Philosophy of Man with Logic and Critical Thinking 2016

Learning Module
The Self from the Eastern Perspective
Philosophy of Man with Logic and Critical Thinking

This module will present the most prominent

thinkers in the ancient East (China and India) and
their ideas pertaining to the self.

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. elaborate and evaluate the notion of the self in perspective

Oriental Philosophies, i.e., Chinese and Hindu Philosophies.

Teaching Strategies/Learning Activities

Lecture
Class Discussion
Video Presentation

Resources/Materials

Books
Journal Articles
Internet Sources

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Learning Concept

Confucianism

Main Concepts of Confucianism: the twin concepts of jen

and li are often said to constitute the basis of Confucianism.
A. Jen (wren): human heartedness; goodness; benevolence, man-to-man-ness; what
makes man distinctively human (that which gives human beings their humanity).
1. The virtue of virtues; Confucius said he never really saw it full expressed. The other
virtues follow from it. He never gives and defends a definition of it although he does
characterize it.
2. It is dearer than life itself--the man of jen will sacrifice his life to preserve jen, and
conversely it is what makes life worth living.
3. Jen is a sense for the dignity of human life--a feeling of humanity towards others and
self-esteem for yourself.
a. Such feeling applies to all men--not just one nation or race. It is the foundation of all
human relationships.
b. There is the belief that jen can be obtained; indeed, there is the belief in the natural
perfectibility of man. Hence, he rejects the way of human action where one satisfies
likes and avoids dislikes.
c. The first principle of Confucianism is to act according to jen: it is the ultimate guide
to human action.
4. We should seek to extend jen to others.
B. Li (lee): principle of gain, benefit, order, propriety; concrete guide to human action.
1. Two basic meanings to li: (1) concrete guide to human relationships or rules of
proper action that genuinely embody jen and (2) general principle of social order or the
general ordering of life.
2. Confucius recognized that you need a well ordered society for wren to be expressed.
3. First Sense: the concrete guide to human relationships.
a. The way things should be done or propriety: positive rather than negative ("Do's
rather than Don'ts).
b. The main components of propriety emphasize the openness of people to each
other.
(1) The reification of names: language used in accordance with the truth of things.
(2) The Doctrine of the Mean: so important that an entire book is dedicated to it in
the Confucian canon: the proper action is the way between the extremes.
(3) The Five Relationships: the way things should be done in social life; none of the
relationships are transitive. (Note that 3 of the 5 relations involve family; the family
is the basic unit of society).

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(a) father and son (loving / reverential)

(b) elder brother and younger brother (gentle / respectful)
(c) husband and wife (good / listening)
(d) older friend and younger friend (considerate / deferential)
(e) ruler and subject (benevolent / loyal)
(4) Respect for age: age gives all things their worth: objects, institutions, and
individual lives.
4. Second Sense of li: principle of social order; ritual; ordering of life; conforming to the
norms of jen (the limits and authenticity of li).
a. Every action affects someone else--there are limits to individuality.
b. Confucius sought to order an entire way of life.
c. You shouldn't be left to improvise your responses because you are at a loss as to
how to behave.
d. A. N. Whitehead's quotation of a Cambridge vicar: "For well-conducted people, life
presents no problems."
C. Yi (yee); righteousness; the moral disposition to do good (also a necessary condition for
jen or for the superior man).
1. Yi connotes a moral sense: the ability to recognize what is right and good; the ability
to feel, under the circumstances what is the right thing to do.
a. Not chih, moral wisdom per se, but intuition.
b. Most of us live under the sway of different kinds of "I's." In this case, the
identification is with an impersonal ego. (In Freudian terms, almost like the super-
ego.)
c. The impersonal ego is the assimilated or appropriated values of our culture--the
Confucian true self.
2. Some actions ought to be performed for the sole reason that they are right--
regardless of what they produce; not for the sake of something else.
a. The value in the act is the rightness of the action regardless of the intention or the
consequences of the act.
b. Hence, yi is a different way than either stoicism (intention with soft determinism)
or utilitarianism (consequences with free will).
c. Confucianism is similar to Kant's ethics of duty: the action is done as a good-in-
itself, not as a means to an end.
3. Acting from yi is quite close to practicing jen. Compare the two situations:
a. A person does all actions for the sake of yi because they are the right thing to do
(i.e., the behavior forms the disposition). This example is the way we learn; it is not
an example of yi.
b. A person does all actions for the sake of jen because respect for humanity implies
the right human way to act (i.e., be concerned about who you are, not the individual

