Thermodynamics I:

REVIEW
How Substances Are Changed By Heat
The main changes that substances undergo when they are heated are (1)
increase in temperature, (2) change of state, and (3) expansion.

Latent Heat
the amount of heat energy that must be absorbed or released by a given
quantity of a substance to bring about a complete change of state in the
substance.

Sensible Heat?
 Thermodynamics I:
REVIEW
Latent Heat of Vaporization? Condensation? Fusion?

Saturated Liquid/Vapor?

Subcooled Liquid?

Superheated Vapor?

Saturation Temperature?

Saturation Pressure?
Thermodynamics
II: 1st Law of
Thermodynamics
 Objectives
• Comprehend the principles of
operation of various heat
exchangers
• Understand boundary layers
• Comprehend the First Law of
Thermo
• Comprehend the basic
principles of open/closed
thermo systems
• Comprehend thermo processes
 Heat Exchangers
• Def’n: device used to transfer
thermal energy from one
substance to another
• Direction of Flow
• -> Parallel: not used by Navy
• -> Counter: more efficient; used
by Navy
• -> Cross: used extensively
• Number of passes (single or
multiple)
 Heat Exchangers
• Type of Contact
• Direct: mixing of substances;
pour hot into cold
• Indirect/surface: no direct
contact; some thin barrier used
• Phases of Working Substance
• liquid-liquid: PLO cooler
• liquid-vapor: condenser
• vapor-vapor: radiator in home
steam-heat
 Heat Exchangers
• Boundary layer/film: w/in pipes
or channels of fluid flow, the
fluid adjacent to the wall is
stagnant
• -> local temp increases
• -> T metal decreases
• -> amount of heat transfer
decreases
• -> reduced efficiency & possible
damage
• Try to minimize film by
 Heat Exchangers
• Should be made of materials
that readily conduct heat &
have minimal corrosion
• Maximize surface area for heat
transfer
• Minimize scale, soot, dirt, &
fouling -> reduces heat
transfer, efficiency, & causes
damage
 First Law of
Thermodynam
ics
 First Law of
Thermodynamics
 First Law of
Thermodynamics
• Principle of Conservation of
Energy:
• energy can neither be created
nor destroyed, only transformed
(generic)
• energy may be transformed from
one form to another, but the total
energy of any body or system of
bodies is a quantity that can be
neither increased nor diminished
by the action of the body or
bodies (thermo)
 First Law of
Thermodynamics
• General Energy Equation
• Energy In = Energy Out, OR
• U2 - U1 = Q - W (or u2 - u1 = q - w)
• Where:
• U1 = internal energy of system @
start
• U2 = internal energy of system @
end
• Q = net thermal energy flowing
into system during process
Thermodynamic System
• Def’n: a bounded region that
contains matter (which may be
in gas, liquid, or solid phase)
• Requires a working substance
to receive, store, transport, or
deliver energy
• May be open (mass can flow
in/out) or closed (no flow of
mass out of boundaries)
 Closed System
• Mass is constant
• Energy is added as heat from

the flame
• Work by the system in the

turbine
• Energy is removed in the

condenser
• Work on the fluid by

the pump
 Open system
• Mass enters and
leaves the
system
• Energy enters
and leaves the 1
system
z
• Give an equation 2
representing the
1st law for this
open system
gz1 v12 gz2 v22
  p1v1  u1  q12    p2v2  u2  w12
gc 2 gc gc 2 gc
 Thermodynamic
Processes
• Def’n: any physical occurrence
during which an effect is
produced by the
transformation or
redistribution of energy
• Describes what happens within
a system
• Two classifications: non-flow &
steady flow
 Non-Flow Process
• Process in which
the working fluid
does not flow into
or out of its
container in the
course of the
process
• Energy In = Energy
Out
• Q - W = U 2 - U1
• Example: Piston
 Non-Flow Process
U1  Q12 U 2  W12
W12 U1  U 2  Q12
Q12 0
W12  120 BTU
W12  120 BTU BTU
w12    30
m 4lb lb
 Steady Flow Process
• Process in which the working
substance flows steadily and
uniformly through some device
(i.e., a turbine)
• Assumptions (at any cross
section):
• Properties of fluid remain
constant
• Average velocity of fluid remains
constant
• System is always filled so volin =
 Processes - Flow Work
• Def’n: mechanical energy
necessary to maintain the flow
of fluid in a system
• Although some energy has
been expended to create this
form of energy, it still
represents a stored (kinetic)
energy which can be used
• Flow work = pressure x volume
(PV)
 Processes - Enthalpy
• Enthalpy: the total energy of the
fluid due to both internal energy
& flow energies
• Represents the “heat content” or
“total heat”
• Enthalpy (H)
• H = U + PV (in ft-lb, BTU, or Joules)
• h = u + Pv (specific when divided by
lbm)
Mollier Diagram
Questions?
Thermodynamics
III:
2nd Law & Cycles

“It just don’t get no better

than this…”
 Objectives
• Understand types of state
changes
• Comprehend thermodynamic
cycles
• Comprehend the 2nd Law of
Thermodynamics to include
entropy, reversibility, & the
Carnot cycle
• Determine levels of output and
efficiency in theoretical
 Processes
• In addition to using flow/no-flow
classifications for thermo
processes, it is helpful to look at
what happens to a medium also

