Digital Modulation Techniques PDF

Digital Modulation
ReCall XP
Transmitted Received
signal signal
Antenna
Antenna
Received
Info. info.
Transmitter Receiver Destination
Source
Digital
Modulation
CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 1
Abstract Communication Model XP
For the time being, we can ignore the physical

aspects of communication links and signals and
consider a more abstract model for this process:
Information Channel
-------> Modulator ----------->
Source |
|
|
|
|
Information |
<------ Demodulator <--------------- |
Destination
Important points XP
5 Dr Salman Ali AlQahtani
▪ What is modulation?
▪ Modulation components
▪ Why modulate?
▪ Bit rate , Baud rate
▪ Basic Digital Modulation Techniques
▪ Constellation diagram
▪ Bandwidth Efficiency, Maximum Bandwidth Efficiency
▪ What Limits Transmission?

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 2
Modulation Concept
Modulation for Wireless XP

❑ Modulation is the process of encoding information from
a message source in a manner suitable for transmission
❑ How Does it work?
❑ In modulation, a message signal, which contains the
information is used to control the parameters of a carrier
signal, so as to impress the information onto the carrier.
❑ In general it involves translating a baseband signal (source
signal) to a modulated signal at a higher frequency (the
carrier frequency, fc)

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 3
Modulation for Wireless - Digital Modulation XP
❑ Digital modulation is the process by which a sequence

of pulses (message) of duration T is transformed into a
sequence of sinusoidal waveforms, s(t) of duration T.
❑ The general form of the modulated signal is:
s(t) = A(t) cos(2  ( f c + f m (t))  t +  k (t))
❑ Digital modulation can then be defined as the process

whereby the amplitude, frequency, phase or a
combination of them is varied in accordance with the
information to be transmitted
Modulation for Wireless – Main ComponentsXP

analog radio transmitter
baseband
digital
signal
data digital analog
101101001 modulation modulation
Information source
Radio carrier
Channel
radio receiver analog

baseband
digital
signal
analog Synchronization/ data
demodulation Detection/ decision 101101001
Radio carrier

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 4
❑ The Messages (Information source)
❑ The information source produces the contents of the
message to be transmitted over the link (a “content
provider”).
❑ Physically, this is voice, data, text, images, video, etc.
❑ I nformation sources (The message or modulating signal )
fall into two basic categories:
❑ Analog: Information takes the form of a continuous function of time.
❑ Examples: voice, music, photographs, video, etc.
❑ Digital: Information takes the form of a sequence (or file) of discrete values - often 0’s
and 1’s. • . . . 0001101011011100010011 . . .
❑ Examples: text, digitized music (e.g. CD, mp3), digitized video (eg. HDTV, satellite TV, MPEG, DVD), digitized
images (e.g., JPEG, gif), HTML files, etc.
❑ The message signal could also be a multilevel signal, rather than

binary; this is not considered here.
10

❑ T he Messages (Informationsource)
Amplitude
Analog Signal
S(t)
(Continuous signal)
Time
0
Digital Signal
(Discrete signal)
Amplitude
1 0 1 1 0 1
+
0 Time
_
Bit
11

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 5
❑ Media: Carrier
❑ The channel has certain types of signals that are easily transmitted -
known as carriers.
❑ Basically, the modulator works by putting the information source onto a
carrier.
❑ For physical channels, sinusoidalsignals are the most suitable carriers.
❑ T he three essential parameters
S(t) = A cos(2πfc t + Φ)
❑ Amplitude value A(t) ― Amplitude Modulation

❑ Frequency value f(t) ― Frequency Modulation
❑ Phase value φ(t) ― Phase Modulation
▪ Basic modulation systems work by varying the amplitude, frequency or
phase of a sinusoidal carrier in concert with the information source.
12
Modulation for Wireless – Main Components XP

❑ Modulator/Demodulator
❑ The information source is usually not in a form that can
be sent directly through the channel.
❑ The modulator converts the information source into a
signal that can be sent through the channel; i.e., it
couples the source to the channel.
❑ At the other end of the channel, the demodulator
reconverts the signal received through the channel into its
original form.
❑ For two-way (i.e., duplex) communication, both ends of
the link have a modulator and a demodulator, a
combination known as a modem.
❑ By symmetry, we can consider only a one-way link for
now.
13

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 6
Bit Rate / Baud Rate XP
❑ Bit rate is the number of bits per second.

