Thermal Analysic PDF

Facilities Instructions, Standards, and Techniques
Volume 4-13
Thermal Analysis
U.S. Department of the Interior

Technical Service Center
Bureau of Reclamation
Denver, Colorado November 2011
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1. REPORT DATE (DD- 2. REPORT TYPE 3. DATES COVERED (From - To)
MM-YYYY) Final
November 2011
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT NUMBER
FIST 4-13, Thermal Analysis
5b. GRANT NUMBER
5c. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER
6. AUTHOR(S) 5d. PROJECT NUMBER

Hydroelectric Research and Technical Services Group 5e. TASK NUMBER
Denver, Colorado
5f. WORK UNIT NUMBER
7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT

Hydroelectric Research and Technical Services Group NUMBER
Bureau of Reclamation FIST 4-13
Denver Federal Center
P.O. Box 25007
Denver CO 80225-0007
9. SPONSORING / MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSOR/MONITOR’S ACRONYM(S)
Power Resources Office
Technical Resources DIBR
Bureau of Reclamation 11. SPONSOR/MONITOR’S REPORT
Mail Code 86-61600 NUMBER(S)
PO Box 25007
Denver CO 80225-0007
12. DISTRIBUTION / AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Available from the National Technical Information Service, Operations Division
5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161
13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
14. ABSTRACT
Thermography allows for nonintrusive measurement of temperature and thermal characteristics or thermal
patterns of plant equipment. The intent is to detect abnormal temperatures or changes in temperature that may
indicate problems in their incipient stages. Serious failures and outages may be avoided when problems can be
identified and remedied early. Early detection permits more effective maintenance planning and scheduled
outages. Thermography can be used to troubleshoot, perform pre- and postoutage measurements, verify
successful installation or repair, and predict problems.
15. SUBJECT TERMS: Thermography, infrared, temperature, operations and maintenance, inspections.
16. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF: 17. LIMITATION 18. NUMBER 19a. NAME OF RESPONSIBLE PERSONT
OF ABSTRACT OF PAGES Hydropower Technical Resources Group
a. REPORT b. ABSTRACT c. THIS PAGE UL 93 19b. TELEPHONE NUMBER (include area
UL UL UL code)
303-445-2300
Standard Form 298 (Rev. 8/98)
Prescribed by ANSI Std. 239-18
Facilities, Instructions, Standards, and Techniques
Volume 4-13
Thermal Analysis
Hydroelectric Research and Technical Services Group
U.S. Department of the Interior

Technical Service Center
Denver, Colorado November 2011
Disclaimer
This written material consists of general information for internal

use only by Bureau of Reclamation operations and maintenance
staff. Information contained in this document regarding
commercial products or firms may not be used for advertising or
promotional purposes and is not to be construed as an
endorsement or deprecation of any product or firm by the Bureau
of Reclamation.
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis
Acronyms and Abbreviations

ASNT American Society of Nondestructive Testing
Btu British thermal unit
C Celsius
CARMA Capital Asset and Resource Management Application
CO 2 carbon dioxide
EPRI Electric Power Research Institute
F Fahrenheit
FIST Facilities Instructions, Standards, and Techniques
FPA Focal Plane Array
HVAC Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
Hz hertz
IFOV Instantaneous field of view
IFOVmeas Instantaneous field of view measurement
IMFOV Instantaneous measurement field of view
I2R current squared multiplied by the resistance of the system
IR infrared
JHA job hazard analysis
K Kelvin
LTC load tap changers
LWIR long-wave infrared
MDT Minimum detectable temperature
mm millimeter
mph miles per hour
MRT minimum resolvable temperature difference (also MRDT)
MWIR midwave infrared
NETA InterNational Electrical Testing Association
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
O&M operation and maintenance
PdM predictive maintenance
PEV pyroelectric vidicon
PM preventive maintenance
PPE personal protective equipment
R Rankine
Reclamation Bureau of Reclamation
RSHS Reclamation Safety and Health Standards
SI International System of Units
SWIR short-wave infrared
TSC Technical Service Center
UL Underwriters Laboratories
° degree
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Thermal Analysis
> greater than

< less than
µm micrometers
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FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis
Table of Contents
Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations .......................................................................... iii
1.0 Introduction .......................................................................................... 1

