Introduction to

Process Engineering

and

Design

Shuchen B.Thakore
Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering
L D College of Engineering
Ahmedabad, Gujarat

Bharat I. Bhatt
Consulting Engineer
Aavishkar Consultancy Services
Ahmedabad

Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited

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 Introduction to

Process Engineering

and

Design
About the Authors

Shuchen B. Thakore is Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering at L D

College of Engineering, Ahmedabad, Gujarat. He has been teaching undergraduate
and postgraduate students in chemical engineering, for more than 10 years. Besides
teaching, he also undertakes consulting assignments in process and mechanical
design of heat exchangers, distillation columns, storage tanks, pressure vessels,
etc. and environmental audit for various chemical industries.
Prior to joining the academic institute, he worked in the industry for about 5
years. He served Alembic Chemical Works, Naveen Heat Exchangers Ltd., Gujarat
Alcohol and Allied Chemicals Ltd. and Indian Engineering Software Co.
Mr. Thakore has earlier authored a book on Illustrated Process Equipment
Design, a publication of Atul Prakashan, Ahmedabad.
Mr. Thakore graduated in Chemical Engineering from Gujarat University and
did his M. E. in Chemical Engineering from M. S. University, Vadodara.

Bharat I. Bhatt is a Consulting Engineer to Chemical Industries for the last

three years and is based at Ahmedabad. His firm, Aavishkar Consultancy Services,
provides consulting services in debottlenecking in chemical industries, energy
conservation, effiuent treatment, etc. He earlier served chemical industries for
nearly 34 years. His industrial experience covered the fields of project execution,
process engineering, debottlenecking, troubleshooting, production management,
management reporting, etc. He spent nearly 18 years with Indian Farmers Fertiliser
Cooperative Limited (1FFCO), Kalol Unit in various capacities. Prior to joining
the industry, he served at the reputed textile research institute (ATIRA) for nearly
5 years where he was involved in industrial research and consultation to member
textile units. He also worked in many fine chemical and pharmaceutical industries
as Vice President (Technical).
Mr. Bhatt has also authored a book titled Stoichiometry, published by Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi. Till date, four editions are published
of which the last two editions were in SI Units. In addition, Mr. Bhatt carried out
units conversion work from EPS units to SI units of the book Introduction to
Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics, 6th Edition, by Smith, Van Ness and
Abbott, a publication of McGraw-Hill, USA. Another book titled, Design Data
Book: Properties of Steam, Selected Refrigerants, n-Hexane and Brines (SI units),
by Mr. Bhatt is published by CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi.
Mr. Bhatt graduated in Chemical Engineering from the University Institute of
Chemical Technology, University of Mumbai.
 Introduction to

Process Engineering

and

Design

Shuchen B.Thakore
Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering
L D College of Engineering
Ahmedabad, Gujarat

Bharat I. Bhatt
Consulting Engineer
Aavishkar Consultancy Services
Ahmedabad

Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited

NEW DELHI

McGraw-Hill Offices
New Delhi New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogota Caracas
Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal
San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto
 n
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 Contents

Foreword ix
Preface xi

1. Dimensions and Units 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Fundamental Quantities or Dimensions 1
1.3 Derived Units 2
1.4 Recommended Rules for Writing Unit Symbols 7
1.5 Conversion Factors 9
References 9

2. Stoichiometry 10
2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 Basic Chemical Calculations 10
2.3 Energy Balances 19
2.4 Enthalpy Changes Accompanying Chemical Reactions 21
2.5 Fleat Changes in Mixing Processes 27
Exercises 32
References 37

3. Process Engineering 38
3.1 Introduction 38
3.2 Examples of Alternative Routes in Process Engineering 38
3.3 Generalized Approach to the Chemical Plant Design 39
3.4 Preparation of Operating Instructions Manual 45
3.5 Conductance of Performance Test Runs 46
3.6 Troubleshooting 47
3.7 Cost Cutting Measures 47
3.8 Green Engineering 48
3.9 Process Intensification 50
3.10 Conclusion 52
Exercises 52
References 53
vi Contents

Importance of Process Diagrams in Process Engineering 54

4.1 Introduction 54
4.2 Need for PFD and P&ID 54
4.3 Block Diagrams 55
4.4 Development and Utility of Process Flow Diagrams 55
4.5 Development of Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams 60
4.6 Conclusion 67
Exercises 67
References 69