❑ Bit rate is important in computer efficiency
❑ Baud rate is the number of signal units per
second.
❑ Baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate.
❑ Bit rate is important in computer efficiency
❑ Baud rate is important in data transmission.
❑Baud rate determines the bandwidth required to
send signal
❑ Baud rate = bit rate / # bits per signal unit
14
Bit Rate / Baud Rate- Example XP

Dr Salman Ali AlQahtani
❑ Example 1: An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal
15
unit. If
1000 signal units are sent per second, find the baud rate and the
bit rate
❑ Baud rate = 1000 bauds per second (baud/s)
❑ Bit rate = 1000 x 4 = 4000 bps
❑ Example 2: The bit rate of a signal is 3000. If each signal unit
carries 6 bits, what is the baud rate?
❑ Baud rate = 3000/6 =500 bauds/sec
15

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 7
Why modulate ? XP
❑ Ease of radiation
❑Reduce antenna size: the size of an antenna is proportional
to the signal wavelength. By increasing the carrier
frequency, the wavelength decreases.
❑ The size of antenna   /4 = c/4f
❑ e.g., 3 kHz → 50 km antenna
❑ 3 GHz → 5 cm antenna
❑If we wish to throw a piece of paper(baseband signal), it
cannot go too far by itself. But by wrapping it around a
stone(carrier), it can be thrown over a longer distance
❑ Simultaneous transmission of several signals
❑FDM(Frequency Division Modulation)
❑ Reduce the influence of interference
❑Frequency Hopping
16
Digital Modulation
Techniques
18

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 8
Basic Digital Modulation Techniques XP
❑ Digital modulation: Amplitude, frequency and/or

Phase are used to represent a digital state
❑ ASK: Amplitude shift keying V(t) = A(t) cos(2πfc t + Φ)
❑ FSK: Frequency shift keying V(t) = A(t) cos(2πf(t) t + Φ)
❑ PSK: Phase shift keying V(t) = A(t) cos(2πf(t) t + Φ(t))
❑ QAM: Quadrature amplitude modulation -

V(t) = A(t) cos(2πf(t) t + Φ(t))
19
Basic Digital Modulation Techniques XP
Types of digital-to-analog modulation
20

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 9
List of Common Digital Modulation Techniques
XP
❑ Phase-shift keying (PSK): ❑ Q uadrature amplitude modulation

❑ Binary PSK (BPSK), using M=2 symbols (QAM) - a combination of PSK and ASK:
❑ Polar modulation like QAM a combination of PSK
❑ Quadrature PSK (QPSK), using M=4 symbols and ASK.
❑ 8PSK, using M=8 symbols
❑ Continuous phase modulation (CPM)
❑ 16PSK, using M=16 symbols methods:
❑ Differential PSK (DPSK) ❑ Minimum-shift keying (MSK)
❑ Differential QPSK (DQPSK) ❑ Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK)
❑ Offset QPSK (OQPSK) ❑ O rthogonal frequency-division

multiplexing (OFDM) modulation:
❑ π/4–QPSK
❑ discrete multitone (DMT) - including
❑ Frequency-shift keying (FSK): adaptive modulation and bit-loading.
❑ Audio frequency-shift keying (AFSK)
❑ S pread-spectrum techniques:
❑ Multi-frequency shift keying (M-ary FSK or MFSK)
❑ Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
❑ Dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF)
❑ Chirp spread spectrum (CSS) according to
❑ Continuous-phase frequency-shift keying (CPFSK) IEEE 802.15.4a CSS uses pseudo-
stochastic coding
❑ Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
❑ Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
❑ On-off keying (OOK), the most common ASK form applies a special scheme for channel release
21
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) XP

Message signal x(t)
Modulated ASK signal s(t)

Signals Carriers
 A1 cos(2f c t) binary 1
s(t) =   Acos(2f c t) binary 1
 A2 cos(2f c t) binary 0 On/Off s(t) = 
 0 binary 0
keying
❑ The strength of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 and 0.