1.1 What Thermal Analysis Does ...................................................... 1
1.2 How Reclamation Benefits .......................................................... 1
2.0 Scope .................................................................................................... 3
3.0 Standards and Resources...................................................................... 4

3.1 Standards ...................................................................................... 4
3.2 Books, Manuals, Reports, and Papers .......................................... 4
3.3 Magazines and Web Sites ............................................................ 5
4.0 Initiating a Thermal Analysis Process ................................................. 6

4.1 Goals ............................................................................................ 6
4.2 Contracting................................................................................... 6
4.3 Consultation and Resources ......................................................... 9
4.4 Documentation ............................................................................. 9
4.5 Preventive Maintenance Program ................................................ 10
4.6 Training and Certification ............................................................ 11
5.0 Selection and Maintenance of Hardware and Software ...................... 13
6.0 IR Thermography Concepts and Principles ......................................... 16

6.1 General ......................................................................................... 16
6.2 Thermograms ............................................................................... 16
6.2.1 Targets and Target Signatures ........................................... 18
6.2.2 Detecting Thermal Anomalies .......................................... 18
6.2.3 Radiation ............................................................................ 19
6.2.4 Path Radiance and Atmospheric Transmittance ................ 19
6.2.5 Atmospheric Absorption .................................................... 20
6.2.6 Blackbody .......................................................................... 20
6.2.7 Emissivity .......................................................................... 20
6.2.8 Reflectivity......................................................................... 21
6.2.9 Transmissivity .................................................................... 21
6.3 Plant Equipment Selection and Modification .............................. 22
6.3.1 Electrical Equipment .......................................................... 22
6.3.2 Mechanical Equipment ...................................................... 24
6.4 Safety ........................................................................................... 26
7.0 Conducting Inspections ........................................................................ 28

7.1 Basics ........................................................................................... 28
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Thermal Analysis
Table of Contents (continued)

Page
7.2 Equipment Selection .................................................................... 29
7.2.1 Camera Settings ................................................................. 30
7.3 Image Quality............................................................................... 31
7.3.1 Spot Size ............................................................................ 31
7.3.2 Distance.............................................................................. 32
7.3.3 Field of View and Instantaneous Field of View ................ 33
7.3.4 Estimating Emissivity ........................................................ 33
7.3.5 Background Sources .......................................................... 34
7.3.6 Pointing, Aiming, and Ambient Reflections ...................... 34
7.3.7 Calibration.......................................................................... 34
7.3.8 Reference Photos ............................................................... 35
7.4 Environmental .............................................................................. 35
7.4.1 Weather .............................................................................. 35
7.4.2 Current Loading ................................................................. 37
8.0 Evaluating Results ............................................................................... 39

8.1 Analyzing Results ........................................................................ 39
8.2 Recordkeeping and Reporting...................................................... 40
8.2.1 Inspection Documentation ................................................. 40
8.2.2 Reports ............................................................................... 41
9.0 Personnel Qualifications ...................................................................... 42
10.0 Equipment Calibration ......................................................................... 43
11.0 Complementary Technologies ............................................................. 44
Appendices
Appendix A – Glossary of Thermography Terms ........................................... 45
Appendix B – Helpful Operations Hints .......................................................... 55
Appendix C – Hardware and Software Features.............................................. 59
Appendix D – Sample IR Report ..................................................................... 63
Appendix E– Methods of Determining or Enhancing the Emittance

of a Target ................................................................................................... 69
Appendix F – Material Emissivity Table ......................................................... 71
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Thermal Analysis
Figures
Page
Figure 1. Transformer bushing with incorrect washer that does not
allow correct connection ............................................................................. 2
Figure 2. High-side connection from transformer, illustrating a “barber
pole” effect where only part of the cable strands carry the current ............ 2
Figure 3. Thermographic maintenance process .............................................. 7
Figure 4. Visible and IR spectrum .................................................................. 14
Figure 5. Qualitative IR image of a main circuit breaker enclosure
illustrating indirect imaging ........................................................................ 16
Figure 6. Radiation sources............................................................................. 19
Figure 7. Image quality contributors ............................................................... 31
Figure 8. Spot size of hand-held radiation thermometer................................. 32
Figure 9. Field of view of an IR camera ......................................................... 33
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Thermal Analysis
1.0 Introduction
1.1 What Thermal Analysis Does
Thermal analysis allows for nonintrusive analysis of temperature and thermal
characteristics or thermal patterns of plant equipment and structures. The intent is to
describe different methods used to dynamically detect abnormal thermal conditions or
changes in temperature that may indicate problems in their incipient stages. Using
different technologies will be discussed to detect dynamic changes in heating; however,
using thermal imaging cameras is preferred. Identifying and remedying problems early
may avoid serious failures and outages. Early detection permits more effective
maintenance planning and scheduled outages. Thermal analysis can be used to
troubleshoot, perform pre- and postoutage thermal comparisons, verify successful
installation or repair, and predict problems with equipment.
1.2 How Reclamation Benefits

The Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation), as the Nation’s second largest hydropower
producer and the eighth largest power generating utility (based on installed capacity), has
many opportunities to benefit from thermal analysis. Reclamation’s power facilities—
powerplants and pumping plants—comprise much electrical and mechanical equipment,
housed in civil structures such as dams, buildings, and switchyards. Much of this
equipment lends itself to thermal inspection. Thermal analysis using thermography has
been conducted on a limited basis within Reclamation, and potential failures have been
successfully avoided.
A thermal inspection (often called “scanning” or “surveying”) takes place with

equipment in service and under load; thus, production is not disrupted, and outages are
often not needed. This is important in Reclamation facilities, which support public power
systems where continuity of service is paramount.
Two examples of imminent failures, located and avoided using thermography, are shown
in figures 1 and 2.
Throughout Reclamation, thermal inspections have proven the effectiveness of this

technique in solving problems and reducing outages. Each power facility should have a
well-planned, defined, and carefully executed thermal maintenance process. Thermal
analysis, using infrared (IR) thermography, has proven very successful in improving
maintenance effectiveness and reducing maintenance costs in many industries.
IR thermography is economically justified by returning approximately $4 in savings to
every $1 spent on IR thermography. 1 As the price of thermal analysis equipment
decreases, the effective savings will increase. Savings result from:
• Avoiding forced outages, resulting in loss of revenue

• Reducing severe damage caused by equipment failing catastrophically
1
Maintenance Technology Magazine, June 2001, May 2004, and May 2005.
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Thermal Analysis
• Reducing costly, time-based preventive maintenance by predictive analysis of

equipment condition
52.2°C 52.8°C
50 50
40
40
SP01 30
30
SP02
20
20
10
10
5.3°C 8.1°C
Figure 1. Transformer bushing with Figure 2. High-side connection from

incorrect washer that does not allow transformer, illustrating a “barber pole”
correct connection. Connection spot 1 effect where only part of the cable
(52.4 degrees Celsius [°C]), is greater strands carry the current. This
than (>) 30 °C hotter than spot 2 (22.2 °C) qualitative image prompted immediate
on similar bushing under same load. remedial action.
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Thermal Analysis
2.0 Scope
Thermal analysis instruments and processes described in this Facilities Instruction,
Standards, and Techniques (FIST) volume apply to all maintenance programs at
Reclamation power facilities. All appropriate electrical and mechanical features of the
facility should be considered for thermal analysis.
This FIST volume outlines thermal analyses processes and recommends equipment to
monitor and monitoring schedules that may be adopted locally. When discussing thermal
analysis, several forms of technology can be used. These technologies include:
• Tapes and paints that change color based on operating temperature

• Noncontact IR spot measuring devices, including hand-held radiation
thermometers that provide a digital readout of the approximate operating
temperature
• Thermal imaging cameras that provide both qualitative and quantitative
temperature values
This FIST will guide managers and maintenance staff in thermal analysis technology
development and use. Establishing a thermal analysis process using these guidelines and
executing thermal inspections and analysis on a regular basis will help ensure that
Reclamation’s expectations are in accordance with industry standards and that equipment
is in sound condition. Although thermal analysis is extremely useful as a standalone
maintenance technique in a predictive maintenance (PdM) program, it is not a substitute
for other appropriate testing and maintenance techniques, including visual inspections.
This FIST volume is intentionally broad and does not intend to cover all technical aspects
of thermal analysis theory or use. While the use of a thermal imaging camera is highly
recommended, alternative means of conducting thermal analysis are discussed in a
general sense to aid in establishing a more comprehensive program. Many
comprehensive sources of technical information, existing in the marketplace, are
referenced in this volume.
This volume provides some basic thermal analysis concepts and principles to ground the
reader who is developing a thermal analysis process. Sufficient information is provided
to help the process developer make reasonable decisions. Technical thermal analysis
content in this document focuses on:
• Suggested use of thermography and other technologies used for typical