Process Design of Piping, Fluid Moving Devices and Flow Meters 70

5.1 Introduction 70
5.2 Process Design of Piping 70
5.3 Process Design of Fluid Moving Devices 83
5.4 Evaluation of Centrifugal Pump Performance
when Handling Viscous Liquids 101
5.5 Power Required in Fan, Blower and in
Adiabatic Compressor 105
5.6 Flow Meters 110
5.7 Process Design of Orifice Meter 115
5.8 Process Design of Rotameter 119
5.9 Two Phase Flow 127
5.10 Troubleshooting of Fluid Flow Systems 130
Exercises 130
References 133

Process Design of Heat Exchangers 134

6.1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 134
6.2 Design of Heat Exchangers 137
6.3 General Design Method for Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 155
6.4 Criteria of Selection between Horizontal Condenser and
Vertical Condenser 182
6.5 Condensation with Non-condensables 192
6.6 Multicomponent Condensation 200
6.7 Process Design of Reboilers and Vaporizers 217
6.8 Tinker's Flow Model 247
6.9 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers and Air Heaters 249
6.10 Plate Heat Exchangers 270
6.11 Spiral Flow Heat Exchangers 281
6.12 Brazed Aluminium Plate-fin Heat Exchanger 294
6.13 Heat Exchanger Networking for Energy Integration 295
6.14 Heat Transfer in Solids 311
Exercises 321
References 324

Design of Liquid-Liquid Extractor 325

7.1 Introduction 325
7.2 Important Industrial Applications of Liquid-Liquid
Extraction 326
 Contents vii

7.3 Phase Equilibrium 326

7.4 Desirable Solvent Properties or Choice of Solvent 327
7.5 Design of Counter Current Multistage Extractor 329
7.6 Industrially Important Extractors 342
7.7 Supercritical Extraction (SCE) 364
Exercises 375
References 377

8. Process Design of Distillation Columns 378

8.1 Introduction 378
8.2 Criteria of Selection 378
8.3 Selection of Equipment for Distillation 379
8.4 Distillation Column Design 380
8.5 Batch Distillation 475
8.6 Short Path Distillation 493
8.7 Reactive and Catalytic Distillation 501
8.8 Azeotropes and Separation Thereof 512
8.9 Energy Conservation in Distillation 538
Exercises 556
References 565

9. Process Design of Absorbers 567

9.1 Introduction 567
9.2 Criteria of Selection 568
9.3 Design of Packed Tower Type Absorber 569
9.4 Process Design of Spray Chamber or Spray Tower Type
Absorber 606
9.5 Venturi Scrubber 611
9.6 Process Design of Falling Film Absorber 615
Exercises 654
References 656

10. Process Design of Reactors 657

10.1 Introduction 657
10.2 Different Types of Reactors 657
10.3 Batch Reactor 658
10.4 Continuous Flow Reactors 67/
10.5 Degree of Completion of Reaction 682
10.6 Mixing for the Different Type of Reaction Systems 684
10.7 Bubble Column Reactor 697
10.8 Design of Fixed Catalyst Bed Reactors for Gaseous Reactions 713
Exercises 725
References 728

Appendix 1 Conversion Tables 730

Appendix 2 Viscometer Conversion Chart 735

Index 736
 Foreword

Dr. Jack Welch, CEO of General Electric, built its market cap by more than $450
billion and established himself as the most admired business leader in the world.
He is Doctorate in Chemical Engineering and is proud to be a Chemical Engi-
neer. In his business autobiography he wrote, "I have always felt that chemical
engineering was one of the best backgrounds for a business career because both
the class-work and required thesis teach you one very important lesson: There
are no finite answers to many questions."
A chemical process engineer's job is, therefore, tough. It is hard because he
has to find not only a finite answer but to select the best answer for the situation
from a variety of options. That is why process engineering is interesting and at
the same time intriguing.
A process engineer has to design a plant or a part of it. He may have to design
a unit operation or a unit process or a system. The important aspect is that it must
work and operate reliably and smoothly. The unit is to be designed for a commer-
cial purpose and, hence, it has to be economical and cost effective. A good proc-
ess engineer has to have plant experience and, in addition, a good understanding
of process economics and knowledge of current costs and trends.
Chemical process industry covers a very wide spectrum of industrial products.
Apart from the chemicals they handle, the quantities and sizes also vary. This
requires the process engineer to have flexibility of mind and vision to adopt itself
to any scale. Selection and design of the equipment should therefore be capable
to handle the capacities and instruments to measure the parameters for large chemi-
cal plants to micro units to manufacture enzymes.
Till 1973, fuel and energy costs were a small component of the manufacturing
costs of a chemical product. Since then, the rising fuel prices have made it man-
datory that the plant design and its operation be energy efficient. The approach to
process design has undergone a paradigm change.
Bhopal gas leakage disaster and Chernobyl catastrophe made another impact
on the minds of process engineers and changed the practices followed till then.
Greater responsibility now rests on the process engineers for safer designs of the
plants. HAZAN (Hazard Analysis) and HAZOP (Hazard and Operatability) studies
have become a part of process studies, attaching one more design aspect in the
 Foreword