❑ Frequency and phase remains the same.
❑ Highly susceptible to noise interference.
❑ On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200 bps
❑ The ASK technique is used to transmit digital data over optical fiber
22

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 10
Frequency Shift Keying XP
Message signal x(t)
FSK signal s(t)
 A cos( 2f 1t ) binary 1

s(t ) = 
 A cos( 2f 2 t ) binary 0
❑ Frequency of the carrier is varied to represent digital data (binary 0/1)

❑ Peak amplitude and phase remain constant.
❑ Avoid noise interference by looking at frequencies (change of a signal) and ignoring
amplitudes.
❑ Limitations of FSK is the physical capabilities of the carrier.
23
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying (BFSK) XP
❑ Two binary digits represented by two different

frequencies near the carrier frequency
 A cos(2f1t )
 binary 1
s (t ) = 
 A cos(2f 2t )
 binary 0
• where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier frequency fc by equal but

opposite amounts
24

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 11
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying (BFSK) XP
❑ Less susceptible to error than ASK

❑ On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200bps
❑ Used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz) radio
transmission
❑ Can be used at higher frequencies on LANs
that use coaxial cable
25
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying (MFSK) XP
❑ More than two frequencies are used

❑ In this case each signaling element represents more
than one bit.
❑ The transmitted MFSK signal for one signal element
time can be defined as follows:
si (t ) = A cos 2f i t 1 i  M
where,
❑ f i = f c + (2i – 1 – M)f d
❑ f c = the carrier frequency
❑ f d = the difference frequency
❑ M = number of different signal elements = 2L
❑ L = number of bits per signal element
26

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 12
❑ To match data rate of input bit stream, each

output signal element is held for:
Ts=LTb seconds
• where Tb is the bit period (data rate = 1/Tb)
❑ So, one signal element encodes L bits
27
❑ Total bandwidth required

2Mfd
❑ Minimum frequency separation required
2fd=1/Ts
❑ Therefore, modulator requires a bandwidth of
Wd= 2Mfd
=2L/LTb=M/Ts
28

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 13
29
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) XP
❑ Phase of the carrier is varied to represent digital data (binary 0 or

1), i.e., Binary PSK (BPSK)
❑ Amplitude and frequency remains constant.
❑ Phases are separated by 180 degrees.
❑ If phase 0 deg. to represent 0, 180 deg. to represent 1. (2-
PSK)
Message signal
x(t)
 Acos(2f t +  ) binary 1 PSK signal

s(t) = 
 Acos(2f t +  +  ) binary 0 s(t)
30

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 14
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK) XP
❑ Two-level PSK (BPSK)

❑ Uses two phases to represent binary digits
 A cos(2f ct )
 binary 1
s (t ) = 
 A cos(2f c t +  )
 binary 0
 A cos(2f ct )
 binary 1
=
− A cos(2f c t )
 binary 0
31
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK) XP
❑ Two-level PSK (BPSK) BPSK uses as its two symbols

sections of sinusoidal waves that differ in phase by a half-
cycle, as in Figure 40.
❑ If we multiply every point of the graph in Figure 40(a) by -1, the
result is Figure 40(b), which is an inversion of Figure 40(a).
32

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 15
Differential Phase-Shift Keying (DPSK) XP
❑ Phase shift with reference to previous bit

• Binary 0 – signal burst of same phase as previous signal
burst
• Binary 1 – signal burst of opposite phase to previous signal
burst
34
Differential Phase-Shift Keying (DPSK) XP
❑ The term Differential refers to the fact that the phase

shift is with reference to the previous bit transmitted
rather than to some constant reference signal.
❑ In differential encoding, the information to be
transmitted is represented in terms of the changes
between successive data symbols rather than the
signal elements themselves.
❑ DPSK avoids the requirement for an accurate local
oscillator phase at the receiver that is matched
with the transmitter.
❑ As long as the preceding phase is received
correctly, the phase reference is accurate.
35

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 16
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) XP
❑ More efficient use of bandwidth can be achieved

if each signaling element represents more than
one bit.
❑ QPSK refers to PSK with 4 states.
❑ The “Quad” in QPSK refers to four phases in
which a carrier is sent in QPSK. Also, called 4-
PSK.
❑ Because QPSK has 4 possible states, QPSK
can encode two bits per symbol.
❑ QPSK uses phase shifts separated by multiples
of  / 2 (90o).
36

❑ Example: Relationship between different phases:
37

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 17
Message signal x(t)
QPSK signal s(t)
 A cos( 2f t) binary 00 0,0 = 0 0,0 =  / 4

 
 A cos( 2f t + 2 ) binary 01 0,1 =  / 2 0,1 = 3 / 4
s(t) =   or 
 A cos( 2f t + 3 ) binary 10 1,0 =  1,0 = −3 / 4
 A cos( 2f t + 4 ) binary 11  = 3 / 2  = − / 4
  1,1  1,1
38
❑ Four-level PSK (QPSK)

