions, is only the best approach of any individual
inseminator. Inseminator should standardize his own technical and practical skill for improving
pregnancy rate instead of following blind steps of other colleagues.
Precision and perfection of inseminators are the important prerequisites for maximum
and consistent artificial insemination results. The inseminator should have thorough knowledge
of physio-pathology of reproduction.
To improve the knowledge of technicians and in turn to improve conception rate
through artificial insemination, „one theme‟ mass discussions, workshops, seminars should be
arranged regularly on block, regional and states levels where field workers should be allowed to
express their practical experiences and difficulties to the experts. High conception rate is the
best propaganda for artificial insemination.
Learned professionals can not interact with the rural people. To increase impact
oriented conversations with villagers of special trainings can be arranged to teach local
language] words and even approaches effective in that particular area.
Only unemployed veterinary graduate inseminators can be deployed on contract basis to
carry out the most sophisticated biotechnical work to achieve the artificial insemination targets.
This will facilitate to provide jobs to unemployed young trained veterinarians and also for
getting best results of the biotechnique at field level.
Our livestock population is reared under traditional practices. Use of single biotechnique
of artificial insemination with all other traditional and routine husbandry practices limits the
role of the highly effective technology. Hence, optimizing and advising technical advances in
animal management systems is an essential pre-requisite for extending artificial insemination
services.
The dire need of optimizing the reproduction in Indian livestock cannot be
overemphasized. Artificial insemination has made male factor constant in animal reproduction.
For improvement of female fertility, artificial insemination needs to be coined with sexual
health programme for improved milk productivity.
A medico treats only patients but veterinarian has to treat both patient and his owner.
Artificial insemination is incomplete unless owner is well versed with sexual health control
programme and hence linking of artificial insemination with sexual health control progrmme
will boost the conception rate through artificial insemination.
Buffaloes are rarely presented for artificial insemination due to mis-conceptual
mentality of rural poor. Crying need of the hour is to focus attention of veterinarians towards
artificial insemination in buffaloes. Indian buffalo breeds are best known in the world. Having
slow rate of reproduction, silent oestrus is yet another constraint in buffalo reproduction.
However, heat expectancy chart, regular gynaeco-clinical check up alongwith artificial
insemination will characteristically improve fertility in buffaloes. Before attempting patent on
buffaloes by other foreign countries, buffalo production should be standardized in our country.
It is more pertinent to re-orient ourselves in extending useful technical know how to the
field. Ground reality is that villagers are not yet inclined in adopting artificial insemination for
their animals. High conception rate is the best propaganda for artificial insemination
programme. Instead of emphasizing quantitative targets of artificial insemination, veterinarians
should strive hard for qualitative work of artificial insemination as a part of social service,
which will automatically shoot up the conception rate at field level.
In conclusion it can be stated that artificial insemination is the national high way
towards prosperity of rural poor. No child will sleep without a cup of milk nor any Indian
kitchen will remain without milk if the task of cent per cent artificial insemination programme
is accepted by the veterinarians as a service to nation.
 Abortions in Dairy Cows: New Insights and Economic Impact
Dr. S.B. Barbuddhe
Animal sciences Section
ICAR Research Complex,
Ela, Old Goa 403 402

Abortion is defined as fetal death and expulsion between 42 (an estimated time of
attachment) and 260 days (the age at which a fetus is capable of surviving outside the uterus) of
gestation. The condition does not include fetal maceration and mummification. Pregnancies lost
before 42 days are usually referred to as early embryonic deaths, whereas a calf that is born
dead between 260 days and full term is defined a stillbirth. A rate of 3 to 5 abortions per 100
pregnancies per year is often considered "normal." However, the loss of any pregnancy can
represent a significant loss of (potential) income to the producer and appropriate action should
therefore be taken to prevent abortions and to investigate the cause of abortions that may occur.
Abortion is the most important condition that limits cow‟s ability to produce a calf and
considerably erodes the profit. The greatest risk of fetal loss is during the first trimester of
gestation and then progressively decreases as gestation advances with a slight increase in the
risk toward the lost month of gestation. The infectious causes include bacterial, mycotic, viral,
and protozoal. The non-infectious causes include nutritional factors, chemicals, drugs, toxins,
poisonous plants, and hormonal agents. Many abortions go unnoticed or undiagnosed and we
always suspect fertility problems when cows are found open rather than embryo/fetal loss.
Process of Abortion
Abortion results from premature initiation of parturition when normal relationships
between fetus and dam fail. This results in the expulsion of a fetus that is incapable of
independent life. Parturition is normally initiated via the fetal pituitary-adrenal axis. Effective
fetal control of the pregnant uterus is lost after the fetus dies. Although many factors have been
incriminated, the mechanism of abortion has never been explained. Abortion can occur any time
during gestation, but most of them are observed during the second half. Most abortions that
occur during the first trimester of pregnancy are unnoticed and the animal is treated clinically
for infertility. The pathogenesis for abortion may be acute or chronic. In general, premonitory
signs are usually lacking.
Incidence
Many abortions go unnoticed or undiagnosed and we always suspect fertility problems
when cows are found open rather than embryo/fetal loss. The greatest risk of fetal loss is during
the first trimester of gestation and then progressively decreases as gestation advances with a
slight increase in the risk toward the last month of gestation (Thurmond, et al., 1990). The
observed fetal loss is far less than the actual incidence. The cumulative incidence of fetal loss
between 31 and 260 days of gestation is 10.8%. Of this only 20% of the fetal losses are detected
by observation of an expelled fetus or fetal membranes and the proportion detected increases
with increasing gestational age at time of fetal loss (Forar, et al., 1996). It is also believed that
the abortion rate increases after 5 pregnancies or after 4 calvings and furthermore the risk is
higher for a cow that already had an abortion.
Causes
Either infectious or non-infectious agents may cause abortion. The infectious causes
include bacterial, mycotic, viral, and protozoal. Historically, it has been suggested that 50-65%,
20-25%, and 15-25% of infectious abortions were caused by bacterial, fungal, and viral causes
respectively. The non-infectious causes include nutritional factors, chemicals, drugs, toxins,
poisonous plants, and hormonal agents. Under modern systems of dairy management cows
continue to experience a seemingly high risk of abortion, despite intensive efforts toward
immunization against infective agents. It should be remembered that because of the endemic
nature of abortion occurring in vaccinated cattle, factors other than the infectious agents might
contribute to the risk of abortion.

Infectious causes of abortion:

Bacterial Diseases
Bacterial abortions result from brucellosis, leptospirosis, campylobacteriosis (vibriosis),
listeriosis, Haemophilus somnus complex, and ureaplasmosis. Bacteria like Salmonella,
Actinomyces, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Pseudomonas,
Proteus, Pasteurella, Nocardia, and chlamydia species, as determined by the microbiological
findings, can cause abortion. All these organisms and few others that are not listed have been
isolated from sporadic cases of abortion. These are secondary to either a septicemia in the dam
or ascending infection through the vagina and cervix or due to persistent endometritis.
Most common bacterial agents encountered in bovine abortions
Actinomyces pyogenes Bacillus spp
Listeria Escherichia coli
Leptospira interrogans Pasteurella haemolytica
Streptococcus spp Pasteurella multocida
Salmonella spp Brucella abortus
Brucellosis (contagious abortion, Bangs disease).
Brucellosis is caused by the bacterium Brucella abortus and it is spread via infected
placentas, vaginal discharges and aborted fetuses. Following the ingestion of B. abortus,
susceptible cows or heifers may have abortions, retained placentas, weak calves or infertility
problems. Milk from an infected cow also may harbor B. abortus. The infected milk creates a
public health problem because B. abortus causes brucellosis ("undulant fever") in humans.
A diagnosis of brucellosis is made via several blood tests. A "milk ring test," using milk
from bulk tanks, detects brucellosis in dairy herds. There is no effective treatment for
brucellosis. The disease is controlled by vaccination of heifer calves. Cattle known to have
brucellosis are quarantined, removed from the herd.

Leptospirosis (Lepto).
The five species of Leptospira that infect cattle are L. pomona, L. icterohemorrhagiae,
L. grippotyphosa, L. hardjo, and L. canicola. Infected cows, wildlife, swine, and water and feed
contaminated with urine are some of the sources of infection. Abortion occurs in the last
trimester of gestation. Although rarely seen, the clinical signs associated with leptospirosis in
adult cattle can include icterus (yellow mucous membranes) and hemoglobinuria (bloody
urine). The milk from lactating cows with leptospirosis may be thick, yellow and blood-tinged.
Abortions typically occur two to five weeks after infection and they may occur at any time
during gestation.
A blood test may aid in the diagnosis of leptospirosis. However, an accurate diagnosis
requires laboratory examination and testing of tissues from infected cattle or aborted calves.

Campylobacteriosis (Vibriosis).
This venereal disease is a cause of early embryonic death and infertility in cows
throughout the world. Campylobacter fetus (formerly called Vibrio fetus venerealis) is the
bacterium responsible for causing the disease. Campylobacter fetus is transmitted by infected
bulls during mating. The practice of artificial insemination also can spread the disease if C.
fetus is present in the semen.
Repeat breeding activity generally is seen with campylobacteriosis and irregular estrus
cycles are common. Frequently, because of its small size, the embryo or fetus is not found
although an abortion has occurred. Some cows or heifers may carry the fetus longer and abort a
fetus at five to six months of gestation. Campylobacteriosis can be self-limiting and some of the
cattle recover within a year. However, "carrier" cows are common, and C. fetus can be spread to
non-infected bulls during mating.
 Campylobacteriosis can be prevented by the administration of a quality vaccine about
one month prior to breeding. Other control measures include keeping infected cattle isolated
from non-infected cattle (usually virgin heifers) by maintaining separate herds, and by using
disease-free bulls in the non-infected herd. The use of artificial insemination also is used to
prevent campylobacteriosis. Most A.I. organizations test the semen to assure that it is free of C.
fetus.
A diagnosis of campylobacteriosis is confirmed by the culture of C. fetus from cervical
mucus or from an aborted fetus.
Listeriosis is caused by Listeria monocytogenes, and the organism is excreted in feces,
urine and milk. The organism grows in silage with high pH. Abortion occurs mostly in the latter
part of last trimester. Listeria can be found in many places in the environment on dairy farms,
although disease outbreaks are often associated with high bacterial numbers found in poor-
quality or spoiled silage. Abortions occur approximately one week after exposure, and occur
most commonly during the last trimester of pregnancy, although they may occur as early as the
4th month of gestation. The aborted fetus is often autolyzed. The cows may show clinical signs
of disease as well, although once returned to health appear to resist reinfection. This organism
may be the most common bacterial cause of multiple abortions in herds.
Haemophilus somnus is responsible for the haemophilus somnus complex. Infected
cattle spread the infection possibly via the respiratory route. Based on experimental studies it
can be concluded that the organism is capable of causing abortion in all stages of gestation.
Ureaplasm diversum and Mycoplasma bovigenitalium are generally thought to be
relatively uncommon causes of abortions. Ureaplasmosis is caused by Ureaplasma diversum
and is spread via semen, vulvar discharges, and possibly by nasal secretions. Abortion can
occur anytime but usually in the last trimester of gestation.