Reclamation power facility equipment and structures
• Experience and lessons learned from ongoing thermal analysis, focusing on

thermographic work in Reclamation facilities
• Relationship of thermal analysis maintenance to the Capital Asset and Resource

Management Application (CARMA)
• Analysis, recordkeeping, and reporting specific to Reclamation’s needs
• Advice on specific thermal analysis issues needed to define a local process
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Thermal Analysis
3.0 Standards and Resources

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standard 70B, Recommended Practice for
Electrical Equipment Maintenance, lists suggested practices. NFPA 70B, section 11.17.5
states:
“Routine infrared inspections of energized electrical systems

should be performed annually. . . More frequent inspections, for
example, quarterly or semiannually, should be performed where
warranted by loss experience, installation of new equipment, or
changes in environmental, operational, or load conditions.”
NFPA 70B also indicates that the inspection should be performed using instruments that
use a scanning technique to produce an image of the equipment being inspected;
however, this FIST discusses other equipment that can be used to perform thermal
analysis of equipment.
NOTE: Other technologies used to perform thermal inspections

often will yield less reliable results and only should be used when
the use of thermal imaging equipment is not feasible, typically
due to safety issues.
Mechanical equipment also should be inspected periodically. These recommended

practices are identified in this FIST volume.
Additional features may be desirable or necessary.
See appendix A for a glossary of thermal analysis terms.
3.1 Standards
NFPA 70B, Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance, National
Fire Protection Association, 2010.
InterNational Electrical Testing Association (NETA), Maintenance Testing Specifications
for Electrical Power Distribution Equipment and Systems.
3.2 Books, Manuals, Reports, and Papers

Common Sense Approach to Thermal Imaging, 2000, Gerald C. Holst, JCD Publishing.
“Common Misconceptions in Infrared Thermography Condition Based Maintenance
Applications,” 2001, Robert P. Madding, Infrared Training Center, North Billerica,
Massachusetts.
Electrical Safety Handbook, 1994, John Cadick, P.E., McGraw-Hill, Inc, 1994.
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Thermal Analysis
“Emissivity Measurement and Temperature Correction Accuracy Considerations,” 2001,

Robert P. Madding, Infrared Training Center, North Billerica, Massachusetts.
“Environmental Influences on IR Thermography Surveys,” 2002, Robert P. Madding and
Bernard R. Lyon, Jr., Infrared Training Center, North Billerica, Massachusetts.
“Important Measurements That Support IR Surveys in Substations,” 2002, Madding
et al., InfraMetrics.
Infrared Inspection Application Guide 1000496, Final Report, December 2000, Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI), Palo Alto, California.
“Infrared Nondestructive Testing: Help, Hindrance, or Hype?” December 2002, Richard
Becker, Bureau of Reclamation Power Operation and Maintenance (O&M)
Workshop, Laughlin, Nevada.
Guideline for Developing and Managing an Infrared Thermographic (IR) Program,
Technical Report 1004019, EPRI, Palo Alto, California.
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 3, “Infrared and Thermal Testing,” American
Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT), 2001.
Practical Applications of Infrared Thermal Sensing and Imaging Equipment,
Volume TT34, 1999, Hebert Kaplan, Tutorial Texts in Optical Engineering,
SPIE Press.
“The Relationship Between Current Load and Temperature for Quasi-Steady State and
Transient Conditions,” 2002, Bernard R. Lyon, Jr. et al., Infrared Training Center,
North Billerica, Massachusetts.
“Wind Effects on Electrical Hot Spots – Some Experimental IR Data,” 2002, Robert P.
Madding and Bernard R. Lyon, Jr., Infrared Training Center, North Billerica,
Massachusetts.
3.3 Magazines and Web Sites

Academy of Infrared Training, http://www.InfraredTraining.NET
Infrared Training Center, http://www.infraredtraining.com/
IR Cameras, Infrared Imaging Systems, http://www.IRcameras.com
IR Information for the Real World, http://www.irinfo.org
Infraspection Institute, http://www.infraspection.com
Maintenance Technology magazine, http://www.mt-online.com
Reliabilityweb.com Network, http://www.reliabilityweb.com/
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Thermal Analysis
4.0 Initiating a Thermal Analysis Process