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things you do). This example is practiced until it becomes second-nature, then it is
right.
D. Hsiao (showe): filial piety; reverence
1. Parents are revered because they are the source of your life. They have sacrificed
much for you.
2. One should do well and make the family name known and respected: bring honor to
your family.
3. Consider someone you respect and admire who saves your life or someone who has
sacrificed his life for you--as, indeed, your parents did. Hence, the reverence.
4. Hsiao implies that you give your parents not only physical care but also emotional
and spiritual richness. When the parents die, their unfulfilled aims and purposes should
be the purposes of the children.
5. What do you do if your values are different from your parents? I.e., in a changing
society?
6. The beginnings of jen are found in hsiao (family life).
a. Once the reverence and respect is understood for parent, hsiao can be extended by
generalization to family, friends, society, and mankind.
b. Respect for the sake of reverence affects who you are.
E. Chih (chee): moral wisdom; the source of this virtue is knowledge of right and wrong.
Chih is added to Confucianism by Mencius (muhn shoos) who believed that people are
basically born good.
1. Since we draw the difference between right and wrong from our own mind, these
ideas are innate.
2. Man is a moral animal for Mencius. Man has the potential to be good for Confucius.
3. How, then, does Mencius account for the origin of evil?
a. From external circumstances: nature and the needs for survival.
b. From society and culture being is disarray: it would be to our disadvantage to be
moral.
c. From lack of knowledge: we do not seek to find out the options we have. We fail to
develop our feelings and senses.
F. Chun-tzu (choon dzuh): the ideal man; the superior man; gentle person in the most
significant sense.
1. He is at home in the world; as he needs nothing himself. He is at the disposal of others
and completely beyond personal ambition.
2. He is intelligent enough to meet anything without fear.
3. Few people can attain this ideal; the central virtue is, of course, jen.
a. Personal relationships come before anything else (i.e., before thinking, reasoning,
studying).
b. The five virtues come from within the impersonal ego: (1) kindness, (2) rectitude,

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(3) decorum, (4) wisdom, and (5) sincerity.

G. Te (day): power by which men are ruled; the power of moral example (the whole art of
government consists in the art of being honest).
1. The patterns of prestige are used in the service of governance of the country.
2. Government is good if it can maintain (1) economic sufficiency, (2) military
sufficiency, and (3) confidence of the people.

Daoism
Chinese philosophical and religious system, dating from about the 4th century BC.
Among native Chinese schools of thought, the influence of Daoism has been second
only to that of Confucianism.

Basic Tenets

The essential Daoist philosophical and mystical beliefs can be found in the
Daodejing (Tao-te Ching, Classic of the Way and Its Power) attributed to the
historical figure Laozi (Lao-tzu, 570?-490? BC) and possibly compiled by followers as
late as the 3rd century BC.

Whereas Confucianism urged the individual to conform to the standards of an

ideal social system, Daoism maintained that the individual should ignore the
dictates of society and seek only to conform with the underlying pattern of
the universe, the Dao (or Tao, meaning ―way‖), which can neither be
described in words nor conceived in thought.
But this mystical way is what leads to the moral ―virtue‖ the De.
To be in accord with Dao, one has, in the negative sense, to ―do nothing‖
(wuwei)—that is, nothing strained, artificial, or unnatural, but also, in the
positive sense, follow the flow of nature, in its ―spontaneity‖ ( ziran) – that is,
naturalness.
Through spontaneous compliance with the impulses of one's own essential
nature and by emptying oneself of all doctrines and knowledge, one achieves
unity with the Dao and derives from it a mystical power. This power enables
one to transcend all mundane distinctions, even the distinction of life and
death.
At the sociopolitical level, the Daoists called for a return to primitive
agrarian life.