minds of process engineers. Several lessons regarding storage and handling were
learnt by the process engineer. He has to now respect environmental and ecologi-
cal sustainability of the process and its design.
Software for the design of equipment such as heat exchangers, distillation
columns, etc. are available. It has simplified piping design. Drawing and drafting
has become easier, error free and faster. But without understanding the design
principles, explained in this book, one cannot use them efficiently.
Yet, the process flow sheeting or the development of a process scheme still
remains a brain teasing function. It can be explained and perhaps taught but can-
not be standardized. Process engineer has to be innovative and creative. Prepara-
tion of a Process Flow Diagram is still a prominent and challenging domain of a
process engineer.
It is more admirable that Mr. Bharat I. Bhatl and Prof. Shuchen B. Thakore
decided to go deeper into some of these topics and write a book on Process Engi-
neering and Design. They have done it with success. I had the opportunity of
working with Mr. Bhatt. He is one of the best process engineers I have come
across. The long industrial experience of Mr. Bhatt and extensive teaching expe-
rience of Prof. Thakore have made them eminently suitable to offer their knowl-
edge to student fraternity and practicing engineers. I have no doubt that the book
will find its place with most academicians involved in teaching the subject.
The book describes systematic methods for the process design with many il-
lustrations, drawn from various sections of the industry. They have included sev-
eral solved and unsolved problems with sufficient details. Authors' approach is
user friendly and result oriented. Indepth study of these examples will boost con-
fidence of the students in solving real life design and operating problems.
Large number of references, cited at the end of each chapter, indicates the
extensive literature study made by the authors. Further, study of these references
will provide more insight to process design aspects.
An exclusive chapter is devoted on development of Process Flow Diagrams
(PFD) and Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID) which is justified by
my earlier comments. Sufficient emphasis is placed on 'green' engineering. These
aspects have made this book unique.
Many recent topics like pinch technology, energy conservation in distillation,
two-phase flow of fluids, design of loop reactors and many others are to be ap-
preciated which are hard to find in other books on process design.
I have no doubt that the book will make the library of a student and practicing
engineer richer.

Suhas M Mokashi
Ex-Director of Technology & Marketing
Kaevernar Powergas Pvt. Ltd.
 Preface

has helped in deciding the appropriate coverage in the book for the course sylla-
bus. Prior to his teaching experience, he worked as a process engineer in indus-
tries for five years. Thereafter he worked as a consultant for process design of
various chemical equipment. Few problems covered in the book are derived from
his actual assignments.
Bharat Bhatt spent more than 15 years in the Process Engineering Section of a
large chemical plant. He also carried out the design of many chemical plant
equipments, which were successfully commissioned. The present work reflects
the experience gained by him during his tenure of service.