• The terms used to describe the

process are clues for handling
specific terms in the eneral energy
equation

• These clues help to alter the

 Processes
• Isobaric:
• pressure remains constant
throughout process (some
pistons)
• Results in a change in enthalpy
(h)
• q12 = h2 - h1
• Isometric:
• volume remains constant during
entire process
• Results in a change in internal
 Processes
• Isenthalpic:
• Enthalpy remains constant
• Throttling processes
• h1 = h2
• Isothermal:
• Temperature remains constant
• Inside a steam generator (S/G) or
boiler during steady state
conditions
• Inside a condenser in a steam
Thermodynamic Cycles
• Def’n: a recurring series of
thermodynamic processes
through which an effect is
produced by transformation or
redistribution of energy
• One classification:
• Open: working fluid taken in,
used, & discarded
• Closed: working medium never
leaves cycle, except through
leakage; medium undergoes
state changes & returns to
 Thermodynamic Cycles
• Cycles are classified according
to the disposition of the
working substance and where
heating occurs
• Open/Closed Cycle
• Heated/Unheated Engine
Five Basic Elements of
all Cycles

• Working substance: transports

energy within system
• Heat source: supplies heat to
the working medium
• Engine: device that converts
the thermal energy of the
medium into work
• Heated: heat added in engine
itself
• Unheated: heat received in some
Five Basic Elements of
all Cycles
• Heat sink/receiver: absorbs
heat from the working medium
• Pump: moves the working
medium from the low-pressure
side to the high-pressure side
of the cycle
• Examples:
• Closed-the working fluid is taken
in, used and then discarded.
(condensing steam power plant)
• Open – working fluid is taken in,
used and discarded. (combustion
Basic Thermodynamic
Cycle

HEAT SOURCE

Qin
Working
Substance
Engine W

Qout

Pump HEAT SINK

 Second Law of
Thermodynamics
• Reversibility:
• the characteristic of a process
which would allow a process to
occur in the precise reverse
order, so that the system would
be returned from its final
condition to its initial condition,
AND
• all energy that was transformed
or redistributed during the
process would be returned from
its final to original form
 Second Law of
Thermodynamics
• Def’n 1: (Clausius statement) no
process is possible where the sole
result is the removal of heat from a
low-temp reservoir and the
absorption of an equal amount of
heat by a high temp reservoir
• Def’n 2: (Kelvin-Planck) no process
is possible in which heat is
removed from a single reservoir w/
equiv amount of work produced
 Second Law of
Thermodynamics
• Implications:
• A thermodynamic process will never
yield, in the form of work, ALL the
energy supplied to it.
• No engine, actual or ideal, can convert
all the heat supplied to it into work,
since some of heat must be rejected to
a receiver that is at a lower
temperature than the source.
• No thermodynamic cycle can be 100%
efficient
 Second Law of
Thermodynamics
• Quick review:
• 1st Law:
Conservation/transformation of
energy
• 2nd Law: Limits the direction of
processes & extent of heat-to-
work conversions
 Entropy
• Def’n: theoretical measure of
thermal energy that cannot be
transformed into mechanical
work in a thermodynamic
system
• It is an index of the
unavailability of energy or the
reversibility of a process
• In all real processes, entropy
never decreases -> entropy of
universe is always rising
• Entropy is determined by the quantity of
 Carnot Cycle
• Second Law states that no
thermo system can be 100%
efficient, and no real thermal
process is completely
reversible
• A French engineer, Carnot, set
out to determine what the max
efficiency of a cycle would be if
that cycle were ideal and
completely reversible
 Carnot Cycle
• All heat is supplied at a single
high temp and all heat is
rejected at a single low temp
• Carnot used a simple cycle

Thermal efficiency = (Ts– Tr)/Ts

Ts= absolute temp flows from source
Tr = absolute temp at which heat rejected
Thermal Efficiency

Wout

Qin
 Carnot Cycle
• All heat is supplied at a single
high temp and all heat is
rejected at a single low temp
 Carnot Cycle

TSource

Qin
Working
Substance
Engine W

Qout

Pump TSink
 Carnot Cycle
• Carnot Principle: the max
thermal efficiency depends
only on the difference between
the source and sink temps
• Does not depend on property
of fluid, type of engine, T= absolute
friction, or fuel Temperature

Wout Ts  Tr
 
Qin Ts
 Carnot Cycle
• Carnot Principle: the max
thermal efficiency depends
only on the difference between
the source and sink temps
• Does not depend on property
of fluid, type of engine,
friction, or fuel
• Example:
• An inventor claims to have an
engine that receives 100 Btu of
heat and produces 25 Btu of
useful work when operating
between a source at 140F and
a receiver at 0F. Is this a valid
claim?
 Take Aways
• Know and apply the 1st and 2nd Laws
• Give the general equation and define the
terms
• Give the attributes of a closed system
• State the assumptions of steady flow
process
• Define enthalpy and entropy
• Apply the concepts of isothermal,
isometric, isobaric and adiabatic
• Draw and label a Carnot cycle, including
the associated T-s diagram
• Define thermal efficiency and perform
calculations.
• Explain why no thermodynamic process is
Questions?
 Practice / Homework
TBA