832410

A Descriptive Language for the Analysis of Electronic Music
Author(s): Brian Fennelly

Source: Perspectives of New Music, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Autumn - Winter, 1967), pp. 79-95
Published by: Perspectives of New Music
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/832410
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FORUM:ELECTRONIC
AND COMPUTERRESEARCH
A DESCRIPTIVE LANGUAGE
FOR THE ANALYSIS OF
ELECTRONIC MUSIC
BRIAN FEN-NELLY
WITH THE absence of available musical scores,the aural experience

is the single point of departure for the analysis of electronicmusic.
In approachingany musicby thismethodthe analystmustconfront the
actual sound; the ear is his only guide. Discussioncan stemonly from
concentratedlisteningand careful evaluation of the perceived phe-
nomena. The resultsof such an approach may reveal discrepancies
between the aural analysis and one done only froma score,pointing
perhaps to inadequacy in auralizingthe printednote or to a particular
fallibilityofthe ear. Deviationsmay also arisebetweenanalyticalresults
and a composer'sintentions, ifknown.In thislightaural analysiscan be
a testforthe effectiveness of realizationof the composer'saims. At the
same timeit teststhe analyst'sown acuity and will easily revealthat a
particularpiece may have several facetsto which any individualmay
respond.
The literatureofelectronicmusichas recentlybeen the subjectoftwo
kindsofaurally-oriented investigationsat theYale University
studio.The
more general testgleaned broad observationson formalcharacteristics
and propertiesof texture from a group of student composersand
performers in the Yale School of Music. Given two shortpieces (by
Babbittand Boulez), withthe numberofhearingsand the timeallowed
fordecisionslimited,the majorityof the groupcoped well withthe ana-
lytictasks.As mightbe expected,the workof thosewithcompositional
experienceexhibited more sophistication.Textural descriptionsrelied
heavilyon analogies withfamiliarsounds,instrumentaland otherwise.
The mediumitselfdid not serveas an appreciableobstacleto thosewho
approached the projectwithoutpreconceptions.
The otherprojectrequiredmoredetailedanalyticworkfrommembers
of a class of studenttheoristsand composers,all of whom weregaining
insightintobasic studiotechniques.Several weekswere allowed forthe
preparation of individual papers analyzing a short work (Franco
Evangelisti'sIncontri difasciesonore)forsubsequentseminardiscussion.
*
79"
PERSPECTIVES OF NEW MUSIC
Severe problems arose while attemptingto isolate and characterize

certain elementswithoutlengthyand oftenlabored descriptions.The
lack of a systemby which the "orchestration"of any passage mightbe
conciselydefined was a barrier to group communication,thwarting
formulationand discussionat the desired level of detail. Hence the
motivationfor the presentproject: to provide a systematic,straight-
forwardmeans for the concise identificationand characterizationof
soundsencounteredin the tape literature.
The aural experiencewas designatedas thepointoforientation forthis
system; it was fromhere that analysiswas to proceed. The specificnature
ofthederivationofa givensoundwould notbe an aspectofthelanguage,
as this would require priorknowledgeas to source and manipulation.
Presumablysuchinformation would lie outsideoftheanalyst'sgrasp.The
lack ofsuch data would not alter the relevanceor potencyofhis tools,
which however do depend in part on a basic familiaritywith the
indigenouselectronicsourcesand modes of transformation. The effects
of variousways of filtering, etc.
reverberation, upon several sources,as
well as examplesof different modes of attack and decay, mustbe made
available to the noviceforintensivestudy.Such a compilationis a kind
of introductionto the "orchestralinstruments" and theircapabilities.A
texturalanalysisoforchestration, conventionalor electronic,can proceed
only aftersuch groundworkhas been accomplished.
The envisionedsystemmust seek several kinds of balance. In the
incorporationof technicalterms,the disparityin knowledgeof studio
processesbetween the intendedanalyst and the experiencedcomposer
mustbe considered.A second balance mustbe foundin the inclusionof
termsthat relyon analogy or onomatopoeia. While convenientin con-
ceptualizingsounds,such termscan be bulkyand awkwardin context.
A thirdconsiderationis necessaryin regardto the scope and degreeof
specificityofthesystemelements.While an extensive, detailedsymbology
lends an air ofprecision,it can be inflexibleand become an undesirable
obstacleto learningthe language. The precisionofthe ear itselfand its
powersofdifferentiation will dictatethe limitsofthe system.Ideally,the
symbolswill associate readily with the matterdescribedand will have
additional qualities of simplicityand convenienceof handling.Rather
than a complex body of terms,a flexiblecore capable of extensionand
developmentforthe particularinstanceis desirable.
The verynatureof the electronicmediumrequiresthe terminology to
permit overlapping means of descriptionto cover, for example, the
continuumformedby thecombinationofpitchedcomponentsproceeding
fromthe exactlytuned chord,throughthe area of non-harmonicmix-
tures,to the dense natureof frequencyrelationsof the componentsof a
noiseband-width.Betweentheouterlimitsand themixtures, theborders
S80
FORUM: ELECTRONIC AND COMPUTER RESEARCH
are indistinct,especiallyin the contextof a composition.Provisionsmust