Features

• Only a limited number of unit operations are covered to highlight the proc-
ess design aspects. In each of these operations, current developments are
included which provide energy efficient, more reliable and safer designs.
Networking of heat exchangers (pinch technology), two-phase fluid flow
system, solids cooling, supercritical extraction, separation of azeotropic
mixtures, energy conservation in distillation, design of jet reactors, han-
dling of liquids saturated with gases and many other topics are covered in
the book which would be of interest of the readers in process engineering
and design.
• Use of correct property values in process design plays an important role.
Property data are extracted from various literature sources which should
help readers think of the various sources that are available for the specific
data.
• Syllabus of many universities were gathered and a sincere attempt is made
to cover most (if not all) topics of these syllabii.
• A number of ready to use software packages are available in the market.
However, we believe that basic approach to process design should be clear
to the chemical engineers. This knowledge should help the engineers to
utilize the software in an efficient manner. Use of mathematical software
(such as Mathcad®, Maple®, etc.) and spreadsheet software such as (Ex-
cel®) is made in solving many problems. Preparation of process diagrams
with Autocad® or Visio® is encouraged to enhance the skills and speedy
execution of the project.
• Every effort has been made to make the approach to the subject student
friendly. Presentation is made in a lucid, logical and step-by-step manner.
Writing style is kept relatively simple for easy understanding. Industrial
examples are cited for each concept/principle so that the student can appre-
ciate the concept.
• A large number of solved problems are drawn from the industry to make
the book practical. The worked examples are regarded as part of the text
and are clearly explained without expecting the student to fill in missing
steps. They will give students a good understanding of the design steps and
the confidence to solve problems themselves in real life.
 Preface xiii

• A large number of exercise problems are given at the end of each chapter.
Design problems as well as problems with varying degree of difficulty are
included.
• The approach adopted in the book will enable a student to progress from
theory to practice smoothly. At the same lime a practicing process design
engineer may like to use the book as a ready reference.

Who will Benefit from this Book?

The text is an introduction to the vast subject of process design. It is intended to

provide course material for a two-semester course in process design for under-
graduate students of chemical engineering. It can be also used for the students
pursuing higher studies for M. Tech. in Process Engineering and Design. It can
serve as a reference text for other subjects like advanced separation techniques,
advanced heat and mass transfer, etc.
The main prerequisites for the course using the text are chemistry, stoichiom-
etry and unit operations. Although familiarity with computer and various soft-
ware packages will be helpful, the user friendly methodology adopted in the book
does not make knowledge of these mandatory.

Acknowledgements

We are greatly honoured by the Foreword written by Mr. S. M. Mokashi who is a

well known process design expert. His industrial and consulting experience spans
over 40 years. He has handled many large industrial projects. We are extremely
thankful for his encouragement in our scholastic work.
We have been rendered help by many of our colleagues who were also a source
of inspiration. We thank all of them for their indirect contributions. We are grate-
ful to the Principal, Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Gandhinagar,
Gujarat for granting us the permission to publish this book. We are also thankful
to the reviewers who read the original manuscript and offered valuable com-
ments/suggestions. We would like to express our appreciation for loving support
we had received from our wives; Dimple Thakore and Minaxi Bhatt.
We want to thank many at Tata McGraw-Hill for their overwhelming support.
In particular, we wish to place on record our thanks to Ms Vibha Mahajan, Ms
Shukti Mukherjee, Ms Mini Narayanan and Ms Anjali Razdan for their support
and encouragement.

Suggestions and Comments

Suggestions and comments of the readers are welcome to improve the utility of
the book in future. We can be reached through the publisher or directly at
sbthakore@yahoo.co.in for Shuchen Thakore and b_bhatt26@hotmail.com for
Bharat Bhatt.

Shuchen B. Thakore
Bharat I. Bhatt
Chapter

Dimensions and

Units

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Knowledge of dimensions and units is imperative in day to day dealings. While

dimensions are recognized by our sensory perceptions, their use requires definite
scales of measurement, known as units. When a solid is observed, one thinks
about its volumetric and mass dimensions. Similarly a liquid is recognized by its
volume and density measurements. A gas exerts definite pressure and tempera-
ture which are important for defining its state.
Various quantities, required to identify a substance and its state can be classified
in two catagories; namely fundamental and derived. Every quantity can be ex-
pressed as a product of a dimensionless number and a unit where the unit is a
selected reference quantity in terms of which all quantities of the same kind can
be expressed.