❑ Each element represents more than one bit
 
A cos 2f c t + 
  4
11
 
A cos 2f c t +
3 

s (t ) = 
01
 4 
 3 
A cos 2f c t − 

00
 4 
 
A cos 2f c t − 
 10
 4
39

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 18
26
❑ The essence of quadrature modulation methods is the application of
complementary pairs of amplitude to two simultaneous sinusoidal waves
differing in phase by one-quarter of a cycle.
❑ Sinusoidal waves (of the same frequency) with a phase difference of a
quarter (or three-quarters) of a cycle are said to be in a quadrature
phase relationship.
❑ It is customary to refer to one of these waves as the I wave, or in-
phase wave, and the other as the Q wave, or quadrature wave.
40
❑Sinusoidal waves in a quadrature relationship have a

26
special quality of independence from each other that

makes them very useful in carrying data, as you will see
in a moment.
❑One of the features that makes them useful is that if
either or both of the waves is multiplied by -1, the
resulting waves still have a quadrature relationship.
❑The preservation of the quadrature relationship between
the I and Q waves, despite the inversion of either or
both of the waves, means that we can modulate both
the I and Q waves with BPSK and preserve the
quadrature relationship between them.
❑This is the basis of quadrature phase shift keying
(QPSK).
41

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 19
❑ I n fact, each signaling element (or
symbol) uses the addition of an I wave
and a Q wave each of amplitude + 1 or -1,
giving a total of four possible symbols.
❑ To each possible waveform is allocated one of
the four, 2-bit binary combinations 00, 01, 10
or 11, so any binary bit-stream can be
transmitted by an appropriate sequence of
sinusoidal symbols.
42

❑ Because 2 bits are allocated to each symbol, and each

symbol uses sinusoidal segments of the same frequency,
QPSK can achieve twice the data rate of a comparable
BPSK scheme for a given bandwidth
43

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 20
QPSK and its implementation XP
• In QPSK, we parallelize the bit stream so that every two incoming bits are split up
and PSK a carrier frequency. One carrier frequency is phase shifted 90o from the
other - in quadrature.
• The two PSKed signals are then added to produce one of 4 signal elements. L = 4
here.
44
Multi level Phase-Shift Keying (PSK) XP
❑ Multilevel PSK
❑ Using multiple phase angles with each angle having
more than one amplitude, multiple signals elements
can be achieved.
❑ Higher bitrate can be achieved over voice grade lines
by employing more complex modulation schemes.
❑ In general,
R R
D= =
L log 2 M
• D = modulation rate, baud
• R = data rate, bps
• M = number of different signal elements = 2L
• L = number of bits per signal element
47

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 21
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) XP
❑ PSK is not susceptible to noise degradation that

affects ASK or bandwidth limitations of FSK
❑ Simple to implement, efficient use of bandwidth.
❑ Very robust, used extensively in satellite
communication.
48
Constellation Diagrams XP
❑ A constellation diagram helps us to define the

amplitude and phase of a signal when we are
using two carriers, one in quadrature of the other.
❑ The X-axis represents the in-phase carrier and the
Y- axis represents quadrature carrier.
51

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 22
Constellation diagram
❑ It is a convenient way to represent the symbols available when both I
and Q waves are modulated separately.
❑ You can see that there are four symbols with QPSK, whereas BPSK
has only two.
Q Q
0,1
1 0 1,1 0,0
I I
1,0
(a) BPSK (b) QPSK
52

QPSK Constellation diagram
0,0 = 0

0,1 =  / 2

1,0 = 
 = 3 / 2
 1,1
 A cos( 2 f t) binary 00

 A cos( 2 f t +  2 ) binary 01
s(t ) = 
 A cos( 2 f t +  3 )
 A cos( 2 f t +  )
binary 10
binary 11
or
 4
More practical
Phase Data
0,0 =  / 4 45 00
 135 01
0,1 = 3 / 4
 225 11
1,0 = −3 / 4 315 10
 = − / 4
 1,1
53

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 23
ASK, BPSK, QPSK Constellation DiagramsXP
54
Drawback of Quadrature Phase Shift Keying XP

(QPSK)
❑ In QPSK the carrier phase changes only once every 2Ts
seconds; when only one of the two quadrature components, in-
phase (I) or in quadrature (Q), changes its sign, a phase shift of
90° occurs.
❑ A change in both components generate a phase shift of 180°.
These phase jump in the ideal case is instantaneous but in the
real case produce a shifting in a nonzero time and cause the
envelope to approach zero (due to filtering effect).
55

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 24
OQPSK Modulation XP
❑ The amplitude of a QPSK signal is ideally constant.