Each power facility should have a thermal analysis process. The process should be
developed, implemented, and documented locally using guidance provided in this
volume. Figure 3 provides an overview of a thermal analysis process with references to
applicable sections of this document.
4.1 Goals
Thermal analysis should be an integrated part of the overall maintenance program and not
considered as a replacement for visual inspection. 2 However, it is recognized that there
are cases where thermal imaging cameras alone will not be adequate to perform thermal
analysis on the entire system based on the ability to gain access to equipment while the
system is operational. In these cases, other technologies will be used to document the
temperature rise of the equipment.
An effective thermal analysis process can use equipment including state-of-the-art

thermographic imaging equipment, hand-held noncontact thermometers, one-time
application products such as heat dots or heat tape, or thermal paint to monitor operating
equipment temperature. There should be a process in place to evaluate the collected data,
make maintenance decisions based on the analysis, and document the results that could
include reporting by exception.
Thermal analysis can be used as a suitable predictive maintenance tool as well as a tool to
augment Reclamation’s preventive maintenance (PM) practices. When used in
Reclamation’s PM practices, the following steps should be considered: 3
• Conduct a qualitative inspection to determine if any problems exist.
• If a problem is found, develop a followup action work order for a more indepth
assessment, which may include a quantitative inspection using a thermal imaging
camera to determine the magnitude of the problem ( i.e., the temperature
difference taking into account the wind and circuit loading).
• Apply the appropriate severity criteria to determine what corrective action to

take.
4.2 Contracting
When establishing a thermal analysis process, it is important to decide whether to
perform thermal analysis inspection using in-house expertise or to contract it out. The
analysis should be based on the criticality of the equipment to the facility mission,
accessibility of the equipment, the overall benefits associated with maintenance savings
from an enhanced PM practice or benefit from a predictive maintenance practice based
2
NFPA 70B, section 11.17.1.4.
3
Refer to FIST 6-2 for work order management.
6
Figure 3. Thermographic maintenance process.
Thermal Analysis
FIST 4-13
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Thermal Analysis
on thermal analysis, and type of analysis to be performed. Contracting the work out only
should be considered if a full thermographic analysis (using a thermal imaging camera) is
being performed.
The economics and effectiveness of contracting or in-house expertise should be carefully

weighed, with emphasis placed on consistent, accurate results. 4 All subsequent thermal
analysis activities depend on the decision to contract or use in-house expertise. When it
is determined that the thermal analysis program is to be performed in-house, several
methods and tools are available to perform the work. If the thermal analysis will rely on
quantitative analysis through using state-of-the-art thermographic cameras and software,
the systems can be expensive; one should consider renting or borrowing equipment if the
in-house option is chosen. A thermographic camera may be borrowed from the Technical
Service Center (TSC) Hydropower Technical Services Group. 5
Contracting might include:
• Qualified private sector contractors

• Power marketing administrations or other utilities
• Other Reclamation offices
• TSC equipment and/or thermographers 6
In-house and contracting alternatives each have their advantages and disadvantages:
In-house Contracting
Advantages • Equipment and expertise • Others own and maintain
always available. thermographic equipment.
• Consistent results. • More extensive and recent
• Familiarity with equipment experience.
being inspected. • May be more cost effective.
• No need to maintain in-house
7
expertise for scanning.
Disadvantages • Costly to procure and maintain • Equipment and expertise not as
thermal analysis equipment. readily available.
• Equipment may be infrequently • Results may not be consistent
used and will become with different thermographers
outdated. and thermography equipment.
• Operators will not have as • Contractor may not be familiar
frequent experience as with facility and plant
contractors. equipment.
• Certification or annual training
costs.
4
5
Contact the Hydropower Technical Services Group, 86-68440, at 303-445-2300 for more information.
6
Contact the Hydropower Technical Services Group, 86-68440, at 303-445-2300 for more information.
7
In-house expertise in interpreting results is still advised.
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Thermal Analysis
4.3 Consultation and Resources

Thermographic inspection and analysis is an ever-changing technology with new
products and techniques emerging constantly. It is important for thermographers to stay
informed and have resources to assist with special circumstances. Consultation with
other qualified thermographers is important to an effective thermography process. Some
ways to stay abreast include:
• Periodically attending thermography training courses and/or conferences

• Reading related trade journals and visiting Web sites
• Consulting with thermographers at the TSC
4.4 Documentation
The local thermal analysis process should be documented for clarity and continuity.
Documentation should define:
• Goals of the local thermal analysis process.