1.2 FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES OR DIMENSIONS

Fundamental quantities or dimensions are length, mass, time, thermodynamic

temperature, electric current, amount of substance and luminous intensity. Units,
representing these quantities are known as base units.
There are basically two systems of units fps and metric. The former is widely
used in the USA and is also known as US Customary Units. It is based on foot,
pound and second as standard measurements of length, mass and time, respectively.
Metric (mks) system is based on the unit of length, known as metre. The unit
of mass and time in this system are kilogram and second. Its important feature is
the decimal expression.
International system of units (or Le Systeme International d'Unites in French
or simply SI Units) was adopted by the 11th General Conference of Weights and
Measures in 1960. Base units of the mks system for length, mass and lime are
retained in the SI system. Base units of the other four fundamental quantities are
defined in the SI system. Table 1.1 lists the fundamental quantities in different
units.
The thermodynamic temperature (Kelvin), defined in SI, is accepted as the
absolute temperature in the metric system. For definitions of all the funamental
quantities, references 1 to 4 may be consulted.
 Introduction to Process Engineering and Design

Table I.I Fundamental Quantities

Symbol Fundamental System of units with symbolic Dimension

quantity abbreviation
SI Metric fps

1 Length Metre (m) Metre (m) Foot (ft) L

m Mass Kilogram (kg) Kilogram (kg) Pound (lb) M
e Time Second (s) Second (s) Second (s) 0
/ Electric current Ampere (A) Ampere (A) Ampere (A) I
T, t or T Temperature Kelvin (K) Celsius (0C) Fahrenheit (0F) T
n Amount of substance Mole (mol) n
K Luminous intensity Candela (cd)

In 1971 the concept of the amount of a substance was introduced as a funda-

mental quantitiy. It is defined as the amount of substance of system containing as
many elementry entities as the number of atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12
element. This unit of quantity was called a mo/e (abbreviated as mol). Thus uni-
fied scale of mole gives value of the relative atomic mass (m). When a compound
is represented by a chemical formula, then the total mass computed based on the
formula is called molar mass (popularly known as molecular weight) and is
represented by symbol M.

1.3 DERIVED UNITS

Derived units (including supplementary units) are expressed algebraically and in

terms of base units by means of mathematical signs of multiplicaiton and divi-
sion. For example, the SI unit of work or energy is Joule which is defined as work
done when one Newton (N) force acting on a body moves it by a distance of one
metre (see Sec. 1.3.4).
Table 1.2 lists some of the important SI derived units used in Chemical Engi-
neering with their special names while Table 1.3 lists frequently used derived
units.

Table 1.2 SI Derived Units with Special Names. Including SI Supplementary Units

SI Derived Unit Expressed in Terms of SI Base

(Derived Quantity) Special Name Symbol Units and SI Derived Units
Plane angle radian a, p, y 1 rad = Im/m = 1
Solid angle steradian £2, vv 1 sr = lm2/m2= 1
Frequency hertz / 1 Hz =1 s-1
Force netwon F 1 N = 1 kg ■ m/s2
Pressure or stress pascal P'P 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Energy or work or joule E, H I J= 1 N■m
Quantity of heat
Power watt 1 W = 1 J/s
Radiant flux
Electric charge or coulomb Q. I C=1 A s
Quantity of electricity
(Contd.)
 Dimensions and Units 3

Table 1.2 (Could.)

SI Derived Unit Expressed in Terms of SI Base

(Derived Quantity) Special Name Symbol Units and SI Derived Units

Electric potential or volt V 1 V = 1 W/A

Potential difference, or
Tension or
Electromotive force
Electric resistance ohm R 1 G = 1 V/A
Electric conductance Siemens G = i/r i s = i ir1
Celsius temperature degree Celsius1 t 10C = 1 K

'Degree Celsius is a special name for the unit Kelvin for use in stating value of Celsius tem-
perature. r/0C = UK - 273.15.

Table 1.3 Additional Frequently Used SI Derived Units

Quantity Symbol SI Unit Practical Units Notes

Acceleration a m/s2 m/s2, cm/s2
Acceleration of free 8 m/s2 m/s2
fall
Isentropic exponent ^ cp/cv
(for ideal gas)
Ambient Pressure Pamb N/m2, Pa mbar, bar
Angular acceleration a rad /s2 rad/s2
Angular velocity (0 rad /s rad/s
Area A, A^, S, a m2 m ? , cm?
Concentration of CB mol /m3 mol/m3, mol/L
substance B
Current density, j A/m2 A/m2, A/cm2
Density (mass P kg An3 kg/m3, g/cm3,
concentration) kg/L
Relative density / d P'JP'2 — Non-dimensional
Specific gravity quantity
Diameter d, D m cm. mm
Diffusion D m2/s m2/s, cm2/s
coefficient
Efficiency n — — Non-dimensional
quantity
Heat (enthalpy) of A J/g, J/mol kJ/kg. kJ/kmol
evaporation
Molar flow rate/ dv mol/s, m3/h mol/s, m3/h,
Volumetric flow rate m3/s
mbar • L
Gas constant (molar) R J/(mol ■ K)
(mol • K)
(m3 • bar)/(kmol - K)
(Contd.)
 4 Introduction to Process Engineering and Design

Table 1.3 (Could.)