❑ However, when QPSK signals are pulse shaped, they
lose the constant envelope property.
❑ The occasional phase shift of 𝜋 radians can cause the
signal envelope to pass through zero for just an instant.
❑ Any kind of hardlimiting or nonlinear amplification of the
zero-crossings brings back the filtered sidelobes since
the fidelity of the signal at small voltage levels is lost in
transmission.
❑ To prevent the regeneration of side lobes and spectral
widening, it is imperative that QPSK signals be
amplified only using linear amplifiers, which are less
efficient.
56
OQPSK Modulation XP
❑ A modified form of QPSK, called offset QPSK (OQPSK)

or staggered QPSK is less susceptible to these
deleterious effects and supports more efficient
amplification.
❑ OQPSK signaling is similar to QPSK signaling, except
for the time alignment of the even and odd bit streams.
❑ In QPSK signaling, the bit transitions of the even and
odd bit streams occur at the same time instants, but in
OQPSK signaling, the even and odd bit streams, mI(t)
and mq(t), are offset in their relative alignment by one
bit period (half-symbol period).
57

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 25
OQPSK Modulation XP
Transitions for a QPSK modulated signal Transitions for a OQPSK modulated signal
❖ Variation of QPSK
❖ Q channel is delayed by a ½ bit interval from I channel.
❖ I and Q channel signals transition at different times
❖ Range of phase transitions is from 0-90 degrees
❖ This eliminates the 180 degree phase shift so an OQPSK signal never goes
through a zero
❖ In non-linear amplification, a zero causes regeneration of sidelobes and
spectral spreading in the signal.
❖ Thus, OQPSK signals yield a more efficient amplification process
58
/4 QPSK XP
❑ The π/4 shifted QPSK modulation is a quadrature

phase shift keying technique
• offers a compromise between OQPSK and QPSK in terms
of the allowed maximum phase transitions.
❑ It may be demodulated in a coherent or noncoherent
fashion.
• greatly simplifies receiver design.
❑ W idely used in the majority of digital radio modems.
❑ /4 QPSK is a compromise modulation method
because the phase is restricted to fluctuate between
±/4 and ±(3)/4 rather than the ±/2 phase change
for OQPSK.
60

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 26
/4 QPSK XP
❑ This variant of QPSK uses two identical constellations

which are rotated by 45° (/4 radians, hence the name) with
respect to one another (two QPSK constellations offset by
/4).
❑ → reduces the phase-shifts from a maximum of 180°, but only to a
maximum of 135°
❑ → Eliminates Zero Crossings
❑ U s ually, either the even or odd symbols are used to select
points from one of the constellations and the other symbols
select points from the other constellation.
❑ in the presence of multipath spread and fading, π/4 QPSK
performs better than OQPSK
61
/4 QPSK - example XP
• The binary data that is conveyed by this waveform is: 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0.

• The odd bits, highlighted here, contribute to the in-phase component: 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
• The even bits, highlighted here, contribute to the quadrature-phase component: 1 1 0 0 0
110
• Thus, the first symbol (1 1) is taken from the 'blue' constellation and the second
symbol (0 0) is taken from the 'green' constellation
Note that successive symbols are taken alternately from the two constellations,
starting with the 'blue' one.
62

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 27
Types of QPSK XP
29/01/200
Q Q Q
I I I
Conventional QPSK Offset QPSK /4 QPSK
❑ Conventional QPSK has transitions through zero (i.e. 1800 phase transition).
Highly linear amplifiers required.
❑ In Offset QPSK (OQPSK) , the phase transitions are limited to 900, the
transitions on the I and Q channels are staggered.
❑ In  /4 QPSK the set of constellation points are toggled each symbol, so
transitions through zero cannot occur. This scheme produces the lowest
envelope variations.
❑ All QPSK schemes require linear power amplifiers
64
Higher Order Modulation - 8PSK XP
❑ W e can extend, by varying the signal by shifts of 45 deg. (instead of 90

deg. in QPSK)
❑ W ith 8 = 23 different phases, each phase can represents 3 bits (tribit).
❑ Assign the value to points in IQ Space
❑ 3 bits per symbol
65