be made so thatthe descriptivelanguage itselfis capable ofsuch smooth
transitions,so thatthereare areas whichcan be definedin termsofeither
pole and at the same timemade to relateto the other.
The possiblekindsofdescriptive systemswithinthelimitations imposed
above are few. The precision of a completelytechnical language is
impossiblebecause the productis heard only in its finishedform;the
stagesof realizationare unknown.On the otherhand, such an abstract
language would not be apt to convey the aural image as readily as
desired.The antithesisof thissystemtypewould be a synthetic vocabu-
lary whose words contain by phonic analogy the attack and timbral
characteristicsof the musical sounds they represent.While the aural
associationhere would be direct,such an approach is cumbersomeand
would be difficultto employ with a proper measure of consistency.Its
comical implicationsare obvious. There are, however,certain noise-
relatedsoundswhose charactercan be describedonomatopoeicallyin a
mannermoreefficient than any othersystem.The use ofthe vocabulary
of conventionalinstrumental sounds and soundsof natureas referential
sonoritieswhere analogy to electronicsound can be made comprises
anotherpoint of departure.A workablesolutionmust findsome com-
fortablemiddlegroundthatcan include the mostusefulfeaturesofeach.
In combiningtermsderived fromsuch unrelatedavenues of approach
each must be allowed to participatein a complementarymanner to
functionmosteffectively.
In evolvinga body of termsthereare certaininitialassumptionsand
definitions to be made. Since the analyticlanguage is divorcedfromthe
derivationalprocess,terminology common to both mustbe regardedas
purely descriptive in the former. Such termscannot be construedto
specifyprocess, even though they may actually apply, but will only
represent events whose featuresare typical of the resultsof the given
processes. This applies to both source and transformation terms.In
using terms arising from comparisons with environmental sounds,an
additional stipulationis necessary.Given an eventtimbrallyrelatedto
the piano, the language will make this association regardlessof its
relevancyto sound derivation;it will also existapart fromand transcend
any aesthetic questions involving the proprietyof particularsource
materials.
The admissionof both electronicsignals (of necessity)and natural
analogs (for convenience) to the fund of "sound images" points to
a furtherneed: consistencyof notation. Whereas the designationof
a soundas "piano-like"inferscertainpropertiesof attackand decay,the
designation"filteredsawtooth"containsno such inferences, as the latter
is a steadystate phenomenonin its unmodifiedform.A notationmust
S81
be devised to accomodate both, so that not only the timbrebut the

envelope and otherfeaturesof a sound may be representedin a brief
standardizedformat.The inevitablebasis of the language is a formula
whose termsseparatelyrepresentthe componentsof a sound in rankof
their perceptual importance: firsttimbre,with means of describing
spectrumadjustments,then the envelope controlsof attack type and
dynamiccurve.A thirdtermwould be usefulfordesignatingany further
definingcharacteristics,as beating, amplitude oscillationsof certain
spectrumcomponents,or use of reverberation. These last featurescollec-
tivelywill be given the generous title"Enhancement." With symbolsas
follows-timbre Xs of timbre type X and spectrumS, envelope Yc
of attack Y and continuationC, and enhancement E-the general
formulaforthe descriptionof any sound is XsYcE. This formulawill
permitdescriptionnot only of the single sound but can apply also to
linear "voices" or groups of elements of identical timbreand attack.
Additionally,the individualtermsmay be extractedfordiscussionsof a
more general nature,e.g., a particulartimbraltype withoutregardto
envelopeor withoutregardto particularspectraladjustments.Isolation
of a particularattack typeor spectrumcontrolregardlessof timbreare
other possibilities.Use of lower-casesymbols,definedin the courseof
the followingdiscussion,forsecondary characteristicscan eventually
expand the formula to XsrtYcdiE.*
Implementationnow restsupon adequate subdivisionand categoriza-
tion of the areas definedby each of the formulasymbols.Decisionscon-
cerningthe nature and extent of the subdivisionsmust be primarily
based on practicality,as each of these areas possessescharacteristics
of
a continuum.
TimbreXs
Timbral compositiondepends on spectralfrequencycharacteristics,
wherea broad area existsbetweenwhat is perceivedas definitely pitched
and definitelynon-pitched(noise). In thistransitionalzone the ear per-
ceives pitcharea characteristics.In the case of a group of simpletones
forminga "mistunedchord,"it triesto rationalizeand adjust thetuning.
While the latteris clearlya pitchedevent,othereventsmay be border-
line. The language will indicate only two general areas: pitch-related
sound, with a fundamentalor a particular predominant tone, and
noise-relatedsound. These concepts are quite broad in nature. The
* AUTHOR'S NOTE. Where both

subscriptsand superscriptsoccurforany X, Y, or E,
the authorprefersa stylein whichthe upper index(or indices)is placed
directlyabove the
lower index. Due to productiondifficulties
in typecomposition,thiswas impossible.It is
thereforeleftto thereaderto accomplishthe necessarytranspositionto arriveat theoriginal
notation.
* 82 *
exactpointofdivisionbetweenthetwoareasin anygivencontext must