Mycotic
Fungal or mycotic infection of the placenta is one of the most common causes of
sporadic bovine abortion. Anywhere from 20-35% of abortions have been attributed to fungal
causes. Abortion occurs when fungal spores enter a pregnant cow‟s blood stream (possibly
through breaks in the lining of the upper digestive tract), settle at the junction of the maternal
and fetal placentas, grow and attack the placental tissues. In general, fungal spores may be
present in cattle feed. However, some feeds such as improperly preserved silage and hay that
has been wet, contain many more spores than others. Aspergillus fumigatus accounts for 60 to
80 percent of abortions that are caused by fungal organisms. The organism may cause abortion
from 4 months to term. Other species of molds and yeasts have been associated with abortion.
Any condition that reduces the cow‟s resistance to infection increases the chances of mycotic
abortion. Providing good health (via good management and nutrition) and not feeding moldy
feeds can reduce the incidence. When possible, depending on the availability and demand
decrease the period of confinement, decrease cow density, and improve ventilation.

Viral
IBR (Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis or "Red Nose").
Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis virus is the cause of respiratory disease of cattle.
However, in cows and heifers, this virus can also cause vulvovaginitis (inflammation of the
vulva and vagina) and abortion. Abortion typically occurs about 20 to 45 days after infection.
A diagnosis of IBR-induced abortion is made by laboratory examination and testing of
fetal tissues. A blood test may aid in the identification of infected cattle.
The control of IBR infections can be accomplished by the use of vaccines. The use of
modified live vaccines (MLV) in non-immune pregnant cows, or in animals in contact with
pregnant cows, can occasionally cause abortion. Killed IBR vaccines also are available and can
be safely used on pregnant cows. The killed IBR vaccine requires booster shots from time to
time to maintain proper immune status. the practicing veterinarian.
BVD (Bovine Virus Diarrhea).
Bovine Virus Diarrhea virus infection can cause abortion, weak calves at birth, calves with
brain damage (cerebellar hypoplasia) or other abnormalities of fetal development.
Clinical signs in newborn calves infected with BVD can include fever, nasal discharge,
diarrhea and inability to move about normally (ataxia).
A diagnosis of BVD virus infection requires laboratory examination of the fetus or calf.
A blood test may aid in the identification of infected cattle.

Protozoal Diseases
Trichomoniasis.
It is caused by the protozoal organism Tritrichomonas foetus, trichomoniasis is a venereal
disease that can cause early embryonic death, infertility, and abortion. Infected cows or heifers
may have a uterine discharge for several months. Vaccines are available but their efficacy has
been questioned. The use of virgin bulls or artificial insemination (A.I.) will aid in control.
Infected bulls show no signs of disease, but they may harbor T. foetus in their prepuce (sheath)
for long periods unless specific treatment is administered.
 A diagnosis of trichomoniasis is made by identifying T. foetus in properly prepared
preputial or vaginal fluids. The assistance of a veterinary diagnostic laboratory usually is
necessary for an accurate diagnosis.

Sarcocystosis ("Sarcosporidiosis").
Sarcocystis species are protozoa that occasionally cause abortion in cattle. Abortions are
usually sporadic but they may occur as "storms." Sarcocystis is spread by carnivores (wild and
domestic) and cattle become infected by ingesting feed or forages contaminated by carnivore
feces. Abortions can occur at any stage of gestation. There is no effective treatment for cattle
infected with Sarcocystis. Although not always feasible, controlling wild carnivore populations
is the only known method of management. A diagnosis of abortion caused by Sarcocystis
requires the assistance of a diagnostic laboratory.

Neosporosis.
Neospora caninum is a recently recognized protozoan parasite of animals, which until
1988 was misidentified as Toxoplasma gondii (Dubey, 1999). It is probably not a new disease,
but rather a newly recognized one. Neosporosis is a major cause of abortion in cattle in many
countries including Canada and USA (Dubey and Lindsay, 1996; Pare et al., 1996). An
important feature of the disease is that the parasite can be maintained in cattle as a chronic,
apparently lifelong, infection which can be passed on to the fetus during pregnancy. Initially,
the organism was isolated from a paralyzed dog tissue and was named as Neospora caninum.
Subsequently, it was isolated in brain tissue of bovine fetuses from a herd with persistent
abortion in New Mexico. Abortion attributable to Neospora caninum infections can be expected
to be a continuing major cause of abortion in dairy herds with a history of neosporosis. It will
be also attributed as a cause of abortion in dairy herds that have a history of sporadic abortions,
but for which Neospora caninum infections have not been previously identified as a cause of
abortion.
Subsequent pregnancies in cows that abort a Neospora caninum infected fetus also are at
risk of infection, suggesting that the immunity provided by an initial infection is inadequate to
prevent repeat infection or that cows can be persistently infected with Neospora caninum. The
key to prevention is to detect infected cows and prevent new infections. It is recommended to
progressively cull seropositive cows as they maintain infection in the herd through vertical
transmission and provide infectious material (aborted fetuses) to the definitive host. Drug
treatment of patients with neosporosis is unlikely to eliminate the infection and may be
impractical and expensive because of milk withdrawal time for lactating dairy cows. It is
concluded that Neospora caninum infected calves should not be used as replacement stock to
decrease the future risk of abortion in dairy herds. To prevent horizontal transmission from
occurring, domestic and wild animals, particularly dogs, should not have access to cow feed.
Noninfectious causes of abortion
Nutritional: Starvation may result in placental insufficiency and abortion, however, it rarely
occurs in a modern dairy practice. Vitamin A deficiency has been suggested to result in
thickening and degeneration of placenta and abortion in late gestation. Iodine deficiency has
also been suggested as a cause of abortion.

Chemicals, drugs, and toxins:

Toxic agents may also cause abortions or early embryonic deaths. Cattle are susceptible
to fertilizer nitrites and nitrates or the nitrates found in plants under certain conditions (e.g.
drought-stress). If a cow is exposed to sufficiently high levels of nitrates/nitrites (~.55 % or
greater nitrate in forage), abortions may occur, especially in late gestation. Pine needles and
locoweeds can cause abortion depending on the stage and the amount consumed (Kirkbride,
1991). Warfarin and coumarin can also cause abortion. Mycotoxins from the fungal agents are
suspected to cause abortion. Bacterial endotoxin is responsible for sporadic abortions. Among
the hormonal agents, estrogen, glucocorticoids, and prostaglandin are important. They cause
abortion depending on the dose and the stage of gestation they are used. Stress may also cause
abortion.
Some experimental studies have shown that mycotoxins such as zearalenone in very
high levels can cause abortions in cattle, although these levels are not normally found in
"naturally contaminated" feedstuffs. Likewise, the only reports of abortions associated with
aflatoxin appear to be situations where the health of the cow was also severely compromised by
the toxin.
Ergot alkaloids are toxins produced by the Claviceps fungus, which grows in the seeds
of various grasses and small grains such as fescue, bromegrass, wheat, oat and rye. These toxins
have been associated with abortions in dairy cattle as well as other health problems. Ergot can
cause placental necrosis, fetal death and abortion.

Diagnosis:
Only 30% of abortions are currently being diagnosed. Although infectious agents have
been incriminated in 20-30% of abortion cases submitted to diagnostic laboratories, their role
may even less important if the presence of organisms does not necessarily indicate a causal
association with abortion. Constraints to diagnosis arise in interpreting the results of tests
because most abortions are not detected for several weeks or months, by which time appropriate
tissues may be unobtainable. Moreover, tissues submitted are usually from fetuses large enough
to be noticed by dairy personnel. This potential under-representation of young fetuses by
diagnostic follow-up presents a biased view of causes of abortion – the putative causes relating
to whatever was found in tissues from older fetuses.
Determining the cause of bovine abortions presents many difficulties. This is evident from the
diagnostic success rate of 30 to 40% attained by most diagnostic laboratories around the world
and rarely it reaches 50%. One reason for the low diagnostic success rate is that abortion is
frequently the result of an event that occurred weeks or months earlier, and the cause of the
event, if it was ever present is the conceptus, is often undetectable by the time of abortion.
Other factors also contribute to diagnostic difficulties (Kirkbride, 1982):
 The fetus is often retained in utero for hours to days after death, resulting in autolysis that
hides lesions.
 The fetal membranes, which are commonly affected first and most consistently, are
frequently unavailable for examination.
 Toxic and genetic factors that may cause fetal death or abortion are not discernible in the
specimens available for examination.
It is important that the appropriate specimens are properly handled, preserved, and
submitted to the laboratory without delay. As the collection-to-laboratory time increases,
chances for diagnosis decreases (Dennis, 1991).