Quantity Symbol SI Unit Practical Units Notes

mbar • L
Gas constant of RR J/(kg • K)
(kg-K)
substance B
(specific) (m3 • bar)/(kg ■ K)
Heat capacity of a C J/K J/K, kJ/K
given mass
Heat capacity, Cmp J/(mol • K) kJ/(kmol • K)
isobaric, molar
Heat capacity. cP,cL J/(kg • K) J/(kg • K)
isobaric, specific
Heat capacity, Cmv J/(mol ■ K) kJ/(kmol • K)
isochoric; molar
Heat flow rate or 0 W, J/s kW, kJ/s, kJ/h
heat flux
Heat transfer h W/(K • m2) W/(K ■ m2),
coefficient kcal/(h • m2 • 0C)
Height h m m, cm, mm
Kinematic viscosity Y m2 /s m2/s, mm2/s,
cm2/s, cSt
Kinetic energy Ek J J
Leak rate (in a Ql N • m/s mbar ■ L/s
vacuum system)
Length L m m, cm, mm
Liner expansion a, m/(m • K), m/(m • K), 1/K
coefficient
Mass flow rate Qm ' m kg/s kg/s, kg/h, g/s
Mass fraction vv ^ r kg/kg %, ppm ppm = parts per
mega parts
Molality m mol/kg mol /kg —
Molarity mol/dm3 mol/m3. mol/L —
Molar mass M kg/kmol kg/kmol, g/mol
Molar volume V
m mVmol m3 /mol, L/mol
Number of n 1/s l/s, 1/min
revolutions (or rpm)
Partial pressure of PB N/m2, Pa mbar, kPa, torr
component B
Period (periodic e s s, ms, (is
time)

Permeability (for Nm3 Nm3

Po
gases) (m2 ■ s ■ Pa) (m2 ■ d • bar)

Pumping speed qj m3/s L/s, m3/h

(rate)/volumetric
flow rate
Quantity of gas V Nm3 L
Quantity of heat Q.H.i J J. kJ, kWh, W ■ s
(Conld.)
 Dimensions and Units 5

Table 1.3 (Could.)

Quantity Symbol SI Unit Practical Units Notes

Radius (also of r m cm, m, pm

molecule)
Vapour pressure Pv N/m2, Pa mbar , kPa, Pa, torr
Saturation vapour
pressure Ps N/m2, Pa mbar, kPa, Pa, torr
Temperature AT, At K K,0C
difference
Thermal k W/(K • m) W/(K • m), kW/(m ■ K),
conductivity kcal/(h ■ m • 0C)
Thermal diffusivity a m2/s m2 /s
Velocity V m/s m/s, mm/s, km/h
Viscosity (dynamic) P Pa • s mPa • s, cP
Volume V m3 m3, L, cm3
Volume (specific) V m3/kg m3/kg, cm3/g
Volume fraction of <PB m3/m3 L/L, %, ppm ppm = parts
substance B per mega parts
Wavelength A m nm. A
Weight (force) G N kgf
Specific/absolute H kg/kg kg/ kg. g/g
humidity
Relative humidity RH — Non-dimen-
sional quantity
Saturation ratio <P — — - do -

It will now be appropriate to elaborate a few of the important SI derived units

for better understanding.

1.3.1 Force

According to the Newton's second law of motion,

Famxa (1.1)
or F - Km a (1-2)
where, K = proportionality constant
Selecting K as unity, the unit netwon is defined. Thus, when a force of one
newton (N) is applied to a body having a mass of one kilogram it gives an accel-
eration of one m/s2.
Definition of technical unit of force is obtained by selecting K equivalent to
1/g where g is called Newton's law conversion factor. Its value is 9.806 65
(kg • m)/(kgf • s") and is equal to the acceleration due to gravity (g) at mean sea
level. It may be noted that gc is not equal g at all locations on the earth.
Kilogram-force (kgf) is the force which when applied to a body having a mass
of one kilogram, gives it an acceleration of 9 .806 65 m/s2. It is the base unit in
metric system of units.
1 N =0.101 972 kgf
or 1 kgf = 9.806 65 N
 Introduction to Process Engineering and Design

Although mass is the base unit, it nearly equals weight under gravitational
acceleration (g). This is why 'mass' and 'weight' terms are commonly used with-
out differentiation in general practice.