be decideduponbytheindividualauditorforhisownreference. Since
the languageis meantto reflecta personalevaluation,thispointis
criticalas an appraisalofhow each individual'sperceptionoperates.
The previously discussed"soundimages"-thosesoundsmosteasily
auralizedfroma givendescription-areoftwokinds:the basicelec-
tronicsignalsand the environmentally relatedsounds.While the
generated signalsarelimited innumber,thereislittlerestriction
onpossi-
ble naturalanalogs.A listingofsymbolsforthelatteris therefore im-
practical.In devising classgroupingsfortimbraltypes,theseareplaced
undergeneralheadings,whiletheperceptually distinctions
significant
betweentheelectronic signalsserveas basesfortheirseparationinto
differentclasses.See TableI, timbre
typeX. I and II arethepitch-related
and noise-related divisions, Classes1, 2, and 5 coverthe
respectively.
TABLEI: Timbre
Xs
TimbretypeX:
1. sinewave I.-pitched, withfundamental

2. squareorsawtooth
wave or predominant tone
3. combinations* II.-noise-related
4. "natural"(environmental
analog) * combinations
whitenoise ofseveral
5.
II sourcesperceivedas a single
6. combinations*
unit
7. "natural"(environmental
analog)
Spectrum S:
subscript
$ G. full,or nearly full spectrum
H. high components only
[MH. midrangeand highcomponents
- M. midrange only
LM. midrangeand lows
: L. low
. componentsonly
LH. lowsand highsonly,midrangeout
F*. fluctuating
*
Special cases of F:
b d Key:
frequencyrange of componentsvs. time
* 83
?
t indicating timbre-classinterrelation:
Superscript
forX classes: 1, 2, 5: class 4 or 7 abbreviations if related to natural timbral
types (the timbrefirsthaving been defined as 1, 2, or 5)
3, 6: class 4 or 7 abbreviations and class numbers 1, 2, 5 to
identifytimbral qualities
4, 7: class numbers 1, 2, 5 if related, or other class 4 and 7
abbreviations
Secondsubscript
r denoting general registralplacement:
0 verylow
1 low Approximateboundaries:
2 medium low
3 midrange
4
5
medium high
high
-I i IIs
6 very high 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
electronictimbres;square and sawtoothwaveforms are groupedtogether,

since theyare usuallyimpossibleto distinguishin the contextofa piece.
Classes 4 and 7 encompass the wide gamut of natural analogs. Thus
while each of the first-mentionedclasses definesa timbraltype,classes
4 and 7 are non-homogeneous.Notationof naturalanalogs will require
nominal abbreviationsforidentification,as V = vocal, Pno = Piano,
BD = bass drum, etc. A key is obviouslynecessaryforany abbrevia-
tionsused.
Two furtherclasses, 3 and 6, are provided forthe residual timbres
whichdo not have the limitedcharacteristics of the basic electronicsig-
nals and forwhich no environmentalanalog can be envisioned.The
designation"combination"impliesthe probabilitythatsuch soundsare
the resultof more than one source signal, yet combined so that the
resultis perceivedas a singleunit.Formationswhereindividualpitched
elementscan be isolated,such as chords,are the moststraightforward
examples of class 3. Chord formationscan be definedeitheras class 3
membersor as "chords composed of tones Xs," Xs indicatingthe tim-
bral natureof the individualtones.The lattermethodspecifically indi-
cates the chordal nature,whereas the formerindicates only member-
ship in the class of pitchedcombinations.Expectedly,the dividingline
between classes 3 and 6 is inexact; e.g., the sine-tone mixtures
encounteredin the firstCologne Studio efforts are oftenborderlineas
to theirdesignationhere,dependingon the numberand frequencyre-
lation of theircomponents.As these two classes do not definetimbral
* 84 *
qualities, thisis accomplished with superscriptsto be discussed later.