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 28
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) XP
❑ PSK is limited by the ability of the equipment to distinguish between small

differences in phases.
❑ Limits the potential data rate.
❑ If multiple pairs of Q and I amplitude (say 1 and -1; and 3 and -3) are allowed,
then more symbols become available.
❑ This is the principle of quadrature amplitude modulation, or QAM, which you
can think of as the application of ASK to QPSK (or PSK).
❑ We can have x variations in phase and y variations of amplitude
❑ x • y possible variation (greater data rates)
Amplitude Phase
66

❑ Numerous variations. # of phase shifts > # of amplitude shifts
8-QAM for example:

• 3-bit binary words are used.
• There are eight QAM symbols.
• Actually, 8-QAM is hardly ever used,
because it turns out that allocating 3 bits
to each symbol is problematic in
practice.
• 16-QAM and 64-QAM are much
more common.
First example handles noise best

Because of ratio of phases to
amplitudes ITU-T recommendation.
67

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 29
4-QAM (1 amplitude, 4 phases):
QAM
16-QAM ( 4 amplitudes, 4 phases):

8-QAM (2 amplitudes, 4 phases):
68
More Higher Order Modulation XP
❑ 16QAM(16-Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation) Q
❑ Each IQ symbol location is represented
by 4 data bits
(000100) (001100) (011100) (010100) (110100) (111100)(101100) (100100)
❑ 64QAM (64-Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation)
❑ Each symbol is now worth 6 bits (000101) (001101) (011101) (010101) (110101) (111101)(101101) (100101)
Q (000111) (001111) (011111) (010111) (110111) (111111)(101111) (100111)
(000110) (001110) (011110) (010110) (110110) (111110)(101110) (100110)

I
(0010) (0110) (1110) (1010)
(000010) (001010) (011010) (010010) (110010) (111010)(101010) (100010)

(0011) (0111) (1111) (1011)
I
(000011) (001011) (011011) (010011) (110011) (111011)(101011) (100011)
(0001) (0101) (1101) (1001)
(000001) (001001) (011001) (010001) (110001) (111001)(101001) (100001)
(0000) (0100) (1100) (1000)

(000000) (001000) (011000) (010000) (110000) (111000) (101000) (100000)
69

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 30
Why Not Just Keep Going? XP
❑ Errors in IQ modulation create symbol errors in transmission

❑ Noise in the transmission channel create symbol errors
❑ Inaccuracies in the receiver creates errors
❑ Signal-to-noise requirements increase with higher order modulations
Q (0010) (0110) (1110) (1010)

(01) (11)
(0011) (0111) (1111) (1011)
I
I
(0001) (0101) (1101) (1001)
(00) (10)
(0000) (0100) (1100) (1000)
70
What Limits Transmission? XP
❑ The rate at which symbols can be transmitted is limited by the

bandwidth of the channel.
❑ The rate at which errors are introduced into the bit stream [i.e. the bit
error rate (BER)] depends on the noise level in the channel.
Q
Q (0010) (0110) (1110) (1010)

(01) (11)
(0011) (0111) (1111) (1011)
I
I
(0001) (0101) (1101) (1001)
(00) (10)
(0000) (0100) (1100) (1000)
71

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 31
Bit and Baud comparison XP
Modulation Units Bits/Baud Baud rate Bit Rate
ASK, FSK, 2-PSK Bit 1 N N

4-PSK, 4-QAM Dibit 2 N 2N
8-PSK, 8-QAM Tribit 3 N 3N
16-QAM Quadbit 4 N 4N
32-QAM Pentabit 5 N 5N
64-QAM Hexabit 6 N 6N
128-QAM Septabit 7 N 7N
256-QAM Octabit 8 N 8N
72
Bit Baud comparison- examples XP
❑ A constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced points on a

circle. If the bit rate is 4800 bps, what is the baud rate?
❑ The constellation indicates 8-PSK with the points 45 degrees apart. Since 23
= 8, 3 bits are transmitted with each signal unit. Therefore, the baud rate
is 4800 / 3 = 1600 baud
❑ What is the bit rate for a 1000-baud 16-QAM signal.
❑ A 16-QAM signal has 4 bits per signal unit since log216 = 4. Thus, (1000)(4)
= 4000 bps
❑ Compute the baud rate for a 72,000-bps 64-QAM signal.
❑ A 64-QAM signal has 6 bits per signal unit since log2 64 = 6.