• Responsible employees and their roles.
• Consultation resources.
• Contracting issues, if any.
• Thermal analysis equipment to be used (owned, borrowed, etc.).
• Thermal analysis equipment calibration requirements and records.
• Plant equipment to be inspected (detailed listing recommended).
• Inspection tools and processes (should provide consistency when performing
thermal analysis).
o Devices to be used for the thermal analysis for various locations or
equipment to be monitored.
• Analysis guidance.
• Recordkeeping practices (including report generation requirements).
• Training strategies.
• Safety considerations.
o A job hazard analysis should be performed prior to performing a thermal
analysis inspection.
A sample IR report is included in appendix D. When compiling a report, it is important
to include as much data as necessary to be able to recreate the IR survey. While the
sample report only includes two possible problems, oftentimes, the reports will include
thermal images of normally operating equipment. Past images of normally operating
equipment may be used to compare with new images to help identify problem areas.
These reports should be made available to the thermographer prior to performing a
thermal analysis scan to allow them to become familiar with previous test results,
9
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis
equipment, camera settings, and the distance from the equipment to the thermal imaging
equipment. Copies of the previous job hazard analysis’ (JHA) also should be made
available to personnel performing thermal analysis inspections to ensure that all
appropriate information is on the present JHA.
4.5 Preventive Maintenance Program

Thermal analysis inspections can be integrated into the local PM program. Once the
plant equipment is identified where thermal analysis would be beneficial, a separate PM
for the thermal analysis should be created. The job plan for the thermal analysis should
identify the devices used in the thermal analysis measurements, the technical application
of the devices, and the site specific issues to be aware of (such as location for the camera,
heat tape, or noncontact spot measuring device). The thermal analysis PM and job plan
will allow some adjustments to the job plan and/or PM frequency of the monitored
equipment. Many offices conduct thermal analysis inspections throughout the plant (or
on a given generating unit) under one PM. For example, an annual PM is issued to
conduct thermal analysis inspection on all equipment throughout the plant and switchyard
when all equipment is operational. This usually makes more sense than performing
thermal analysis inspections on equipment in a piecemeal fashion for PM purposes.
Recordkeeping, as described below, is an important part of the PM program, since a
comparison to past inspections is essential. A benchmarking procedure should be
developed along with how subsequent inspections will be documented.
Benchmarking should include:
• Equipment to be inspected.
• Loading equipment when inspected. Ideally, the benchmark should be performed

when the equipment is carrying full load.
• Location of thermal analysis instrumentation in relation to the target equipment.

Sometimes, there is only one place for setting the instrumentation to monitor the
equipment. If multiple locations, angles, or distances are thermally analyzed,
they should be documented; or the best position for conducting the survey should
be identified in the benchmark records.
• Thermal analysis equipment used.

o There are differences between cameras, long-wave (LWIR) versus mid-wave
IR (MWIR), 8 angle of the lens, etc.
o Make, model, and emissivity value used for hand-held radiation thermometer
used to collect data.
o Manufacturer and expiration date, if applicable, of tapes and paints used to
determine temperatures.
o If paints are used, a copy of the material safety data sheet must be located
onsite.
8
Short wave infrared (SWIR) equipment is now classified as MWIR (mid-wave infrared).
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Thermal Analysis
• Type of record kept.

o Does it include a thermographic image and visible photograph?
o Is a written description of the component temperature sufficient?
o Does data include distance from target, noting abnormal conditions at the
facility, and recommendations?
• Equipment temperature. Determine if the equipment temperature should be
included in a trending program.
Once the benchmarks are completed, ensure these records are available for comparison to
all subsequent thermal analysis surveys conducted. Significant temperature variations
from the benchmarked temperatures should trigger further investigation. This should
include a thermographic survey, if hand-held radiation thermometers are used to collect
data.
4.6 Training and Certification