The "finetuning"adjustmentfortimbredescriptionis the spectrum
subscriptS. While the spectrumrange symbolsare definedas resultsof
the subtractiveprocessof filtering a complexspectrum,thesesame sym-
bols apply also to spectraresultingfromsine-tonesuperimposition. Here
the symbolsmust be interpretedas defininga spectrumwhich is the
result of the additive process of selectingand combining certain fre-
quencies in a chosen intensityrelation. Symbol G would implythe
additionof many partials,symbolL the pure or nearlypure sine wave.
SymbolsH, MH, and M have littlemeaning in thiscontextexceptto
indicate portionsof a synthesizedharmonicserieswhose fundamental
is missing.These three symbolsare much more explicit in regard to
timbre classes 2 or 5, where spectrumcharacteristicsresultingfrom
filteringare predictable.The second set of symbolscontainedin the far
left column is presentedbecause their graphic nature may be more
appealing forhandwrittenwork.
Not only does the spectrumsubscriptpinpointtimbremoreexactly,
it allows the timbreclassesofenvironmental analogs to encompassmore
of the sound phenomena of the electronicmedium. The timbretype
designationis consideredto be equivalent to the unmodifiedsource;an
analysisofthe possibilitiesof spectralmodificationof any naturalsound
will appreciably increase the number of environmentalrelationsthat
can be made. It is possible,forexample, to auralize the timbralnature
of a gong with all but the lowest frequenciesremoved,or a modified
bassoon timbre.Definitelythe mostusefularea will be in findingana-
logs fornoise-relatedsounds.
The finalspectrumsymbolF definesa spectrumwhich is notstable.
The simple cases of such a characteristicare those in which the spec-
trum begins at a certain band-widthand widens or narrows,up or
down. For convenience, each of the lettersymbolsused to designate
thesefeaturesis by its particulargeometryrelatedto the spectrumwith
which it is identified.Combinationsof these symbolscan be employed
to definespectra which can be broken down into simple components,
e.g.,db,symbolsin succession,to indicatespectrumchangefromlowsonly
upwards and back again; or pd,symbolssimultaneously,indicatingin-
troductionof highsas the lows are filteredout. A more precisedescrip-
tion may be apt in some circumstances,using subclasses of F in con-
junctionwiththe otherspectrumsubscripts:e.g., qdGwhereG indicates
that the point of arrival is the full spectrum;or even more precise,
MqdG additionallyindicatingthe initialstateofthe spectrumto be mid-
range only.The combinationLMp indicatesupward filtering operating
on spectrumLM until it is obliterated; LMpM indicates that such
filteringis dampened to leave midrange elements untouched. The
S85
degree to which such detail is required will depend on the analyst's

purpose; a composerusingthe language foran informalscoremay wish
to be specifichere. In the analyst's case, it is obvious that only where
such detail can be apprehendedaurally is thisdescriptionpermittedat
all. Wherethereis evidenceofchangingspectrum,impossibleto analyze,
the generalsymbolF mustsuffice.
Additional adjuncts to timbre type have been devised to further
clarifythe timbraldescription.The superscriptt to X varies in impor-
tance accordingto the timbreclass withwhich it is used. For classes3
and 6 it suppliestimbralinformationlacking in the timbretypedesig-
nation. For the remainingclasses it is of use only when some timbre-
type interrelationobtains. With classes 1, 2, and 5, and most natural
analogs, it providesan additional refinementby relatinga secondary
timbral image to a definedtimbretype,indicatingan intersectionof
the two. Some commonexamples mightbe: a class 2 waveformfiltered
almostto the pointof a sine wave, 2L0; the bassoon-like2LMbsn or tuba-
like 2Ltba;a bell-likesound withsine-tonestructure, bell'. In the case of
vocally relatedsound, the superscriptis actually timbredefining,since
various timbresare possible with the voice. Hence V5 can be used to
denote the vocal "sh." It is also possible to notate vowel sounds. This
use ofthesuperscript withsuch a flexibleinstrument as thevoiceinvolves
stipulationas to which of the possiblesound typesis desired.A similar
proceduremay obtain withotherinstruments concerningthe mode of
sound production,e.g., VCpizz forpizzicato cello, Pnomute forkeyboard
sound withmutedstrings.
A second subindex r to X accommodates a scheme to locate sounds
withinthe frequencycontinuum.The nature of the subdivisionarises
from practicality,providinga convenientnumber of registralareas,
each of sufficiently broad range. The boundaries indicated are only
approximate, dividingthe continuum into equal parts except forthe
two extremes.This subscriptis mostusefulin fixingthe pitch-arealoca-
tion of noise-relatedsound,or in definingthe ambitusof an instrumen-
tal line. Symbolscan be joined to indicatelargerareas.
EnvelopeYc
The twobasic componentsY and subscriptC definetheincipienttran-
sientstateand the subsequentnatureofthe dynamiccurverespectively.
With Yc coupled to Xs, timbraldescriptioncan be fittedwithappro-
priateenvelopecharacteristics that defineboth a particularattacktype
(which in the case of conventional instrumentsis criticalto identifica-
tion) and the nature of continuation of the sound. The latterdepends
on whetheror not the "instrument"is capable of sustainingitssounds;
it is made either to decay at a given rate or to adjust or maintain
S86
its dynamic continuation at will. While the variations possible in

the lattercase are manifold,the natureof simple decay makesit desir-
able to make measurementof the length of the sound possible as
an index of still another instrument-defining characteristic.In other
instancesmeasurementof time betweenattackscan indicatethe pacing
of a line. Implementationof such will be made throughadditionto the
Yc term.
Table II setsforththedesignationsystemfortheenvelopecomponents.
Since envelopecharacteristics functionin time,the componentsare de-
finedin termsof change or rate of change of amplitudewithrespectto
TABLE II: EnvelopeYc
AttackY: Continuation C:
subscript
A veryslowgrowth a steadystate
B slowgrowth b increasingintensity
(crescendo)
C moderategrowth c decreasingintensity(diminuendo)
D rapidgrowth d notclassifiable
due to context
O attackimperceptible f fluctuatingintensity
(possibly
definedin termsofa, b, & c)
i to denoteintensity
Superscript relationofY to C:
1 loud
m medium
s soft
o attackcharacteristics
appear to be withouttransients
Secondsubscript
d indicatinggeneralarea of componentdurationor signalpacing:
(Symbols definea "durationregister"or speed rangeofspecifiedambitus.)
very
short short moderate long verylong
S
(less S M L
Symbols: than L
/811) s s ms ml 1 1 (8" or more)
Duration
in seconds: '/8 '? '/2 1 2 4 8
Boundarypoint
at=60:
Equivalents
r oo
* 87 *
the timeelement.The attack typesunder Y are distinguished by differ-