❑ Therefore, 72000 / 6 = 12,000 baud
73

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 32
Spectral Efficiency XP
❑ Spectral efficiency, spectrum efficiency or
bandwidth efficiency refers to the information
rate that can be transmitted over a given
bandwidth in a specific communication system.
❑ It is a measure of how efficiently a limited
frequency spectrum is utilized by the physical
layer protocol, and sometimes by the media
access control (the channel access protocol).
74
❑ B andwidth Efficiency → B : ability of a modulation

technique to accommodate data in a limited BW
B = R bps/Hz R : data rate B: RF BW

B
❑ Tradeoff between data rate and occupied BW
→ as R ↑, then BW ↑
❑ For a digital signal :
75

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 33
❑ Maximum BW efficiency → Shannon’s Theorem

❑ Most famous result in communication theory.
where
❑ B : RF BW
❑ C : channel capacity (bps) of real data (not retransmissions
or errors)
❑ To produce error-free transmission, some of the bit rate will be
taken up using retransmissions or extra bits for error control
purposes.
❑ As noise power N increases, the bit rate would still be the
same, but max Bmax decreases
76
Choice of digital modulation scheme XP

❑ Many types of digital modulation methods → subtle
differences
❑ Perfor mance factors to consider
❑ low Bit Error Rate (BER) at low S/N
❑ resistance to interference (ACI & CCI) & multipath fading
❑ occupying a minimum amount of BW
❑ easy and cheap to implement in mobile unit
❑ efficient use of battery power in mobile unit
❑ No existing modulation scheme simultaneously satisfies
all of these requirements well.
❑ Each one is better in some areas with tradeoffs of being
worse in others.
79

(Dr. V. K. Jain) 34

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Digital Modulation

CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

For the time being, we can ignore the physical

CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

Modulation for Wireless XP

CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

❑ Digital modulation is the process by which a sequence

❑ Digital modulation can then be defined as the process

Modulation for Wireless – Main ComponentsXP

radio receiver analog

CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

❑ The message signal could also be a multilevel signal, rather than

Modulation for Wireless – Main ComponentsXP

CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

❑ Amplitude value A(t) ― Amplitude Modulation

Modulation for Wireless – Main Components XP

CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

❑ Bit rate is the number of bits per second.

Bit Rate / Baud Rate- Example XP

CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

❑ Digital modulation: Amplitude, frequency and/or

❑ ASK: Amplitude shift keying V(t) = A(t) cos(2πfc t + Φ)

❑ FSK: Frequency shift keying V(t) = A(t) cos(2πf(t) t + Φ)

❑ PSK: Phase shift keying V(t) = A(t) cos(2πf(t) t + Φ(t))

❑ QAM: Quadrature amplitude modulation -

Basic Digital Modulation Techniques XP

Types of digital-to-analog modulation

CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

❑ Phase-shift keying (PSK): ❑ Q uadrature amplitude modulation

❑ Differential QPSK (DQPSK) ❑ Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK)

❑ Offset QPSK (OQPSK) ❑ O rthogonal frequency-division

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) XP

Message signal x(t)

Modulated ASK signal s(t)

❑ The strength of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 and 0.

CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

Message signal x(t)

FSK signal s(t)

 A cos( 2f 1t ) binary 1

❑ Frequency of the carrier is varied to represent digital data (binary 0/1)

Binary Frequency-Shift Keying (BFSK) XP

❑ Two binary digits represented by two different

• where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier frequency fc by equal but

CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

❑ Less susceptible to error than ASK

Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying (MFSK) XP

❑ More than two frequencies are used

CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

❑ To match data rate of input bit stream, each

Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying (MFSK) XP

❑ Total bandwidth required

CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

Phase Shift Keying (PSK) XP

❑ Phase of the carrier is varied to represent digital data (binary 0 or

 Acos(2f t +  ) binary 1 PSK signal

CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

❑ Two-level PSK (BPSK)

Phase-Shift Keying (PSK) XP

❑ Two-level PSK (BPSK) BPSK uses as its two symbols

CS608- Mobile and Wireless Networks

❑ Phase shift with reference to previous bit

Differential Phase-Shift Keying (DPSK) XP