Stage of
Agent Gestation usually Means of spread Comments
affected
Bacteria
Third trimester
Water contaminated by Duration of efficacy of
(L. pomona) or
Leptospira spp. wildlife, or other cattle currently available vaccines
anytime (other
(L. hardjo) is limited.
serovars)
2nd or more Most commonly found
Listeria
commonly 3rd in poor-quality or
monocytogenes
trimester spoiled silage.
Can be found in repro tracts
Infected animals (esp.
Ureaplasm diversum of normal, healthy cows.
bulls) introduced into
Mycoplasma Any? May cause abortion storms
clean herds; poor AI
bovigenitalium in previously uninfected
practices
herds.
Viruses
Calves may become
chronically infected
Bovine Virus BVD viral vaccines are
1st or 2nd trimester prior to birth. May be
Diarrhea commonly available.
introduced into the herd
by an infected animal.
Abortion is usually in
Animal to animal addition to other disease
Infectious Bovine
2nd or 3rd trimester contact with some manifestations (pneumonia).
Rhinotracheitis
aerosol spread. IBR vaccines are commonly
available.
Other
Animals that abort due to
Neospora are at increased
Canines play a role in
Neospora 2nd or 3rd trimester risk of aborting again. Does
the transmission of
caninum (often 4-5 months) not usually cause abortion
Neospora.
storms. A vaccine has
recently become available.
Bulls are the main mode
Trichomonas of transmission (esp.
1st trimester, occ.
foetus older ones). Infected
during 4-7 months
Campylobacter cows can reinfect clean
(Campylobacter)
fetus bulls. AI equipment may
transmit infection
Specimens Required for Diagnosing Infectious Bovine Abortion
Best specimen is aborted fetus and its placenta. If not practical, perform a necropsy and submit
the following:
Frozen or refrigerated 10% buffered neutral formalin
Abomasal contents (1-3 ml) Lung
Lung Kidney
Kidney (1/4 to ½) Intestine
Spleen (for viral isolation) Any other
Infected cotyledons 1 or 2 organs with
Serum or peritoneal fluid Lesions
Dam‟s serum Infected
Vaginal discharge Cotyledons
Decomposed fetus 2 or 3
(brain contents collected aseptically)
Interpreting diagnostic results presents some problems. Although organisms of
relatively low virulence can cause abortion, such organisms are frequently may be present in
fetal or fetal placental tissues as in utero infections, but they do not actually cause abortion.
Determining the significance of their presence in relation to the abortion may be impossible at
times. Concurrent infections are commonly recognized as causes of disease, but they have
seldom been reported as causes of abortion. The agent isolated from an aborted fetus and
identified as the cause of the abortion may be only one of two or more agents involved.
Results of serology should always be interpreted with care. A positive result from a single
sample of material serum indicates only that the dam has been exposed to the particular antigen.
The antigen might have caused the abortion or the animal‟s exposure to the antigen might have
occurred earlier. However, two-to four-fold increases in titer in a second sample 10-14 days
after abortion is significant. Paired serum samples are usually more meaningful if collected
from other cows in the herd (10 cows or 10% of the herd). Findings of serology should be
carefully correlated with herd history, changes in aborted fetuses and placentas, and results of
laboratory tests.
Prevention:
There is no practical treatment for controlling an abortion outbreak. As most abortifacient
pathogens are spread by ingestion, animals that have aborted or are suspected to abort should be
isolated until vaginal discharges have ceased. The only effective control in cases of infectious
abortion is vaccination when available. Good record keeping systems help to monitor the trends
and occasionally assist in diagnosis or solution to the problem.
Economic Impact:
It is ideal to have every pregnant cow go to term and have a healthy calf. However,
some losses due to abortion are expected and the maximum loss of 3% is acceptable. These
abortions have a great impact on the economic performance of a dairy. The economic impact of
abortions depends on direct costs and value of fetuses lost. Indirect costs include those
associated with establishing the diagnosis, re-breeding cows that aborted, possible loss of milk
yield, and replacement costs if cows that aborted are culled. The questions to ask after an
abortion are as follows: How likely are abortions to repeat? How do aborted cows perform
following the abortion? Should I keep a cow that aborts? What is the cost of an abortion?
Aborted cows are at 3.2 times higher risk of being culled; however, only 1 out of 6 are
recorded as „culled for abortion‟. Aborted cows if not culled have 5 times more likely to abort
subsequently than cows that never aborted. The basis of cost estimation is to determine the
number of days open plus the gestational days at the time of abortion. It can range from 150 to
225 days or more for a herd. Cost of open day estimate can be used to obtain the loss and
inclusion of veterinary intervention and medication can provide the total loss due to abortion.
Following late term abortions, there is a loss of potential replacement heifers which are
always valued at between Rs. 15000/- and Rs. 25,000/-. These late term abortions often result in
early culling of productive cows accompanied by a salvage loss. Increasing the calving interval
from 12 to 13 months may result in a loss of 2-5% of the herd‟s potential calf production.
Calving intervals over 14 months will produce loss of greater than 10% in average producing
dairy herds. Often the causes of these abortions are very difficult to determine resulting in a lot
of frustration for the dairymen and their veterinarians.
Conclusions
In the event of an abortion (either sporadic or an abortion storm), it is but natural that each
person involved in the farm level dairy operations would like to know the cause, risk for other
animals, and to control the abortion from spreading to other animals. Instances like introduction
of new animals into the herd with unknown history, introductions of new personnel into the
farm are some of the issues that can create problems and wipe out the profit due to abortion
storms. It is important that every effort is made to diagnose the cause of an abortion knowing
fully well that diagnosis is not possible in each case. All abortion diseases can be controlled by
vaccination and biosecurity to the point that no serious economic effect should occur in a dairy
herd. It is vitally important to follow the vaccine manufacture's instructions to insure maximum
protection against clinical disease and abortions. For control of abortion diseases, vaccinations
should be given pre-breeding. Surveillance is based primarily on submission of aborted fetuses,
tissue samples and paired blood samples from suspect cows to a veterinary diagnostic
laboratory. In bull bred herds, bulls should be examined when poor reproductive performance
happens. Assistance in developing a comprehensive vaccination and prevention program by the
attending herd veterinarian can be a great asset for the dairymen.

References:
Dennis S.M. (1991). Pregnancy wastage in domestic animals. Compend. Contin. Edu. Pract.
Vet. 3:62-69.
Dubey J.P. (1999). Neosporosis in cattle: biology and economic impact. J. Am. Vet. Med.
Assoc. 214:1160-1163.
Dubey J.P. and Lindsay D.S. (1996). A review of Neospora caninum and neosporosis. Vet.
Parasitol. 67:1-59.
Forar A.L., Gay J.M., Hancock D.D. and Gay C.C. (1996). Fetal loss in ten Holstein dairy
herds. Theriogenol. 45:1505-1513.
Kirkbride C.A. (1982). Diagnostic approach to abortions in cattle. Compend. Contin. Edu.
Pract. Vet. 4:341-348.
Kirkbride C.A. (1991). Causes and prevention of bovine abortion. Proc. Am. Assoc. Bov. Prac.
23:75-80.
Pare J., Fecteau G., Fortin M. and Marsolais G. (1996) Seroepidemiologic study of Neospora
caninum in dairy herds. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 213:1595-1598.
Thurmond M.C., Picanso J.P. and Jameson C.M. (1990). Considerations for use of descriptive
epidemiology to investigate fetal loss in dairy cows. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc.
197: 1305-1312.
 Health Management for Optimum Production and Reproductive
Performance in Dairy animals
Dr. E. B. Chakurkar
ICAR Research Complex,
Ela, Old Goa 403 402