ent rates of growth of the incipient elements of signals. This is in
proportionto the perceiveddegreeof firmness of the attack.The 0 class
accommodatesthe case ofthe sound whichemergesfromsilencewithits
beginningundetectable.The term"attack transients"has been avoided
deliberatelyin thisdiscussionsince the electronicmedium is capable of
projectinga signal withouttransientfrequencyor amplitudecharacter-
istics.Any transientelementspresentunder such conditionsare tran-
sients of response to the recorded signal in the playback system,
the acoustic environment,and the ear. Such a signal falls within
the attackgroupsspecifiedas one of rapid growth-a case in whichthe
growthis instantaneousfromzero to fullamplitude. The lack oftran-
sientsdoes not necessarilydivestsuch a sound of elegance, althoughits
qualitiesare oftenquite distinctive.Othersignalslackingnoisetransients
characteristicof conventional instrumentscan similarly be accom-
modated by the particularmethodof attack definitionhere employed.
The basic continuationtypesunder subscriptC are mostelementary:
steady state,crescendo,and diminuendo. In contextswhere tone con-
tinuationcannot be apprehendedbecause of maskingby otherelements
or the rapidityof a passage, symbold denotes thisproblem.The final
category f encompasses those dynamic curves other than the most
simpleones enumerated.A relationbetweenthisletterdesignationand
the F of fluctuatingspectrumcan be noted. Spectrumchanges can be
accompanied by changesin intensity, whetheractual or onlyapparent;
the symbologicalrelationof the two not only portraysthe analogyof
commonprocessesof fluctuationbut also connotesthe possibility of the
perceiver's association of spectrumadjustment with intensitychange,
however slight. (Such "apparent" intensitychange is not likelyto
be significantin a contextwhere the attentionis drawn primarilyto
the spectrumactivity.)The compound dynamic curves of f proceed
fromthe commonespressivo(C >) whichis notatedas the combi-
nation bc, to thosecontainingnumerouschanges,possiblyat speedstoo
rapid to allow breakdownintosimplecomponents.It is obviousthatthe
value of such an analysisin termsof basic dynamicchanges will differ
accordingto the situationand the natureof the investigation. The ease
withwhichsuch analysiscan be done is in proportionto the perceptual
significance of the ordering of the components. Rapidly fluctu-
ating dynamiccurvestend towardsimilarity;theircommoncharacter-
istic of fluctuationis more noticeable than the differencebetweenthe
specificordersofdynamicchanges.Hence dynamiccomponentanalysis
is apt to have value only where the individual changes are markedly
apparent and is prescribedprimarilyforclarificationof the least in-
volved situations,as bc, bac, etc., and slowlypaced unfoldingswhere
S88
the natureofthecurveis evidentand relevantto thegestureofthesound.

Furthercategoriesof descriptivedata that can be appended to the
presentYc are of two kinds, both pertinentto elucidation of the Yc
termitself.The firstdescribesthe intensityrelationofthe attackto the
immediatelyfollowingpart of the signal,allowingmoreprecisionin for-
mulation of attack properties.This takes the formof superscripti, of
which thereare fourtypesas listed in Table II. The finalsymbolwill
conveythe peculiar qualitiesof the situationwherethereis an apparent
absence of attack transients.The remainingsymbolsrepresentdegree
of intensityrelationon a verybroad basis of division.
The second categorycomprisesa methodof correlatingthe envelope
witha schemeof durationalmeasurement.This is the second subscript
to Y, designatedd. Here again, the particularinstancewill dictatethe
degree of accuracy required. The systempermitstwo kinds of use:
durationalmeasurementofsinglesounds,and measurementofdistance
between attack pointsin an instrumentalline. The firstdenotestime
displaced by a sound,the second generatesa conceptofthe rateofflow
or pacing of signals. The meaning will be evidentfromthe natureof
the matterundergoingdescription,as the symboliccharacterizationof
a timbrallycontinuousline must be identifiedas such to differentiate
it fromthe singlesound. The two interpretations can be seen in the fol-
lowing:"an instrumental line composedof elementsXsYcd" (d = dura-
tion of each individual element) and "an instrumentalline XsYcd"
(d = average distance between attacks withinthe line, XsYc defines
the instrumental character).
The method of duration measurement permits three degrees of
accuracy. Highly generalized categorizationis achieved by use ofthe
S S M L L divisionsshownin Table II. Subdivisionofthe S M L groups
as accomplishedby the lower-casesymbolsprovidesfinerdefinitionof
the mostfrequentlyencounteredareas. In contrastto these ratherin-
formal,pre-establishedpartitionsof the timecontinuum,the thirdtype
of notationpermitsa precisionwhose limitationsare prescribedonlyby
the auditor's skill. In place of a symbol denotinga duration area the
measurednumericalvalue in secondsor fractions ofa secondis employed
forthe d subscript.This type of measurementis most appropriatein
conjunctionwith indicationof rates of speed. The composerusingthis
language in preparinga score will prefersuch numericalmeasurement
as the mostaccurate recordof his work.
The durationsubscriptis ofstillfurther use in isolatingenvelopechar-
acteristics.In the case of the compound dynamic curve definedby a
combination of the continuationsubscriptsa, b, and c, the resulting
compositeterm gives no indication of the relativeweightsof the con-
stituentelementswithregardto that portionof the total timeeach ele-
S89
ment displaces. The desire to include such informationmay arise in