History

Unsuited to the development of an explicit political theory, Daoism exerted its

greatest influence on Chinese aesthetics, hygiene, and religion. Alongside the

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philosophical and mystical Daoism discussed above, Daoism also developed on a

popular level as a cult in which immortality was sought through magic and the use
of various elixirs. Experimentation in alchemy gave way to the development,
between the 3rd and 6th centuries, of various hygiene cults that sought to prolong
life. These developed into a general hygiene system, still practiced, that stresses
regular breathing and concentration to prevent disease and promote longevity.

About the 2nd century AD, popular Daoist religious organizations concerned with
faith healing began to appear. Subsequently, under the influence of Buddhism,
Daoist religious groups adopted institutional monasticism and a concern for
spiritual afterlife rather than bodily immortality. The basic organization of these
groups was the local parish, which supported a Daoist priest with its contributions.
Daoism was recognized as the official religion of China for several brief periods.
Various Daoist sects eventually developed, and in 1019 the leader of one of these
was given an extensive tract of land in Jiangxi (Kiangsi) Province. The successors of
this patriarch maintained control over this tract and nominal supremacy over local
Daoist clergy until 1927, when they were ousted by the Chinese Communists. In
contemporary China, religious Daoism has tended to merge with popular Buddhism
and other religions.

Buddhism
The Four Noble Truths
"I teach suffering, its origin, cessation and path. That's all I teach", declared the
Buddha 2500 years ago.

The Four Noble Truths contain the essence of the Buddha's teachings. It was these
four principles that the Buddha came to understand during his meditation under
the bodhi tree.

1. The truth of suffering (Dukkha)

2. The truth of the origin of suffering (Samudāya)
3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha)
4. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Magga)

The Buddha is often compared to a physician. In the first two Noble Truths
he diagnosed the problem (suffering) and identified its cause. The third Noble
Truth is the realisation that there is a cure.
The fourth Noble Truth, in which the Buddha set out the Eightfold Path, is
the prescription, the way to achieve a release from suffering.

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The three roots of evil (Samudāya)

These are the three ultimate causes of suffering: (Attachments)
Greed and desire, represented in art by a rooster
Ignorance or delusion, represented by a pig
Hatred and destructive urges, represented by a snake

Nirvana
Nirvana means extinguishing. Attaining nirvana - reaching enlightenment -
means extinguishing the three fires of greed, delusion and hatred.
Someone who reaches nirvana does not immediately disappear to a heavenly
realm. Nirvana is better understood as a state of mind that humans can
reach. It is a state of profound spiritual joy, without negative emotions and
fears.
Someone who has attained enlightenment is filled with compassion for all
living things.

Path to the cessation of suffering (Magga)

The final Noble Truth is the Buddha's prescription for the end of suffering.
This is a set of principles called the Eightfold Path.
The Eightfold Path is also called the Middle Way: it avoids both indulgence
and severe asceticism, neither of which the Buddha had found helpful in his
search for enlightenment.