Maintaining a healthy herd is always a challenge for dairy producer. Every year an
average of 20 to 25 percent of dairy animals are culled due to poor reproductive performance
or other health problems.
Factors which influence the health and performance of a dairy herd are many but there is
scope to control these. Mostly it can be achieved by improving factors from "on farm" activity.
All of these are controllable but require knowledge and consistent effort by the producer.
Special care needs to achieve and maintain the optimum production levels. Producers must
give attention on dairy animal health (calves, replacement heifers and cows), reproductive
performance, genetics, nutrition and udder health i. e. mastitis control.
For short-term economic savings dairy producer should not eliminate or reduce certain
programs like veterinary programs and various other practices (record keeping, computer use
and management practice information) that can lead to long-term losses in herd performance
and profitability.
Total quality management is a concept for the production of quality food animal
products for human consumption. This concept implies that appropriate attention is given to all
facets of dairy herd management in an effort to satisfy the consumer and their needs.
There is a distinct relationship between good dairy health and profits.For this
emphasis must be given disease prevention by providing proper nutrition, total management
efforts, and a clean, dry comfortable environment, along with properly designed housing
facilities, necessary dairy equipment, manure management, etc
Another most important aspect is veterinary services. The veterinarian services include vaccine
use for disease prevention, consultation to reduce metabolic and other disease, mastitis control,
pregnancy examinations, and infertility diagnoses, along with proper treatment to eliminate
drug residues in food animal products.
Ways to improve dairy management are
Record keeping and periodic evaluation of records, Heat/ estrous detection and breeding
Nutritional management FOR Reproductive Performance, Use of veterinary services and
examination of dairy animals by Veterinarians
Record keeping and periodic evaluation of records
Maintaining good records and using computer driven technology is helpful and time
saving For establishing an effective program, knowledge of the entire reproductive history in
the herd is essential. Accurate herd and individual histories are essential, and these are available
only through reliable and up-to-date records. These records must be easy to maintain,
conveniently located and simplified so that interpretations can be made promptly and without
confusion. An individual lifetime health record must be developed and maintained for each
cow. Important information to be recorded includes birth date, vaccinations, breeding dates,
calving dates, condition at calving, past health problems, treatments given, and other relevant
data. Daily milk yield records are most desirable because they can provide early evidence of
potential problems. Reduced milk production may be evidence of sickness or something as
simple as heat (estrus). Expected heat dates must be recorded to aid in determining the next
probable time of return to heat.
Records must be analyzed periodically to determine problem areas, with emphasis to
correct the problem placed where the greatest economic loss is occurring. herd summary
information can be evaluated and potential losses in the areas of breeding, nutrition, milk
quality, and reproduction can be calculated.
Heat/ estrous detection and breeding
Detection of heat is of the greatest importance in getting cows pregnant at the desired
time. Cows must be pregnant within 85 days after calving to have a 12-month calving interval.
If the voluntary waiting period is 60 days, the efficiency of heat detection must be high to have
the cows bred on time. Heat detection influences conception rates. Cows should be inseminated
approximately 12 hours following standing heat.
Several mechanical and electronic devices are commercially available to assist heat
detection. The devices should be evaluated to determine if they would be helpful and
economical in your herd. Also, several hormonal protocols utilizing prostaglandins and/or
gonadotrophins can be used to regulate the time of estrus to reduce the time required for heat
detection. But veterinarian MUST BE CONSULTED in deciding on an appropriate protocol
for your herd.
Nutritional management FOR Reproductive Performance
The breeding efficiency of a dairy herd cannot be maintained at a high level without
proper nutrition. To attempt reproductive improvement when nutritional balance is incorrect is
futile. Cows should GET maximum dry matter intake. Cows in early lactation usually lose
body weight until dry matter intake increases sufficiently to meet the nutrient demands of
lactation. Milk production generally peaks by six to eight weeks postpartum, while intake peaks
after 10 to 12 weeks. This lag in feed intake causes the cow to be in negative energy balance,
resulting in loss of body weight and condition of greater than three-fourths to 1 condition score.
Excessive negative energy balance, as a result of poor feed intake in early lactation, is related to
poor milk production, decreased reproductive performance, and overall diminished herd health.
Excessively fat or thin cows run much greater risks of metabolic problems, poor conception
rates and difficult calving.
Diets must be carefully balanced for protein ,energy, minerals, and vitamins to
promote good reproductive performance.
Use of veterinary services and examination of dairy animals by Veterinarians
These services must be used at the proper time and place in a systematic, coordinated
effort. Success depends upon program of examinations to determine potential problems. Our
goal must be to prevent them before they occur. An experienced and knowledgeable
veterinarian with dairy animal health expertise is required for best results.
A good working relationship between the veterinarian and producer is essential to
develop a successful program, whereby both parties know and understand their responsibilities.
The veterinarian must design an efficient, well organized disease prevention and treatment
procedure that minimizes reproductive failure and other health problems. The producer must
provide proper management which includes feeding, hygiene, breeding records, housing and
facilities to properly maintain cow comfort and working facilities to minimize stress and risk of
injury to personnel or animals.
In addition to the reproductive problems in the cow herd, regular visits by the
veterinarian provide for observation of the entire operation from birth of the calf through her
development as a replacement heifer, performance in the milking line, and eventual culling.
Recommended preventive measures and vaccines are initiated during calfhood and
administered as the heifer attains the proper age for other immunizations.
Animals to be Examined by the Veterinarian
All heifers that have failed to show signs of heat (estrus) prior to 14 months of age. This
is to determine if the reproductive tract anatomy is normal. Cows with retained placentas should
be examined by the veterinarian from 24 to 72 hours after calving or if they are sick. Manual
removal of the placenta is not recommended. However, individual cases vary and the
appropriate treatment should be determined from the veterinary examination. Using
prostaglandins is of value in dairy reproductive programs but should be under the supervision of
a qualified veterinarian. Prostaglandins used properly are capable of enhancing placenta
removal, and improve uterine condition after calving by reducing uterine infections and
stimulating ovarian cyclicity. Proper veterinarian supervision of these treatments is necessary.
 All other animals should be examined about 30 days following calving to determine the
condition of the entire reproductive tract. Dates of the next heat cycle may be estimated at this
time.
Cows with abnormal discharge or cloudy mucous during heat should be examined for
reproductive tract infection. If this discharge is accompanied by a foul odor, straining, and/or
weight loss, there usually is uterine infection present. Other discharges may be due to normal
heat, urinary infections, vaginitis, or other problems. Blood-tinged, clear mucus 24 to 48 hours
following heat is generally considered normal. Abnormal discharge is frequently present
following abortion or calving difficulty and these cases should be examined promptly and
treated accordingly by a veterinarian.
Cows that have failed to show heat by 45 to 60 days after calving should be re-examined
for possible causes of anestrus (no heat cycle). The primary reason for examination at this time
is to determine if detectable abnormalities are present. The examination frequently reveals that
the cow has cycled, but heat was not observed. Missing the cow in heat is common, and there
may actually be as high as 50 percent of the cows in heat that simply are not detected. Cows
that abort should be examined immediately. Early diagnosis and treatment may prevent herd
problems that can create great economic loss.
Examine cows with abnormal duration of heat cycles. The average length of the normal
estrous cycle is 18 to 24 days. Cycles that are too long or too short frequently signal infertility.
Estrous cycles may be irregular, silent, constant (nymphomania), or absent (anestrus).
Satisfactory conception rates usually occur in otherwise normal long cycle cows but the short
cycle cows usually conceive poorly.
Repeat breeder cows--cows bred through two or more heat cycles--need examination to
help determine the cause of the breeding problem.
Cows should be examined for pregnancy at 45 to 60 days following breeding. Exams
done prior to this time should be repeated at 60 to 90 days to confirm the pregnancy and to
determine that resorption or abortion have not occurred. It is not uncommon for fetal death to
occur following conception.
At the time of every examination the dairy producer should make short but accurate
notes concerning the findings--good or bad. This should be recorded on the individual cow's
lifetime health records.
 Diagnosis of Tuberculosis, John’s Disease and Sexuality transmissible
diseases (STDs) In Bovines
Dr. S. S.Rautmare ,
Deputy Commissioner (AH),
Disease Investigation Section,
Aundh , Pune – 411 007.

Sexually transmissible diseases are those infections which are transmissible from one to
another animal through copulation or through infected semen . there are about 17 important
sexually transmissible infections known to spread through coitus or Artificial Insemination and
may cause epidemics . However in India , 6 diseases are identified which need to be screened in
breeding bulls regularly to prevent their spread and to maintain the reproductive health status of
animals to an optimum level. The following diseases are included in this group.

1. Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis is a chronic bacterial disease of cattle , buffaloes , sheep , goat and pigs
caused by Mycobacterium Sp. And characterized by the presence of tubercle nodules in the
lungs , spleen and lymph nodes.
Etiology : 1. Mycobacterium tuberculosis 2. M. bovis
Chracteristic symptoms and lesions :
 Low grade fever
 Progressive wasting / weakness , loss of production
 Pulmonary involvement is characterized by a chronic cough which is low suppressed
and moist.
 In advanced cases, dyspnea with increased rate and depth of respiration become
apparent.
 Tubercular metritis may result in lowered conception rate and recurrent abortions.

Postmortem Diagnosis :
 Consolidation of lungs
  Nodules of tubercle in lungs containing cheesy mass

 Granulomatous lesions in spleen, lymph nodes , liver and intestines.

 Tubercle on pleura , peritoneum and mesentry. ( Pearly Disease )

Laboratory Diagnosis :

 Demonstration of acid fast bacilli in discharges / from cheesy tubercle nodule

 The Tuberculin Test
 ELISA
 PCR

2. Johne’ Disease / Paratuberculosis

Paratubeculosis is a chronic bacterial disease of bovines, ovines and caaprines caused by

Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and charecterised by dehydration , emaciation , chronic
diarrhoea and thickening of intestines.

Etiology: Mycobacterium paratubeculosis

Chracteristic symptoms and lesions :

 Comonest in 2 to 6 years of age group.
 Chronic dirrhoea which may extend for a period of one year ,
 Progressive wasting / weakness , loss of production
 Hide bound condition
 Emaciation associated with submandibular oedma

Postmortem Diagnosis :
 Lesions are confined to the ileum and colon and may extend upto rectum in some cases.
 Mucous membrane of intestine becomes hyperaemic.
  Thickening of the intestinal wall.
 Presence of „rugae‟ or transverse folds thickened due to chronic inflammatory changes.
 Lymph nodes (Mesentric ) are also enlarged .
Laboratory Diagnosis :
 Smears of rectal pinch in live animals / by impression smears from intestinal lymph
nodes in necropsy of dead animals
 Attempts to cultutre M.paratuberculosis from the faeces of infected animal
 The Johnin Test
 ELISA
 PCR

3. Brucellosis
Brucellosis is an infectious bacterial disease of animals caused by Brucella sp. And
charecterised by abortion in late gestation and formation of granulomatous lesiona in genital
organs , joints and fetal liver.
Etiology: * Br. abortus * Br. meletensis * Br. ovis

Chracteristic symptoms and lesions :

 Abortion particularly in last trimester of preganacy.

 Grayish white mucoid or mucopurulent discharge from vagina .
 Retension of Placenta
  Mastitis
 Hygroma
 Orchitis

Postmortem Diagnosis :
 Oedema and thiceneing of chorion
 Oedema of foetus, serosanguineous fluid in body cavity.
 Pneumonia , necrotic foci in liver
 Induration of mammary gland in cows.

Laboratory Diagnosis :
 Isolation of organism
 Serological Test – MRT , RBPT , STAT, CFT , ELISA , dot - ELISA
 Animal Pathogencity test
 Molecular Detection – PCR

4. Compylobacteriosis
Compylobacteriosis is an infectious disease of cattle and sheep caused by
Compylobacter sp. And characterized by early abortion , suppurative metritis , cervicitis and
vaginitis.
Etiology: * C . foetus * C . .jejuni
Characteristic symptoms and lesions :
 Abortion particularly between 4 to 7 months of pregnancy.
 Mild vaginitis .
 Mucopurulent vaginal discharge
 Retention of placenta
 Purulent exudates in uterine discharge - yellowish
 Higher infertility rate with prolonged intervals of estrus or calving period.
 Signs and symptoms in bulls are not prominent
Postmortem Diagnosis :
 Oedema of foetus,
 Necrotic foci in liver
 Oedematuos placenta
Laboratory Diagnosis :
 Isolation of organism
 Serological Test – Cervical Mucous agglutination Test , ELISA
 Molecular Detection – PCR

5. Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis

Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis is an infectious viral disease of cattle harectarised by
respiratory disease , conjunctivitis , encephalitis in calves, abortions , vulvovaginitis in cows
and balanoposthitis in bulls .
Etiology: Bovine Herpes Virus 1 ( BHV 1 )
Chracteristic symptoms and lesions :
 Fever ( 106 0 F ) , Nasal Discharge
 Abortion particularly in last trimester of pregnancy.
 Conjunctivitis
 Infectious pustular balonoposthitis in bulls .
 Infectious pustular vulvoaginitis in cows.
 Rhinotrachitis , pneumonia ,mucopurulant exudates in trachea.
 Pustules in vulva / vagina , plans penis and prepuce.
 Ulcers in vulva / vagina .

Postmortem Diagnosis :
 Oedema and thiceneing of chorion
 Oedema of foetus,
 Necrotic foci in liver
Laboratory Diagnosis :
 Isolation of Virus in cell culture
 Serological Test – VNT, SNT , ELISA .
 Molecular Detection – PCR
6. Trichomoniasis
Trichomoniasis is a protozoan parasitic disease of animals caused by T. foetus
charectectrised by early abortion , vaginitis , metritis and balanitis in cattle
Etiology: * T. foetus
Chracteristic symptoms and lesions :
 Abortion particularly between 3 to 5 months of preganacy.
 Retension of Placenta
 Pyometra – metritis , Mucopurulant vaginal discharge , vaginitis .
 Sterility
 Balanitis in bulls , animal may show disinclination to serve cow
Laboratory Diagnosis :
 Tentative diagnosis is based on the history , , signs of early abortion , repeat breeding
and irregular oestrus cycle .
 Demonstration of parasite in vaginal discharge in female and prepucial washing and
scraping in bull .
Collection Preservation and Dispatch of samples for Laboratory Diagnosis
 Freshly collected semen ( 2 to 5 ml ) in sterilized vials.
 Paired serum samples in sterile Vials ( 5 ml ).
 Aborted foetus .
 Preputial washing collected by using 20ml of sterile PBS ( pH 7.2 ) divided into 2 equal
parts .
 Accidents During Artificial Insemination : Be Careful
Dr. G. U. Yadav,
Veterinary College, Udgir

„Artificial insemination is a technique in which spermatozoa are deposited in female

reproductive truct‟. In this method, semen collected from male is diluted and deposited in
cervix or body of uterus of female with the help of AI gun. As the method is totally
mechanical, many times animal is not prepared psychologically for the process. Presexual
stimulation or warming of animal (cow/buffalo) by smelling genitellia i.e. phermonal reflex is
lacking in AI and there is no actual sexual contact male with the female. So, animal unco-
operates for artifical insemination resulting in various accidents and complications resulting
into low conception rate. The common accidents are enlisted below.