certaincases,e.g., thatofa longsound containingbothrapid and slowly
unfoldingchangesin envelope.While seldomcriticalto theanalyst,such
data is ofinterestto the composerand may be recordedby a succession
of C and d subscriptsin whicheach d value associateswiththe preceed-
ing C symbol:
YCOdiC2d2"*
*Cndn"
E
Enhancement
The gatheringofall further characteristics
ofa sound underthehead-
ing "Enhancement" is a conveniencerather than an appraisal of their
contributionto the elegance of a particularevent; neitherdoes it indi-
cate the presence of any common aspect binding these properties
togetherinto a group.There are, however,subgroupsas can be seen in
Table III, to be discussedin turn.
The initialsymbol0 denotesthelack ofany sonorousqualitiesbeyond
those coveredby the X and Y termsof the formula.In the case ofthe
electronicsignal this can give evidence of a certain baldness in the
quality of the sound. Since natural analogs are by nature richerin
quality, this symbol associated with them does not of necessityhave
such a connotation.
The fourE elementsrelatedto the use of reverberation deal withthe
"live" aspects of a sound. The symbol nr distinctlyspecifiesa lack of
reverberationin contrastto the more inclusivesymbol0. The nexttwo
termsdeal with the degree of enlivenment,while the final Ro denotes
the presenceof the echo alone, apparentlyuncoupled fromthe input
signal. Such a sound has a hollow quality and usuallylacksincisiveness
in the attack.
The two typesof vibratolistedare to be distinguishedby the degree
to which theydo or do not resemblewhat would be a normal vibrato
on a conventional instrumentof appropriate registerand tone color
TABLE III: EnhancementE
0 none
nr no reverberation v "natural"vibrato
r somenoticeablereverberation V "abnormal"vibrato
R highreverberation
Ro reverberation
only b beating
g glissandoduringdecay (fM) I iteration
G pitchlevels(M1)
glissandoconnecting FB feedback
VS variablespeed L use ofloops
AM amplitudemodulationotherthanvibrato
FM frequencymodulation other than vibrato
S90
approximate to thesoundunderobservation. It is,in effect,

a measure
ofthesuccessofa simulatedvibratoin persuadingthe auditorofits
authenticity. Such a decisionmustnotbe regardedas purelyqualita-
tive,as the measure is essentially
quantitative-the "unnatural" vibrato
is apt to be unusuallywideor rigidly periodic.
Confusion withvibratocan sometimes occurin detecting thepresence
ofa beatingfrequency, denotedbythesymbolb. Usuallythesingularity
ofthebeatingphenomenonis conspicuous,so thatinstancesofsimi-
laritybetween thetwoarefew.To pinpoint theidentity oftheseinstances
forpurposesofauralizationa compositetermsuggests itself:thebeat-
ingsymbolwiththeappropriate vibratosymbolas a superscript.
Distinction is madebetweena glissandoduringthecontinuation ofa
singlesoundor totality ofsounds(g) and theuse ofglissandoin sliding
fromone pitchlevel to another,i.e., portamento (G). The latteris
essentially an aspectofmelodicinflection. Optionalarrowsindicatethe
direction ofthechangein frequency. The VS termindicates a glissando
ofa lessconventional naturethatcan be regarded as a productofvary-
ing the tape speed.The characterof thissituationis ratherunusual
becauseofthetransparency ofitstechnicalmeans.Use oftheVS term
thusalludestoa certainobviousness oftechnique, whichisoften equated
witha lack ofrefinement ofgesture.However,thelatteris clearlyan
aesthetic issuewhichmustremainoutsidetheconcernsofthisdescrip-
tivesystem.
Use ofthesymbols foramplitudemodulation and frequency modula-
tionis presumedto excludedefinition ofsituationswherethesetech-
niquesare involvedin theproduction ofvibrato.Whenit is necessary
to indicatemodeofvibratoproduction theycan becomesuperscripts to
theappropriate vibratoterm.Otherwise, AM and FM are reserved for
specialinstances,e.g.,individualamplitudevariationoftheinternal
components ofa mixture.This is to be distinguished fromamplitude
change in the envelopeYc, whichpertains to the largespan dynamic
curveofthecomposite sound.Similarly, wavering ofpitchorwarbling
lie withinthe domain of the FM symbol,as theseare outsidethe
boundsoftheconceptofvibrato.FM is notto be confused withadjust-
mentsto thetimbralspectrum.
The finalgroupofE termsdealswiththreetypesofsignalrepetition
encountered primarily in thecomposition oftimbraland linearmusical
texture.The symbolI denotesthe presenceof an iteratedquantity
withinthebodyofa largerunitthatis perceivedas a singlesound.It
is essentialthatsuchiteration contributeto thesonorousqualityofthe
largerunit ratherthan existas an independent entity,otherwise it
wouldhaveto be definedas a seriesofseparatesignals.
The presenceofacousticfeedbackFB is easilydetected.Whileitin-
91
volves echoing of a signal or series of signals, its significanceis also