The eight divisions/ The Noble Eightfold Path:

The eight stages are not to be taken in order, but rather support and reinforce each
other:

1. Right Understanding - Sammā ditthi

o Accepting Buddhist teachings. (The Buddha never intended his
followers to believe his teachings blindly, but to practise them and
judge for themselves whether they were true.)
2. Right Intention - Sammā sankappa
o A commitment to cultivate the right attitudes.
3. Right Speech - Sammā vācā
o Speaking truthfully, avoiding slander, gossip and abusive speech.
4. Right Action - Sammā kammanta
o Behaving peacefully and harmoniously; refraining from stealing,
killing and overindulgence in sensual pleasure.
5. Right Livelihood - Sammā ājīva
o Avoiding making a living in ways that cause harm, such as exploiting
people or killing animals, or trading in intoxicants or weapons.
6. Right Effort - Sammā vāyāma

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o Cultivating positive states of mind; freeing oneself from evil and

unwholesome states and preventing them arising in future.
7. Right Mindfulness - Sammā sati
o Developing awareness of the body, sensations, feelings and states of
mind.
8. Right Concentration - Sammā samādhi
o Developing the mental focus necessary for this awareness.

The eight stages can be grouped into:

Wisdom (right understanding and intention),
Ethical Conduct (right speech, action and livelihood) and;
Meditation (right effort, mindfulness and concentration).

The Buddha described the Eightfold Path as a means to enlightenment, like a raft
for crossing a river. Once one has reached the opposite shore, one no longer needs
the raft and can leave it behind.

Two major schools of Buddhism:

1. Hinayana – literally means ―Lesser Vehicle;‖ dubbed by the Mahayana school.

2. Mahayana – literally means ―Bigger Vehicle.‖ (The imported Buddhism of China)

Hinayana
No God
The End was Nirvana taken as
Extinction of suffering
Highest Ideal is the Arhat
The Means to an end is Contemplation
and Meditation on the Four Noble
Truths
Believes in a Self-help salvation
Exhibits dry asceticism
Negativistic and Egoistic outlook
Mahayana
Buddha was made god
The end is Nirvana, taken as Positive
Bliss
Highest Ideal is Bodhisattva
The Means to an end is the Middle Path
Salvation is with the help of others
Exhibits loving interest in the world
Positivistic in outlook

Hinduism
Hindu philosophy is a vast philosophical system which highlights the inner
man and his reality

IMPORTANT TEXTS: (besides epics)

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The Vedas – the oldest extant literary works of the Aryan mind; Veda means
―knowledge‖ in Sanskrit.

– reveal a subtle combination between idealism and naturalism, of gods

and of nature.

The Upanishads – Mostly meditations and deeper reflections on the Vedas.

– ―Upanishad‖ is derived from the word ―sad,‖ which means ―to sit
down;‖ ―Upa‖ means ―near by;‖ ―ni‖ means ―devotedly.‖

– ‗to sit down near the teacher in a devoted manner to receive

instruction on the highest reality.‖

– It is believed more than 200 Upanishads exist but the traditional

number is 108 based on the Muktikopanishad. Of these, 11 or 12 are regarded as
authentic and of philosophical significance.

Monistic Idealism or Idealistic Monism – a doctrine which upholds the existence of

only one reality: The Consciousness

Brahman – the ultimate reality; the supreme reality which transcends all things
and yet underlies all things as the ground of all things.

– It is the Universal Self, the Absolute, the ultimate cause of this

universe.

– Objective

Atman – the individual mind, soul, and spirit which feels; it is the ―Life-Breath‖ of
man which comes and goes in a single breath.

– Subjective

Differences in depiction in the Upanishads:

Brahman
Presented as the older
The less intelligible
The unknown that needs to be explained
The first principle so far as it is
comprehended in the universe
The cosmic principle of the universe
Atman
Seen as the later
The more significant
The known through which the unknown
(Brahman) finds its explanation
The first principle so far as it is known
in the inner self of man
The psychical principle

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The true self is the main topic of investigation in the Upanishads.