1) Defication by animal during struggling :

When an animal (cow/buffalo) is fixed in trevis for artificial insemination, there is
change in psychological behaviour of animal and due to fear animal may urinate and deficate.
This defication may cause soiling of AI gun during insemination resulting in entry of bacteria
into open cervix and uterus resulting in the complications like entry of ascending in faction, un-
---- and repeat breeding.
2) Injury to vulva and vagina by AI gun :
Many times animal in heat is so violent and un co-operative that when operators hand is
in rectum of animal for holding the cervix, animal may jump or struggle resulting in injury to
the vulval mucous membrane and vaginal folds. It is followed by small haemorrhage and
bacterial infection resulting in spread of infection to uterus.
3) Injury to uterine folds and uterus and its laceration :
Many times if animal is unco-operative or person who is new performing AI then the
straw is passed to cervix upto uterus. It strucks to uterine folds, endometrian and both or uterus
resulting in injury to laceration of the mucosa. This injury enhances bleeding followed by
invasion of pus producing bacteria in uterus resulting in low conception rate, repeat breeding
and anoestrus.
4) Molding and bending of straw :
For proper method of AI animal should restrained properly, pass hand into rectum, push
cervix to anterior side pass AI gun in genitellia and drop the semen at mid or cervix. Many
times the AI straw strucks to parts of vagina, cervix resulting into bending of straw I sheath and
not deposition of semen at the site resulting in low conception rate. Endo-metrium is
considered as calf bed injuries to endometrium leads scar tissue formations and chances of
implantations are reduced.
5) Deposition of semen at faulty site :
The semen should be deposited in the of cervix body of uterus. Due to violence and
unco-operative nature of animal the straw may be mis directed and small quantity of semen
(0.25 ml) in the sheath may be deposited at faulty place resulting in low conception rate.
6) Slippage of piece of straw/sheath or metallic ball of sheath in uterus :
Many times if animal is not co-operative AI sheath itself may be slipped in cervix/uterus
of metallic ball fixed at backside of sheath may be slipped in uterus, surgical removal is
mandatory in those cases.
7) Accidents like fractures, injuries, wounds during AI :
If animal is struggling hard it may be slipped and fall in trevis resulting fractures,
injuries and wound. Appropriate treatments and surgical correction are necessary. To
overcome the aforesaid complications animal should be cam and quiet during the artificial
insemination.
8) Rectal bledding :
Very common in animals on P/R examination. Buffaloes are more prone due to delicate
rectal mucosa. Even a single per rectal exam --- lead to bleeding from superficial veins of
rectal mucosa. Attempts must be stopped immediately on bleeding. Application of
smoothening agents like fegeron, vasaline, liquid paraffin to the mucosa should be practiced for
cessation of bleeding apply cool water and ice cubes on perineum. In severe cases,
anticoagulant injectables preparations are necessary. use laxative feed for 2 – 3 days.
 Non-inflammatory Conditions of Uterus
Dr. S. D. Moregaonkar
Veterinary College, Udgir

A) Malpositions/Abnormal displacements/Acquired changes in position of Uterus.

There are three important positional changes of uterus.
Hernias:
Herniation means protrusion of the uterus, particularly pregnant uterus through a natural
or artificial opening. The pregnant uterus may drop into or be present in unbilical, inguinal,
perianal and diaphragmatic or ventral hernias. In cases of rupture of the prepubic tendon, the
pregnant uterus will drop into the sac formed by the skin and cutaneous muscles. This may
cause dystocia or death of the foetus or dam or both.
Types:
a) This is a displacement of uterus in abdominal cavity called as ventral hernias.
b) Displacement in to the inguinal canal (Perennial hernia) is seen only in the bitch and goats.
Inguinal hernias are hereditary or acquired and are described as common in the bitch and rare in
the cat, sow and mare. They have not been described in cow or ewe. There is close
relationship between estrogen production by the ovary and the development of inguinal hernia
in bitches. If ventral hernias in large animals are extensive they are difficult, it not impossible to
repair.
c) Displacement of uterus (especially in advance pregnancy), through a ruptured diaphragm into
thoracic cavity may occur in dog and cat automobile accidents.
d) Umbilical and inguinal Hernias: If it is the large enough may contain a portion of the uterine
horn and developing foetus. Umbilical hernias have been described as hereditary in all species
of animals. In cattle most of them are small.
Sequlae:
The sequlae depends upon whether or not the herniated uterus becomes incarcerated by
a developing pregnancy, pyometra or traumatic adhesions.
Treatment:
1. From mid pregnancy to nearterm hysterotomy can be performed and the foetus or
fetuses can be removed, the uterus is replaced in the abdominal cavity and the hernial
ring is sutured.
2. The ventral hernia may recure during the latter stages of each gestation period.
Uterine Tortions:
It is a twisting of uterus on its long axis.
Tortions 0f the uterus is exceptional in species other than cattle. (About 7 to 15%).
1.It is most common in pregnant uteri. It is most common in dairy cattle.
2.Tortion may occur also with pyometra and hydrometra.
3.It occur on transverse axis of the uterus.
Note:
a) In uniparous species (cow) in which a well developed intercornual ligament does not permit
much independent movement of the horns, the entire organ is involved in the tortion, which is
about the mesovarion and vagina or cervix as fixed points.
b) In multiparous species (bitch,cat) with long horns and no intercornual ligament, the tortion,
will involve part of one horn or the entire horn, the fixed points in the latter instance being the
mesovarium and the site of attachment of the horn to the uterine body.
Etiology:
a) Sudden slip or fall in either lying down or rising could couse tortion.
b) Lack of fetal fluids and violence such as sudden falls or rolling in advance pregnancy.(In
dogs and cats this is a important factor.)
c) Confinement in stables for long periods favours tortion in the cow.
d) Tortion is observed more commonly in pulriparious than in primiparous animals.
e) A lack of tone the pregnant uterus- a condition composed of a lack of fluids, flaccid uterine
walls, a small non gravid horn, long flaccid mesometrium- favours the uterine tortions.
f) A deep capacious abdomen favours (predisposes) to uterine tortion.
g) In few cases strong movements of the fetus probably can cause uterine tortion.
Sequlae:
a) Minor degrees of tortion (up to 90 degrees) are fairly common in cows and apparently
resolve themselves.
b) If tortion is of 180 degrees or more then it results in dystocia.
c) Any twist in excess of 180 degrees may results also in local circulator embarrassment.
d) Death of the foetus may be fallowed by mummification, if the cervix remains to be closed.
e) If air and infection enter the uterus the foetus putrefies.
f) In the bitch and cat, transverse rupture of the twisted segment near parturition releases the
dead foetus into the peritoneal cavity. Foetus undergoes mummification, attachment to
omentum, liver and intestine a becomes covered by a rather thin membrane.
g) In some cases, the mummified fetuses remain in the peritoneal cavity for months or years
without causing any clinical sing of disease.
Pathology:
The thinner-walled veins are obstructed before the arteries and the uterus becomes
congested and edematous with edema of the placenta and death of the foetus. Even gangrene of
the uterus is seen.
Devitalized uterine wall becomes friable and susceptible to rupture or if caesarian
section is performed, the friability of the wall makes suturing difficult.
In neglected cases transverse rupture of the uterus or vagina, emphysema and
maceration of the foetuses shock collapse and death may occur.
Prolapse:
(Vagino-cervical Prolapse) Uterine prolapse through the vulva is fairly common in
ruminants and exceptionally in other species. Prolapse of the vagina involves a prolapse of the
floor, the lateral walls and a portion of the roof of the vagina through the vulva with the cervix
and uterus vagino cervical prolapse are seen in all species of domestic animals but is most
commonly seen in the cow.
Predisposing causes:
1. Those which cause or are associated with uterine hypotony and probably also with
dysrhythmia of involutionary contractions (Strong uterine contraction for expelling the
foetus).
2. In cow- prolonged dystocia relieved by forced fraction, retained placenta and post
parturient hypocalcemia are the predisposing causes.
3. In ewes- same as above and additions the uterine prolapse after parturition is a common
complication of the hyperestrogenism which results from the ingestion of legumes with
a high content of estrogens.(alfa alfa, clovers).
4. It is observed in the cow most commonly in the last 2 to 3 months of gestation, when the
placenta is secreting a large amount of estrogenic hormone.
5. In bitch- uterine polyps may lead to prolapse of the involved horn.
6. Since prolapse of the vagina is observed more commonly in pluripara than primipara,
injuries or stretching of the birth passale at the first or subsequent parturitions may
predispose to prolapse during following gestation periods-old cattle-dystocia during first
parturition –gestation.
7. High incidence of this condition is seen in Hereford cattle indicate a possible hereditary
factor in this breed.
Important points:
a) In any species, usually only the previously gravid horn prolapses.
b) In cow and ewe, the non gravid horn and sometimes intestine and bladder also may be
present within the everted horn.
Pathology: Once prolapse of the vagina or cervix or uterus has occurred the exposed mucous
membrane as well as the vulvular and vestibular mucosal becomes very edematous, inflammed
irritated, infected and occasionally necrosed.
Sequlae:
1.Sequlae are just similar to intussusception such as acute congestion and edema followed by
haemorrhages necrosis and sepsis (infection) Gangrene may supervene to death.
2.Crows, poultry, wild birds may injure everted uterus.
Rupture:

Etiology:
Uterine rupture may occur spontaneously but is usually a result of obstetrical manipulations.
It may occur during parturition due to violent contraction.
Most ruptures occur in the fundus adjacent to the pelvic brim as irregular tears, which may
involve the full width of wall or only the mucosa.
Mucosal ruptures are of little consequence.