primarilytextural,here withrespectto the linear densityof the music.
In the statementXsYcFB, XsYc definesthe initialsignal and FB de-
notesthe presenceof any numberofafter-images.
While loop techniquecan be the sourceofostinato,it is also ofuse in
assemblinga montage of sounds whose componentslose individuality
and cannot be distinguished,much like a crowd noise. Hence L indi-
cates the quality of inner confusionthat exists in such a composite
sound. When conterned with an ostinato,L refersto the repetitionof
the sound or sequence of sounds definedby the precedingtermsofthe
formula.
Furtheraspectsthat would fallunder the Enhancementtermmay be
occasionallyencountered,such as deliberatedistortionof the recorded
signal employedas a timbraladjunct. Appropriatesymbolsreadilysug-
gest themselvesfor such procedures.The arrows associated with the
glissandotermsmightalso be applied in a horizontaldirectionto indi-
cate reversalof such processes as reverberationor feedback. In the
verticaldirection,theycan denote an increasing(upward) or decreas-
ing rate ofvibratoor beating.
Provisionshave been made forindicatingthe nature of practically

every possible aspect of an event with the exceptionof its dynamic
level, forwhich the conventionalsymbolssuffice.It is unnecessaryto
append theseto the presentformula,whichis quite detailed in itsmost
complete stage, unless specificationof critical intensityvalues of a
changingdynamic curve is desired. Requirementsforthe fullformula
may be infrequent,but such detail is always possible; the appropriate
subscriptsor superscriptscan be selectedto deal withparticularneeds.
The inclusionof any typeof onomatopoeicdescriptionintothislan-
guage has not been discussed.As noted earlier,some sounds may lend
themselvesmore readily to this approach than to any otherincluding
the presentanalyticsystem.The identityof a complexentitythatis the
phonic representationof a total sound would be placed in jeopardy
were it to be subject to dismembermentforaccommodation into the
XsYc formula.The mostpracticalsolutionallows such termsto main-
tain theirintegralnatureand permitstheirexistenceas adjunctsto the
system,outsideof the XsYC symbology.Still,formaximumconsistency
and ease ofinspectionand correlationof finalanalyticresults,thistech-
nique should be invoked only in those complex situationsto which
onomatopoeiais particularlyadaptable and in whichXsYc component
analysiswould be unusuallydifficult to performand auralize.
Within the language onomatopoeia can functionin a quite flexible
mannerby the admissionof certainshortwords,i.e., Buzz, Hiss, etc.,to
S92
the categoriesof naturalanalogs. As the environmental analog possesses

by nature a suggestionof the total sound ratherthan only its timbral
composition,such wordscan be displayedquite comfortably withinthe
broader conditionof X class significationthat applies here. Their use-
fulnessis to be foundparticularlyin makingtimbralcross-relations by
means of superscriptt.
A furtheruse of phonic analogy can be accomplished when vowel
formantcharacteristics are detectedin a spectrum;here the prescribed
spectrumsymbology can be replaced by the properlyrelated vowel
sound. The presenceofsuch non-linearcharacteristics in spectrumcom-
ponent intensity can be indicated more generallyby underliningthe
range in which the peak occurs, as S = LMH in the case of a fullspec-
trumwithemphasized highs.By the same tokena fullspectrumwhose
midrangeintensityhas been partiallyreduced mightbe notatedLMH,
the upper dash denotinga decrease in emphasis.These modifications to
the symbologyare essentiallyextensionsof the basic designto increase
the specificityof its terminology.
A need to modifythe basic X and Y classesshouldnot arise,although
these groupsin the hands of the composermightyield to specification
of the actual sourcesand attack processesinvolved. The resultsofthe
use of such studio devices as the electronicswitchand ring modulator
submitthemselvesto descriptionby the presentedterminology without
invokingprocedural terms. Here again, the composermay preferinclu-
sion of such data. The electronicswitchused as a source of impulsesis
not mentionedin the electronictimbralclasses,as each of the impulses
consistsofa whitenoiseband, X class 5. As a grouptheseimpulseseither
definea frequencybelongingto class 2 or existas an iterativequantity,
dependingon the speed ofthe pulse train.
Adaptationsof the given symbologycan be envisionedto accommo-
date a varietyof complex situations.Given a particularsequence of
signals of XsYc subjected firstto ostinato treatment(L) and then
to furtherdynamic curve and enhancementoperations,bracketsand
parenthesescan be utilizedto indicatethe different levelsto whichsuch
operationspertain: (XsYcL) Y'c,E'. Y' specifiesthe initialattackofthe
whole; it mightbe identicalwiththeY withinthequantity.Ifa spectrum
change is in evidenceat the higherlevel,thiswould be shownas a sub-
scriptto the quantityin parentheses,which is the X upon which this
second group of operations acts. An example of such a totalityis
(2LMDcL)dbObcR. The notation of this event points up the succinct
quality of the language. Preparation of a concise verbal description
capable ofquick evaluationand easycomparisonwithsimilardescriptions
of othereventswould be a difficulttask.Use ofand familiaritywiththe
symboliclanguage promotes the desired ease of recognitionand cor-
S93
relation.While convenientforbothanalystand composer,thelattermay