Training on using the thermal inspection equipment depends on its complexity and the
desired result. When using a hand-held radiation thermometer, such as an IR temperature
gun, the emissivity and distance from the target can greatly skew the accuracy of the
resulting measurement. At the same time, many cameras are very basic and need very
little training to ensure good, qualitative analysis. This training may be in the form of
reading the camera manual and other technical resources, on-the-job training from a
skilled operator, or attending classroom training. Using thermal analysis equipment for
qualitative analysis by plant staff does not require certification. The complexity of the
imaging system must be weighed against the desired result and ease of use. These will
have a direct bearing on the use within the plant. The easier the system is to use, the
more likely it will be used; however, overly simplified thermal analysis instruments can
yield incorrect data if the employee is not properly trained.
When problem areas are discovered during an inspection performed by an individual who
has not completed certification, it is important to have a certified operator perform a
quantitative review of the problem. This inspection should be performed prior to making
decisions on outages and repair strategies. Certification is critical when the results are
used for official records pertaining to contract performance, such as performing a core
loop test during a rewind. The credibility of the operator is enhanced by certification.
When contractors are used, certification of their thermographers should be required.
Basic training in thermal analysis, including functionality and inspection techniques, may
be acquired from contractors or by contacting thermographers at the TSC. Training in
the science of thermography also is provided by vendors such as:
• Academy of Infrared Thermography, http://www.infraredtraining.net

• American Infrared, http://www.americaninfrared.com
• FLIR Systems, http://www.flirthermography.com
• Infrared Training Center, http://www.infraredtraining.com
• Infraspection Institute, http://www.infraspection.com
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Thermal Analysis
• Jersey Infrared Consultants, http://www.jerseyir.com

• Snell Infrared, http://www.snellinfrared.com
For specific temperature measurements and analyses, the thermographer must have
knowledge of the material being imaged, the limitations of the thermographic equipment,
inspection techniques, and the analysis software, if applicable. For consistency and
accuracy, thermography inspections should be performed by personnel who have an
understanding of thermographic technology, electrical and mechanical equipment
maintenance, and the safety issues involved. 9 If circumstances require certification, the
thermographer will be certified at least to an ASNT Level II thermographer, or
equivalent. Level II certification is defined as:
“An individual with Level II certification is qualified to set up and

calibrate equipment. He/she can interpret and evaluate results with
respect to applicable codes and standards. He/she is thoroughly
familiar with the scope and limitations of the method for which
he/she is qualified. The Level II individual provides on-the-job
training for Level I personnel.” 10
Following the initial certification, the thermographer should be recertified on a 3- to

5-year basis. 11
9
10
American Society of Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, Ohio.
11
ASNT, SNT-TC-1A recommended recertification intervals are 3 years for Level I and Level II and
5 years for Level III. Certifications from vendors, such as the Infrared Training Center, have recertification
set at 5 years.
12
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis
5.0 Selection and Maintenance of Hardware

and Software
The choice of thermal analysis instrumentation and software depends on local goals. For
most facilities, measuring relative temperatures using qualitative or comparison of
thermograms is sufficient for annual inspection purposes. This will highlight most
anomalies—loose connections, hot phases, etc.—to the degree necessary to initiate
further investigation and correction. Hardware capable of this level of inspection is less
expensive and easier to use than hardware for quantitative inspection. For most
IR thermographic equipment or systems, periodic calibration of the imager or radiometer
is needed to ensure valid results. The calibration requirements should be considered
when purchasing thermography equipment. It may be possible to obtain an extended
warranty and calibration plan at a reduced cost when purchasing thermal imaging
cameras.
In some cases, it may be necessary to accurately measure temperatures to truly diagnose a

problem without incurring a maintenance outage. For example, an electrical connection
may appear hot, but the question is: Is the connection deteriorating, is it hotter than
allowable, or will it fail? This level of analysis requires more expensive and complicated
equipment as well as more knowledge and skill on the part of the thermographer.
Proper selection of the equipment is needed for the diagnostics. Often, the terms
“thermal imager” and “IR camera” are used interchangeably without distinguishing
whether the equipment can calculate temperatures quantitatively; and these terms also
include the term “radiometer.” IR thermographic cameras, called “thermal imagers,” are
capable of showing temperature gradients of the target and, therefore, identify hot spots
but do not have the capability of calculating temperature quantitatively. “Radiometers”
calculate quantitative temperatures. Hand-held radiation thermometers display
temperature values but do not display a thermal image of the equipment being surveyed.
Thermal imaging cameras display a two-dimensional image, where as hand-held
radiation thermometers only display point temperatures. Since the hand-held radiation
thermometers are only point measurement devices, it is critical to understand how the
distance from the target can affect the measurement. When determining if a hand-held
radiation thermometer will be adequate to perform thermal analysis on a given piece of
equipment, the user must determine the distance between the instrument and the target.
The greater the distance between instrument and the target, the measurement area
becomes larger, thus increasing the error in the measurements. Refer to section 7.3.1 and
figure 8 (shown later within this document) for additional information on spot size.
NOTE: Realize that the temperature values provided by hand-

held radiation thermometers devices are approximate and are
typically the average of a large area.
Hand-held radiation thermometers also do not allow the user to adjust for reflected or
transmitted radiation, increasing the likelihood of obtaining incorrect data.
It is important to understand that noncontact thermal analysis equipment measures