Most of ruptures occurs in uteri which are devitalized as a result tortion or prolonged dystocia.

Rupture may follow acute distension of uterus due to infusion of fluids.

The rupture occurs on the lesser curvature along the line of attachment of the mesometrium, and
the irrigating fluids spread in to the ligament.
Sequlae:
1. Complete ruptures are often fatal either by virtue of haemorrhages or spread of uterine
inflammation to the peritoneum or displacement of retained membranes into the abdominal
cavity.
2. As the irrigating fluids have an oily base and a granulomatous inflammatory response to the
oil thickens the mesenteries of the uterus, tube and ovary.
3. Complete sterility is a common sequlae to perimetritis.

B) Disturbances in growth:
Hyperplasia – Endometrial hyperplasia is usually called as cystic endometrial hyperplasia.
Etiology:
1. Excessive and prolonged estrogenic stimulation of uterus.
2. In Dog and cat progesterone has been shown to play the major role in the induction of
endometrial hyperplasia but it is a estrogen priming.
3. The condition has been noticed in animals having granulosa cell tumors, ovarian
follicular cysts. Persistent corpora lutea, papillary cyst adenoma (particularly in
cow).etc.
4. Feeding on estrogenic plants such as legumes or Pasteur plants ex-alfa alfa (Lucerne)
and clover species (Isoflavones) and other species. These plants and substances having
estrogen activity has been found to cause hyperplasia of uterus in cows ewes.
Sequlae:
1.Endometrial hyperplasia is a significant precancerous lesion in women.
2.In animals – abnormal uterine bleeding, sterility, abortion, development of secondary
bacterial infection, irregularity in estrus cycle, longer or short duration of estrus etc. are seen.
Important point:
Legumes/pastures as a source of estrogenic activity have claimed to cause infertility in sheep
(ewe).
Hydrometra and pyometra:
These two conditions are considered together as the difference is probably.
a) Only in physical properties of accumulated fluid and
b) Degree of hydration of the mucin, which mainly depends upon relative activity of estrogenic
hormones.
Hydrometra: It is accumulation of thin or viscid fluid in the lumen. It is seen in.
a) Development of endometrial hyperplasia. In this case the amount of fluid may be several
liters and greater the volume of the fluid the less viscous it is
b) This is also seen in cows with cystic ovaries.
Mucometra:
A small amount of mucin gives the mucosal surface of uterus a gummy stickiness. The
fluid is slightly cloudy and watery.
a) It is seen proximal to an obstruction of the lumen of the uterus, cervix or vagina.
b) An abnormally long and tortous cervix may result in a form of mucometra caused by the
retention of uterine secretions.
Sequlae:
1. Animals with mucometra are sterile.
2. If affected uterus becomes infected an intractable pyometra results.
 Strict Hygiene and Sterilization for Artificial Insemination
Dr. Ashok V. Bhonsle
Veterinary College, Udgir

There is no scientific information which demonstrates a significant correlation between

the size of the population of common bacteria normally present in semen and fertility; the latter
does not seem to be affected by the abundance of this population, but the population of
pathogenic bacteria / microbes paves the way for infectious type of infertility problems.
General considerations for hygienic collection and handling of semen (at A.I.semen
collection centers) are taken care of, which results in the production of semen almost free from
common bacteria which are potentially pathogenic. Microorganisms found in semen are mostly
saprophytic species, but pathogens such as Actinomyces pyogenes / bovis, Staphylococcus
aureus, Streptococci (Lancefield groups A and D), Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa may also be present.
Investigations of cows, whether during oestrus, or during the luteal phase on the
occasion of embryo transfer, have revealed a population of common bacteria in the cervix and
uterus, particularly in multiparous cows, qualitatively and quantitatively similar to that found in
the male prepuce; however, the introduction of large numbers or particular combinations of
such an exogenous microflora may weaken immune defenses, leading to an infectious process.
Utmost care and sterilization of the equipments used for the Artificial insemination is
essential in order to avoid the infectious fertility and other problems caused by the infectious
agents transmitted through the improper hygiene and unsterilized equipments used for the
artificial insemination. Bacterial counts (CFU/ml) carried out on the processed semen give a
useful indication of the hygienic standard of the semen laboratory. The count should not
exceed 5x10³ per ml during the handling for A.I.

Cleaning of animal before AI :

As a good practice cleaning of animal should be done before actual artificial
insemination. This involves:
- Scrubbing the dung after proper wetting. If perineal region is soiled with dung, swab the
dung with cotton/clean cloth in upward direction to avoid the soiling of vulval lips.
- Use ample of clean water for washing the perineal region.
- Use proper disinfectants to clean the perineal region.
- Dettol / savlon / other phenolic compounds can be used for the purpose.
- Also the hands of veterinarian/technical person performing AI should be cleaned with
available disinfectant.
Cleaning of equipments after AI :
Immediately after use all the AI equipments should be washed thoroughly with tap
water so that the semen remaining in the A.I. catheters will be washed with the force of water.
Glassware should be dipped in chromic acid solution overnight to remove the cloudiness of
glassware. The articles are washed with lukewarm water to make grease free. Then the articles
are washed thoroughly several times under tap water and are put inverted in a clean tray. Finally
the articles are rinsed with distilled water to avoid deposits of any salt .generally the application
of corrosive substances should be avoided.

Sterilization of A.I. equipment :

Unsterilized A.I. equipment may become a potential source of infection. The infection
may spread to the female genital tract also may cause injury to the spermatozoa may result in
rapid decline of the sperm quality. All sorts of equipment, which are used for semen collection,
preparation of buffers (at semen collection center) and those used during A.I. must be free from
infectious microbes. Sterilization it refers to the term of making an article free an article from
all types of vegetative microorganisms and their spores too. Sterilization should be a regular
practice without any negligence.
The artificial vagina (A.I. Semen collection center) must be cleaned completely after
each collection: it should be dismantled, its various parts washed, rinsed and dried, and kept
protected from dust; the inside of the body of the device and the cone should be disinfected
before re-assembly using approved disinfection techniques such as those involving the use of
70% ethyl or 98-99% isopropyl alcohol, ethylene oxide or steam. Once re-assembled, it should
be kept in a cupboard, which is regularly cleaned and disinfected

Different types of sterilization methods practiced :

Dry heat sterilization :
Generally preferred method for glassware and metallic wares. Its easy, rapid and
effective. All the microorganisms are susceptible to the dry heat. Lethal effect of dry heat to
bacteria, virus and fungi is met at 60-700C and the spores of various pathogens are killed at
1000C.It‟s a common practice to sterilize the glassware and metal wares used for A.I. in hot air
oven and are exposed at 1600C for 1 hour or 1800C for 30 mins or
0
200 C for 2 mins.
The articles, which do not have opening, or the articles of which sterilization of outer
surface is important during use (e.g. A.I. catheters) should be wrapped in paper and then
subjected to hot air oven for sterilization.
Autoclaving :
Sterilization by use of moist heat/autoclaving is a very popular method. The rapid action
of sterilization by autoclaving is largely due to latent heat of water vapors (540cal/gm). While
using autoclave, it is important to keep in mind that flowing steam be allowed to displace the air
before closing the valve. In the steam mixed with air, the temperature would be less and
moreover heating would be uneven since the air would tend to remain at the bottom of the
chamber. Generally all the rubber articles, Vaseline, buffers used during t5he process of A.I.
operations can be sterilized by autoclaving. Sugar containing solutions should not be
autoclaved. Immediately after autoclaving the articles should be kept in oven at around 400C for
drying. Sterilized articles may be stored in cabinets. The buffer solutions after autoclaving
should be cooled down to room temperature and should be stored in refrigerator for use.

Ultraviolet radiation :
The absorption of ultra violet radiations by nucleic acid and protein bring about the lysis
of bacteria, virus/fungi, etc. It is quite inexpensive and well proved method of sterilization for
semen processing labs. The penetration power of ultra violet radiations is low. Being
carcinogenic persons engaged, should not get expose themselves to the ultra violet radiations.

Gaseous sterilization :
Ethylene oxide is an effective sterilizing agent at low temperature with good penetrating
power under desirable standards. Ethylene oxide is used to sterilize heat labile and moisture
sensitive objects like rubber, electronic equipment and plastic wares. Well-cleaned and washed
plastic wares are put in polythene bags. The polythene bags are sealed and the sealed bags are
sterilized in Ethylene oxide chamber. Ethylene oxide is a gas at room temperature and vaporizes
at 10.80C. Ethylene oxide is a highly water soluble gas and is used for gaseous disinfection of
dry surfaces. It is more expensive method. It poses the problem of residual toxicity. The
potential hazard of mutagenicity and carcinogenicity for human beings deserves through
investigations.
 Post – Thaw semen evaluation
Dr. S.B. Daware
Veterinary College, Udgir.

Mass Activity :
 Spermatozoa are to be observed in groups under the microscope to estimate the total
percentage of motile sperm cells in a ejaculate at a glance.
 A drop of freshly collected semen is spread uniformly over a clean grease free, and dry slide
maintained at 350 c and is examined under low power (10x) microscope, one can see mass
swirling , progressive movements of sperms. The grading of mass activity is done is
follows.
O - No activity.
+ - Movement slightly vigorous but no waves or eddies.
++ - Wave formation with slight whirls, which move slowly across
the filed.
+++ - Rapid & vigorous wave, with whirls or eddies which change
with great rapidity.
++++ - Extremely rapid movement, swirls and eddies.

Motility spermatozoa
 The individual spermatozoa are to be observed under the microscope to estimate the total
percentage of motile sperm cells in a ejaculate.
 For the estimate of spermatozoal motility, the semen is diluted (about 1:100) dilution) in
normal saline solution or ringer‟s solution.
 One drop of diluted semen is put on a clean and dry slide and is covered by cover slip.
 The slide is examined under low / high power microscope.
 The following type of movements of spermatozoa may be observed.
1] Spermatozoa moving very rapidly in the straightforward direction, which is normal.
2] Spermatozoa moving in circular motion because of defects of mildly piece and tail.
3] Spermatozoa moving in reverse circling motion, which indicate cold shock.
4] Spermatozoa showing oscillatory movement and jerks, without change of place
indicates the sperms on the verge of death.
The individual motility rating is done as below.
Progressive motility Descriptive value
1. 80-100 % Excellent
2. 60-80% Good
3. 40-60 % Fair
4. 20-40% Poor
5. 0-20% Very poor

Utility :
 To estimate number of sperm cells in a given sample.
 Sperm count is essential (with motility per cent) to estimate dilution rate.
 It given idea for semen dilution to have number of inseminations, each with constant
number of sperms.