favora more precise record of certain aspects of his operations.Such
data as actual sourcematerial,frequency, filterand reverberationsettings,
db levels,etc.,can be specifiedconcurrently withthe symbolicnotation.
Adaptation to align the language with usefulfeaturesof conventional
musicalnotationis also possible.
The value of this language as a methodof sonic representation has
been demonstrated. As an analytictool it is capable ofclearlyindicating
relationsbetweeneventsas well as suggestingrelationsthat mightnot
be readily noticed under other systems.Any laxity in notationthat
might lead to misrepresentation of events and erroneousevaluations
must be avoided. In the course of analysis,relationssuggestedby the
notationrequirere-inspectionof the phenomena involvedto ascertain,
first,the correctnessof the interpretation of the quantitiesand their
symbolicreductions,and, second, the degree and relevance of their
relation.
An example of thislanguage applied to an electronicworkavailable

on disc recordingwill best serve to illustratethe technique.The short
Fragment of Biilent Arel (on Son-Nova 3) is an ideal vehicle, as it
encompassesa varietyof sounds in a straightforward The
presentation.
Time (seconds)
0 4" 6" 9"
Metal Beater
Gong Mb34CR
metallic
5M34Ob
a tones of
tones of
5L2DaO 5L2Dor 1LDbO MDLM23DmR
1LBOcR
(MD = Metal Drum)
15" 20" 25"
1SirenObRg
etc. LDO SD3D'r
1LCbabt(gI at end) tonesof

1LDCRFB * (SD =Snare Drum)
1L2COV
* 94
?
example (p. 94) is the openingsegmentof a completeanalysismade for

didacticpurposes,arrivedat solelyby aural evaluation ofthe commer-
ciallyrecordedversion.The informalgraphicschemeis intendedmerely
as a guide to reading and does not indicate attack pointsor durations.
Note how the X subscriptr becomes valuable when dealing with
filterednoise,wherethe S symbolscan indicatefiltering onlylooselybe-
cause of the range of the spectruminvolved.
Conspicuousfeaturesthat occur later in the Fragment are theostinato
frog-likesounds and rumbles. The finalostinatooccurrence,64"-69", is
like cricketchirping: (3L3crktsCaoL)Ye.The low rumble that begins at 70"
and persistsalmostto the end undergoesspectrumchangewhichcan be
defined registrallyby use of the r symbols: 52q12dl-3rumble0aAMtrem.The
AM symbolindicatesthe tremulousqualityofthe sound.
S95

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A Descriptive Language for the Analysis of Electronic Music

Author(s): Brian Fennelly

WITH THE absence of available musical scores,the aural experience

Severe problems arose while attemptingto isolate and characterize

are indistinct,especiallyin the contextof a composition.Provisionsmust

be devised to accomodate both, so that not only the timbrebut the

* AUTHOR'S NOTE. Where both

exactpointofdivisionbetweenthetwoareasin anygivencontext must

1. sinewave I.-pitched, withfundamental

electronictimbres;square and sawtoothwaveforms are groupedtogether,

qualities, thisis accomplished with superscriptsto be discussed later.

degree to which such detail is required will depend on the analyst's

its dynamic continuation at will. While the variations possible in

the timeelement.The attack typesunder Y are distinguished by differ-

the natureofthecurveis evidentand relevantto thegestureofthesound.

ment displaces. The desire to include such informationmay arise in

TABLE III: EnhancementE

approximate to thesoundunderobservation. It is,in effect,

volves echoing of a signal or series of signals, its significanceis also

Provisionshave been made forindicatingthe nature of practically

the categoriesof naturalanalogs. As the environmental analog possesses

relation.While convenientforbothanalystand composer,thelattermay

An example of thislanguage applied to an electronicworkavailable

15" 20" 25"

etc. LDO SD3D'r

1LCbabt(gI at end) tonesof

example (p. 94) is the openingsegmentof a completeanalysismade for

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