Five Types of Self – Five Sheaths (Kosas):

1. Annamayatman – the self which consists of flesh and blood and is dependent on
food, and therefore is changeable. This is the physical self. (body)

2. Paranamayatman - The Self that consists of the vital breaths in man and is
dependent on vital breath. This is the self as the principle of natural life, It is
contained in the Annamayatman. (vital brain)

3. Manumayatman – The self that is dependent on volition. It is the principle of the

will. It is within the Pranamayatman. (volition, will)

4. Vijnamayatman – the self that is the principle of intellection. (intellect)

5. Annandamayatman – the self that is dependent on bliss. It is the innermost

kernel of man and of nature as a whole. It is in contrast with the reality of
experience, that which lies beyond the other side, unutterable, unfathomable. (bliss)

The Development of the concept of the self from the States of Consciousness
(Mandukya Upanishad):

1. Vaisvanara or Vishva – The Waking State – This is a state common to all men. It
is directed to the objects of the external world, thus to gross objects. It has
consciousness of the external world. Here we find a subject-object duality.

2. Taijasa – The Dreaming State – This is a state where the mind has for its objects
phantasms or images of objects of the external world. thus here we find a subject-
object duality.

3. Prajna - The Deep Sleep State – This is the state that has no dream image;
hence no objects. This has no subject-object duality. there is a shadow because we
see here a shadow of supreme bliss, not positive bliss.

4. Turiya – The Fourth State – This is the suppression of the consciousness of

objects and union with the eternal knowing subject. This is the state of pure
consciousness.

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The Brahman is described in two ways in the Upanishads:

Saguna Brahman – ―Lower Brahman‖

Nirguna Brahman – ―Higher Brahman‖

Saguna Brahman Nirguna Brahman

Cosmic Acosmic
All Comprehensive Indeterminate
Full of qualities Qualityless
Describable Indescribable
Knowable Unknowable
Regarded as the cause of production, The Transcendental Absolute
maintenance and destruction of this
universe
Brahman is one, but we view it in two ways.
Saguna Brahman is the one we know while Nirguna Brahman is the extreme
abstraction.
E.g. The lower part of the ballon as Saguna while the upper, invidible part is
Nirguna Barhman
All beings arise from Brahman, live in Him, and are absorbed in Him.
(Chand. 3.14.1)
Brahman is the foundationless consciousness, the fundamental postulate of
all knowledge.
Atman = Brahman (Tat Tvam Asi) – Read the story of Uddalaka and
Svetaketu in the Chandogya Upanishad in the attachment
Our innermost individual being is the is the innermost being of universal
nature and of all her phenomena.

Maya – specifically refers to the illusion superimposed upon reality as an effect pf

ignorance.

1. Atman is the knowing subject within us.

2. Atman, as the knowing subject, is itself unknowable, for as a subject it can never
be an object.

3. Atman is the sole reality, for it is the metaphysical unity which is manifested in
all empirical plurality. This unity, however, is not to be found elsewhere than in
ourselves, in our consciousness.

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The two functions of Maya:

Concealment – it hides the atman

Projection – it manifests the atman as the world which we perceive (the
accidents or phenomena)
(2 ways of viewing the same thing)

The Early Philosophical Systems

Sankhya – Metaphysical framework of the origins of reality.

Yoga – Experiencing the levels of one‘s Being and consciousness

Vaishesika – Systematic and realistic view of the metaphysical and

cosmological elements of reality.
Nyaya – Logical and Epistemological in focus concerning the objective
exposition of the right knowledge of reality.
Mimamsa – means revered thought; the systematic investigation of actions,
rituals and sacrifices and principles according to which the Vedas are
interpreted. (Earlier portion of the Veda)
Vedanta – Guided by the belief of an underlying unity of the world, it is a
self-inquiry into the underlying nature of man‘s experience and his
knowledge of reality. (Later portion of the Veda)
o Pre-Shankara
o Shankara
o Post-Shankara

References
Confucianism: Lee Archie, Lander University: Oriental Philosophy;

Lee Dian Rainey, Confucius and Confucianism: The Essentials,

Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

Daoism: Dr. Philip Pecorino, Queensborough Community College, CUNY: Philosophy

of Religion (Section 6: Daoism)

Buddhism: http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/

Hinduism: Christopher Bartley, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy: Hindu and Buddhist

Ideas from original sources, New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015.

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