Principle: All cells are first killed and stained so that direct counting becomes easier.

Procedure:
 0.1 ml neat sample is mixed with 9.9ml distilled water (and not with any buffer)
 The diluted mixture is kept in refrigerator for 10 minutes so that each cell will die.
 1 ml of the above sample is mixed with 9 ml 0.05 per cent easing stain
 Final dilution will be 1 : 1000.
 Neubaur‟s chamber is charged with the sample.
 Sperm cells from all 64 WBC chambers are recorded.

Calculation: -
A. Total no. of sperms in all 64 WBC chambers = ------
B. Total sperm concentration / ml = n x 10 / ml
= 10 n x 106ml
= 10 n millions / ml
(Where n – A / 4)
Normozoospermia = 1200 millions / ml.
Oligospermia = 600 millions / ml
Hyperzoospermia = 180 millions / ml
Azoospermia = 0 count with volume
Interpretation: The given sample is fit / unfit for processing and use.
Other methods of sperm count
1. Nephalometer
2. Concentrations of BaCl2
3. Fuch Rosenthal count (1:200)
4. Neubaurs count (1:2000)

Principal: The dead sperms cells take eosin color, while those, which are
alive before staining do not take any color and hence hive sperms appear
glistening white.
Eosin is a cellular stain while nigrosin is used for preparation of
background.

Requirements: Eosin 5 % stain, nigrosin 10% stain, biotherm, semen sample,

pipette, microscope.
Procedure:
 Maintain stains and semen sample at temperature 370c
 The eosin – Nigrosin stain is prepared as below
Eosin – y (water soluble) 1.67 gm
Nigrosin (water soluble) 10.00gm
Glass dist. Water 100 ml
(Separate stains with 5% eosin and 10% Nigrosin can also be used)

Method :
1. Put 5-6 drops of Eosin – Nigrosin stain on a clean slide.
2. Add a drop of semen on the stain and mix very gently with the heip of a platinum
loop.
3. Prepare smears on a clean, grease free slides.
4. Dry the smears in air and examine under microscope low/high power microscope.

Evaluation:
 Live sperm cell membranes are impermeable to any stain.
 Nigrosin provide, the jet blue background.
 Prepare count table for 100 sperms.
Interpretation:
 70% and more live sperms with fresh / neat semen sample - Acceptable
 50% and more live sperms with frozen/thawed sample - Acceptable

Calculation:
Live sperm counted
Live sperm % =
Total sperm counted x 100

 The fertility is affected if the abnormal spermatozoa exceed beyond 17-20 %

 Eosin stains the dead spermatozoa as pink or red.
 Slides prepared for live and dead sperm count can be used for abnormal sperm cell
count.

Method :
1. Put 1-2 drops of Eosin Nigrosin stain on a clean slide.
2. Add a drop of semen to the stain and mix gently.
3. After about 1 min. Prepare a smear on a clean, grease free slide.
4. Dry in air and examine under oil emersion lens microscope.

 The normal spermatozoa consist of head, neck, middle piece and tail.
 The spermatozoa have mainly three types of abnormalities viz. primary secondary
and tertiary.

Primary abnormalities:
Primary abnormalities are those that occur due to disorders of the seminiferous or
germinal epithelium.
1. Microcephalic head 2. Macrocephalic head.
3. Elongated narrow head 4. Short broad head
5. Pyriform head 6. Double head
7. Double middle piece and tail 8. Abaxial attached middle piece
9. Highly coiled middle piece and tail
10. Abnormalities of the form of middle piece (e.g. welling)
Secondary abnormalities
Secondary abnormalities are those that occur after the sperms have left the germinal
epithelium during their passage through the efferent ducts, epididimis and vas deferens.
1. Detached normal head.
2. Proximal and distal protoplasmic droplets.
3. Spermatozoa with bent tail
4. Detached and loosened galea capitis.

Tertiary abnormalities
Tertiary abnormalities are due to damage to the spermatozoa during or after ejaculation
or during handling because of excessive agitation, overheating, too rapid cooling, presence of
water, urine etc.
1. Loose head 2. Fractured neck
2. Fractured tail 4. Coiled tail

The different miscellaneous cells found in the semen

1. Leucocytes 2. Erythrocytes
3. Squamous epithelial cell 4 Primordial sperniogenic cells
5. Spermatids 6. Spermatocytes
7. Medusa cells 7. Giant or multinucleated cells
9. Degenerating sperm cell cluster.
 Role of Minerals and Vitamins in Reproduction
Dr. A. U. Bhikane and
Dr. B. N. Ambore
Veterinary College, Udgir.

For profitable dairy industry an outstanding reproductive performance of dairy cows and
buffaloes is essential. Reproductive performance of farm animals largely depends upon their
nutritional status. The balanced diet is essential for good reproductive performance. However,
our animals are not getting balanced diet hence nutritional deficiencies of energy, protein,
mineral and vitamins are common.
The most probable reasons for nutritional deficiencies in our state include..
1. Scarcity of dry roughages
2. Unavailability of greens
3. Non-provision or little provision of concentrates due to economic constraints
4. Non-supplementation of diet with mineral mixture due to unawareness amongst
cattle owners.
The present paper deals with role of various minerals and vitamins in animal body and
also their causes, deficiency signs and treatment in dairy animals.

Macro-minerals
▪ These are required in larger quantity by the body
▪ There are 7 macro-minerals essential in ruminant ration e.g. Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, Cl and
sulphur.

1. Calcium :
▪ Most abundant mineral (1.3%) found in animal body.
Role :
1) Essential for growth of bones.
2) Required for synthesis of milk.
3) Maintenance of muscle tone.
Causes :
▪ Low calcium diet – forages grown on Ca deficient soils
▪ High milk production .
▪ Slow mobilization from bone
▪ Decreased absorption of calcium due to wide Ca : P ratio.
Deficiency signs :
1) No direct effect on reproduction - Indirect effect as it causes milk fever.
2) Hypocalcaemia may result in dystocia, prolapse of uterus, retention of placenta,
metritis, delayed involution and negative effect on fertility.
Treatment :
▪ Calboral – in acute condition.
▪ Dicationic calcium preparations in sub-clinical hypocalcaemia.
▪ Mineral mixture / Di-calcium phosphate in chronic cases.

2. Phosphorus :
▪ Second most abundant mineral (0.75%) found in animal body.
Role :
1. Involved in energy, protein and phospholipid metabolism.
2. Necessary for skeletal development.
3. Essential for synthesis of milk.
4. For optimum reproductive performance.
Causes :
▪ Phosphorus deficient diet - forages grown on P deficient soils
▪ High milk production
▪ Decreased absorption due to wide Ca : P ratio.
Deficiency Signs :
1) Delayed onset of puberty.
2) Delayed post partum oestrus.
3) Silent or irregular oestrus.
4) Repeat breeding in mild deficiency.
Reproduction usually does not suffer until signs of phosphorus deficiency develop.
Treatment :
▪ Sodium acid phosphate orally
▪ Mineral mixture orally.
Trace Minerals
▪ These are required in very minute quantity by the body.
▪ There are 15 trace minerals essential for mammalian nutrition as chromium, Co, Cu,
fluorine, iodine, iron, Mn, molybdenum, nickel, Se, silicon, Zn, Tin and vanadium.
▪ A deficiency or excess of single or combined elements may affect body functions.
▪ The functions of trace elements in animal physiology are interrelated with each other.
1. Copper :
Role :
1) Necessary for hemoglobin synthesis.
2) It is a component of several enzymes.
Causes :
▪ Diet low in Cu – forages grown on soil low in Cu & rich in molybdenum.
▪ High molybdenum & sulphur content of forages
Deficiency Signs :
1) Decreased fertility (inactive ovaries).
2) Resorption of embryo.
3) Retention of placenta.
The mechanism of impaired fertility is unknown but may be related to anaemia.
Treatment :
▪ Copper sulphate 8 - 10 g per week for 3 - 5 weeks.

2. Cobalt :
Role :
▪ Required for Vitamin „B-12‟ synthesis.
Causes :
▪ Diet deficient in Co – deficiency in soil
▪ Excess Ca & Mn in diet decreases availability of Co to animals.
Deficiency signs :
▪ Delayed onset of puberty.
▪ Delayed uterine involution.
▪ Failure of oestrus.
▪ Irregular oestrus cycle.
Treatment :
▪ Cobalt sulphate 500 mg /day for 2 – 3 weeks.

3. Iron :
Role :
▪ Synthesis of hemoglobin.
Causes :
▪ Diet low in iron
▪ Excess Ca & Mn in diet
▪ Ecto-and-endo parasitism
Deficiency signs :
1. Infertility
2. Delayed oestrus.
Treatment :
▪ Ferrous sulphate @ 2 - 4 g daily orally for two weeks.
▪ Iron Dextran 5 - 10 ml i/m on alternate days in large animals.

4. Zinc :
Role :
1) It is involved in protein synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism and nucleic acid
metabolism through its association with enzyme systems.
2) It has role in keratinization, calcification and wound healing.
3) It is essential for proper sexual development and onset of oestrus.
4) It has role in repair and maintenance of uterine lining following parturition and early
return to post-partum oestrus.
5) It is essential for spermatogenesis and maintenance of germinal epithelium.
Causes :
▪ Dietary deficiency – rare.
▪ Secondary deficiency due to excess Ca and sulphur in diet.
Deficiency signs :
1) Delayed sexual maturity and decreased fertility in females.
2) In males – Testicular atrophy, poor semen quality and reduced libido.
Treatment :
▪ Zinc sulphate @ 2-4 g orally daily for a week.

5. Manganese :
Role :
1) It is required for activation of many enzyme systems, especially involved in internal
tissue metabolism.
2) It has vital role in reproduction.
3) It is necessary for cholesterol synthesis which in turn is required for synthesis of
estrogen, progesterone and testosterone.
Causes :
▪ Diet low in Mn – forages grown on highly alkaline or acidic soil or Ca rich soils.
▪ Excess Ca or P in diet.
Deficiency signs :
1) Infertility – weak oestrus, anoestrus.
2) Delayed post partum oestrus.
3) Delayed ovulation.
4) Increased abortions and small birth weights.
5) Congenital deformities.
6) Abnormal sperm production in male.
Treatment :
▪ Manganese sulphate @ 4 g daily orally for 2 - 4 weeks.