1.3.2 Pressure

Pressure is the force acting on a unit area, exposed to it.

(L3)
A
'y
Common units of pressure in SI and metric systems are N/m (known as
9 •
Pascal; symbol Pa) and kgf/crrr, respectively. Pressure, measured with the help
of a gauge, is called gauge pressure or over pressure and the letter 'g' follows the
unit. When (local) atmospheric pressure is added to the gauge pressure, it is called
absolute pressure and the letter 'a' follows the unit. Standard atmospheric pres-
sure (symbol atm) is measured at mean sea level and is assigned the value 101
325 N/m2 or Pa or 1.033 kgf /cm2. Since Pascal is a very small unit of pressure,
bar is chosen as a practical pressure unit in the SI system.
1 bar = 105 Pa = 1.019 716 kgf/cm2 = 0.986 923 atm
1 atm = 1.013 25 bar
Pressure is also expressed in terms of fluid heads; e.g. water column (WC),
liquid column (LC), mercury column (Hg), etc.
Fluid head = Pressure /density = p/p (1-4 )
1 atm = 760 mm Hg at 0oC or torr = 10.33 m WC at 40C
Vacuum refers to pressure below atmospheric pressure and hence absolute
pressure of a vacuum system is derived by substracting vacuum from atmospheric
pressure.

1.3.3 Volume

Volume is the space occupied by a substance. It is measured in cubic metres and

litres in SI and metric units, respectively. Approximately, 1 m3 = 1000 L = 1 kL.

1.3.4 Work, Energy, Power and Heat

Work is defined as the product of force acting on a body and the distance trav-
elled by the body.
W = Fxd (1.5)
2 2
Units of work (kg • m )/s or N • m or joule (symbol J) and m • kgf in SI and
metric systems, respectively.
Internal energy (Symbol U or E) is a physical entity which is present in a
system in different forms; mechanical, chemical, thermal, etc. Heat is the form of
energy in transit that flows from higher temperature to lower temperature. Total
Enthalpy (symbol H) of a substance is the total energy possessed by it under the
given conditions.
H=U + pV (1.6)
 Dimensions and Units 7

Unit of energy, heat and enthalpy are joule and calorie (symbol cal) in SI and
metric systems, respectively.
1 calorie (International Steam Tables) = 4.1868 J
It may be noted that unit of work, energy, heat and enthalpy in SI unit is same,
i.e. W (unlike metric system).
Power P is defined as the work done per unit time

W
P=J (1.7)

Unit of power is Watt (i.e. J/s) and m • kgf/s in SI and metric systems, respec-
tively. Practical unit of power in metric system is horsepower.
1 metric system horsepower = 75 (m • kgf)/s = 0.7355 kW

1.3.5 Derived Electrical Units

Electric potential (V) is defined as

W
V= — (1.8)
/
Its unit is volts.
Resistance of the conductor is defined as

v/
R=j (1-9)

Its unit is ohms Q. Reciprocal of resistance is called conductance; symbol (G)

and has units Siemens (S). Quantity of electricity (symbol Q) is defined as the
product of current and time.
Q=I-e (1.10)
Unit of quantity of electricity is coulomb (C).
1 Faraday (F) = 96 485.309 C/mol

1.4 RECOMMENDED RULES FOR WRITING UNIT SYMBOLS

Following guidelines may be followed while using SI unit symbols.

(i) SI prefixes are given in Table 1.4.
(ii) An exponent attached to compound prefix-unit implies that the exponent
refers to the entire compound unit and not just to the base symbol. 1 cm3
means volume of a cube having one cm side.
(iii) The product of two or more units may be indicated in any one of the follow-
ing ways.
Correct: N m, or N • m Incorrect: Nm
(iv) A solidus (oblique stroke), a horizontal line or negative powers may be
used to express a derived unit, formed from two others by division, e.g.

m
/ -i -i
m/s, —, m ■ s or m s
s