6. Iodine :
Role :
▪ Synthesis of thyroxine. Decreased thyroxine synthesis leads to decreased gonadotropic
activity and decreased fertility.
Causes :
▪ Deficiency in soil, feed and water
▪ Excess calcium in soil
▪ Feeding of cruciferous plants.
Deficiency signs :
In females –
1) Delayed puberty.
2) Failure to express oestrus / anoestrus
3) Abortion.
4) Still births and weak newborn.
5) Retention of placenta.
6) Prolonged gestation.
In males –
1) Loss of libido.
Treatment :
▪ Potassium iodate 200 mg/kg salt

7. Selenium :
Role :
It is component of glutathione peroxidase system and interacts with vitamin E to prevent
tissue damage due to peroxide production.
Deficiency signs :
1) Decreased fertility.
2) Weak and silent oestrus.
3) Retention of placenta.
4) Abortions.
5) Birth to weak young ones.
6) Poor uterine involution.
Treatment :
▪ Administration of Se and Vit. E preparations 20-30 days prepartum helps in prevention
of retained placenta.
▪ E-care Se @ 1-2 ml/45 kg i/m.

VITAMINS
1. Vitamin – A :
Role :
1) Required for dim light vision.
2) Necessary for normal epithelial development.
Causes :
▪ Lack of greens in diet.
▪ Feeding of stored / damaged feed.
Deficiency signs :
In females -
1) Delayed onset of puberty.
2) Repeat breeding.
3) Delayed ovulation.
4) Early embryonic deaths – prevents nidation.
5) Abortions or birth of weak, blind newborns.
6) Retention of placenta.
7) Metritis.
8) Shortened gestation.
In males –
1) Suppressed libido.
2) Testicular atrophy.
3) Poor semen quality.
Treatment :
▪ Inj. Vit. A @ 3000 – 6000 IU/kg i/m.

2. Vitamin – E :
▪ Role is not clearly explained but it is required for prevention of retention of placenta.

3. Vitamin – B complex :
▪ Vit B-complex deficiency is rare in ruminants.

4. Vitamin – C :
▪ Vit C deficiency usually does not occur in cattle.

5. Vitamin – D :
▪ Vit D deficiency is also rare in animals but if it is deficient then it causes delayed
oestrus and impairs the ovarian activity.
 Genetic Improvement of Indian Cattle
Dr. M. P. Sawane
Veterinary College,Udgir.

Introduction:
As we know our country has large number of Cattle and Buffalo breeds. Among these
very few breeds of cattle are recognized breeds and other breeds we called them as
Non-Descript. i.e. individuals do not have well distinguished characters from other breeds.
Hence, such indigenous cattle breeds remain untouched by the researchers and breeders. Main
reason for this is these animals are very low producers in terms of milk and meat. Today, if we
consider human population and their daily food requirement these animals are no use because,
every farmer or breeders wants returns in terms of money/profit to improve his living standard.
If the farmers /person do not get profit he will not going to rare these animals as such. On the
other hand some breeds (Non-Descript) they perform very well and fetch good returns to the
owner .(e.g. some goat breeds having good meat type body confirmation, and giving twins or
triplets per kidding). Such individuals needs more attention to utilize their good traits to
increase production , maintain and improve the herds.
This improvement of livestock can be bring by researchers,, breeders, farmers State
Animal Husbandry Dept. workers, and extension workers from the state. For this Breeders
Association is the most important. The said Association should Consist of
Farmers, Breeders, LDO, Genetist ( University Employee) etc.

The indigenous cattle can be improved by using following tools.

i. Selective breeding programme.
ii. Restriction on use of imported germplasm.
iii. Elimination of genetic defect from breeding population.(Breeding Bull)
iv. Good health cover and nutrition.
v. Strong extension network.

Before discussing these points, it is most important to consider present Breeding Policy
for the Maharashtra state.
During this decade the Govt. of India decided to conserve the Indigenous germplasm as
such. The conservation aspect may be raised due to the patent of Vechur cattle or BOROOLA
gene from sheep, or set back of crossbreeding. Following ways should do conservation of
endangerous species.
 1. Formation of Nucleus herd of the breed (in Native track)
2. Preservation of germplasm (sperm/Oocytes/embryo)
3. Keeping record (database)
In the state of Maharashtra there are five cattle breeds and three buffalo breeds were
recognized by the NBAGR (National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources), Karnal,
Haryana.
Cattle breeds with their Home Breeding Track.
Name of
Districts. Breeding track
Breed
Deoni Latur Udgir, Ahamadpur,Chakur
Red (Lal) Nanded Kandhar,Mukhed, Ahamadpur,Biloli, Nanded
Kandhari and Deglur
Khillar Solapur, Barshi,Pandharpur,Mangalvedha,South &
North
Solapur,Malshiras,Karmala,Sangola,Medha,
Satara, Akkalkot
Sangli Man, Khatau, Khandala
Jath, Atpadi, Vita, Miraj
Dangi Nashik,Ahmadnagar Igatpuri, Akole
Gaolao Wardha Arvi, Kharaangana, Ashti, Karanja

Buffalo breeds with their Home Breeding track:

Name of
Districts Breeding track
Breed
Pandharpuri Solapur Barshi,Pandharpur,Mangalvedha,South & North
Solapur,Malshiras,Karmala,Sangola,Medha,
Akkalkot.
Nagpuri Vardha, Ashti,Karanja,Arvi,
Amrawati, Anjangaon-surji,Chandur bazaar,
Akola Akot
Marathawadi Parphani,Latur Udgir,

The present breeding policy for cattle and buffalo of the Maharashtra is as fallows:-

Conservation:
Cattle: Above mentioned five breeds of cattle should be maintained as such, No crossbreeding
is permitted in the home breeding track of respective breed. Further proper selection (selective
breeding) should be done. i.e. selection of elite male and females should be done. Then use
these superior breeding bulls for breeding.
During this process care of inbreeding should be taken. NGOs and state dept. extension
worker should take care of farmers and breeders that they should not go for crossbreeding.
 While implementing this conservation programme one thing should be strictly
considered that poor farmers should be given some incentives to rare these indigenous animals.
They must be convinced that they are getting returns in terms of draft ability and not in terms of
milk.
Same bulls can be used for upgrading of the Non-descript cattle present in that track.
Buffalo:
Same breeding policy should be implemented for buffaloes. Upgrading of Non-descript
buffaloes can be done by using Murrah, Surti and Mehsana semen.

2. Crossbreeding:
Crossbreeding is recommended only up to 50% of exotic level of Jersey and H.F.
Out of these two breeds Jersey is recommended where the availability of green fodder is
comparatively less, dry region considering the adoptability power and size of animal.
Whereas HF is recommended where the availability of green fodder is through out the
year. The exotic level should be up to 62.5%. If the farmer is ready to maintain pure 100%
Jersey or HF animals he should permitted with some conditions like
1. His herd should be free from contagious diseases
2. He should spoil the other herds in territory.

While using or importing the exotic germplasm/semen it mandatory to produce the certificates
that the bull is with no genetic (Cytogenetic) defects and free from all possible diseases which
can be transmitted to the next generation.

Also it is duty of inseminator to make use of F1Hybrid vigour i.e first generationcrossbred
progeny will perform superior to the parents. One should restrict the use of imported
germplasm.

For the success of the breeding programme appointment of expert persons should be made to
implement the programme in proper manner. Train all the persons working under this scheme
and farmers and breeders to maintain the correct database/records of A.I.,

Improvement of Indian Cattle:

For the improvement Indian cattle the conservation policy mentioned above should be
strictly implemented by use of selective breeding. Then proper use of imported germplasm.
Make the animals free from genetic defects. In this aspect mainly cytogenetic defects should be
eliminated from the breeding population. Mainly breeding bulls should be screened for these
defects. These defects may hamper production as well as reproduction in farm animals. Many
cytogenetic defects may cause death of animals during fertilization, developing embryo some
individuals may die immediately after birth, some animals may not reach to the age of puberty.
Those animals survives with these defects may show infertility or sterility. Therefore it
mandatory to get normal karyotype of breeding animals.
The cytogenetic defects are as follows Chromosomal Abnormalities:
Generally chromosomes are diploid in numbers in all individuals i.e 2n. In case of cattle
60 (58, XX or XY). 58 are autosomes present in body tissue, XX in female or XY in male these
are sex chromosomes presents in the gonadial cells. X and Y are responsible for heredity. There
are two types of chromosomal abnormalities
1. Numerical
2. Structural
Numerical i.e. change in normal chromosome number it may be less or extra chromosome.
Aneuploidy: In this condition number will be less or more than normal. Generally the term
indicates very less deviation than normal because more deviation may lead to death of
individual. It is of two types.
i) Monosomy : i.e. lack of one of a pair of chromosomes. Common monosony seen in
many species is X chromosome monosomy also known as Turner‟s syndrome. It is
lethal during prenatal development.
ii) Trisomy: Common autosomal trisomy is Down‟s syndrome in this person has three 21s
chromosomes instead of two 21s chromosomes.
Structural Abnormalities:
In this the normal morphology of the chromosome get altered during the process of
meiosis i.e. meiotic non disjunction. Following are structural abnormalities:
i) Deletion
ii) Duplication
iii) Inversion
iv) Translocation
During meiotic cell division breakage and union of chromatids takes place. Due to some
reason procedure remain incomplete and these abnormalities occurs.
i) Deletion:After braking chromatids it fails to reunion of the broken part and remain
suspended in nucleous.
ii) Duplication : For the crossing over procedure chromatids get doubled.some time these
doubled chromatids remain as such i.e. duplication occurs.
iii) Inversion: As per normal procedure broken end of chromatids should join with other
broken end of other chromatid, but free end of chromatid get joined with broken end of
other chromatid.
iv) Translocation: Broken part of chromatid get joined with nonhomologous chromosomal
chromatids or whole chromosome may join with other chromosome at centromere i.e.
centric fusion. Most common incidence is of 1/29th Robertsonian Translocation in
breeding bulls.

All these abnormalities in breeding population may lead to reduced fertility, reduced
production, sterility, and also hampers the seminal traits in case of males i.e. sperm quality and
quantity.
Therefore, it is most important to screen the breeding population cytogenetically which
reduces the burden of breeder or farmer for the diagnosis and treatment.