IR radiation emitted from an object under test as well as the reflected radiation from other
13
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Thermal Analysis
objects in proximity with the object under test. IR radiation is electromagnetic radiation
with properties similar to visible light. The speed of IR radiation is equal to visible light.
The major difference between IR and visible light is the wavelength, λ, measured in
micrometers (µm). Figure 4 shows the relationship of the visible light spectrum to the
IR spectrum.
visible infrared
MWI LWIR
.4 .75 3 5 7 12
Figure 4. Visible and IR spectrum.
IR cameras of the MWIR type with a wavelength range of 3.0–5.5 µm and of the
LWIR type with wavelength range of 7.0 –15.0 µm are acceptable for Reclamation work.
The LWIR type camera is preferred because the MWIR type camera typically uses an
intercooler that takes several minutes to cool the detector before the camera can be used
to acquire images or perform scanning. Also, LWIR is not affected by sun glints
(momentary flashes), although it is affected by continuous solar reflections. The
LWIR equipment is better suited for outdoor IR work, such as in substations and
switchyards.
When procuring an IR camera system, many factors should be considered. Appendix B

provides a list of objective and subjective considerations and a comparison tool.
The price of IR thermal analysis systems can be quite high, especially thermal imaging
equipment; however, the cost of misdiagnosing problems also should be considered.
When choosing a system, considerations should include the value of being able to
accurately determine a quantitative temperature, thus reducing investigation and repair
time, and the financial impact of a forced outage should a faulty component fail to be
recognized. A “pricier” system may be the most cost effective in the long run.
Regardless of the type of camera selected, the system used is no better than the training
provided to the operator or thermographer. Do not skimp on training.
Many thermal imaging cameras offer similar specifications that meet the needs of a
thermal analysis program. It is recommended to use the equipment to perform a thermal
imaging survey of your facility to determine if the hardware is ergonomically designed
and easy to use before you purchase the equipment. Typically, a manufacturer will send
out a representative or the hardware for your demonstration prior to purchase.
14
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis
Once the survey is complete, have the vender demonstrate the software package that is
used to create reports and manipulate images. Once the demonstration is over, ask to use
the software package to determine if the software is intuitive and easy to use. Ensure that
the options within the software perform as expected and that the program operates
without errors on the operating system you plan to use. Open images and attempt to
make changes to the image, changing parameters such as emissivity, palette colors, and
other options that are available. If additional data is stored with the image, such as audio
or text notes, ensure that this information is easy to access.
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Thermal Analysis
6.0 IR Thermography Concepts and Principles12

6.1 General 13
IR energy is part of the electromagnetic spectrum and behaves similarly to visible light.
IR can be reflected, refracted, absorbed, and emitted. All objects emit IR radiation as a
function of their temperature. The warmer an object, the more IR radiation (light) is
emitted. An object at absolute zero (-273.16 °C) emits almost no IR radiation. Since
IR radiation is invisible to the human eye, the technology used in thermography measures
IR radiation and produces a visible image of IR light emitted by objects because of their
temperature. The image, called a thermogram, is developed by using false color images
that, in turn, make interpretation of the thermal patterns easier.
6.2 Thermograms
Thermograms are thermal maps of surfaces where color hues represent the distribution of
thermal energy. The image captured represents the total IR energy coming from the
object or target, consisting of emitted, reflected, and transmitted IR energy, and
modulated by the intervening atmosphere.
138.9°F The thermogram’s purpose is to

identify the temperature
difference, or delta, of the target
compared to a reference
120
temperature. The reference
SP01
temperature might be ambient
temperature, temperature of
similarly loaded equipment or
100 phases, or the baseline
temperature measured under
normal conditions.
80
It should be remembered that
77.5°F temperature recorded by the
camera is not necessarily the
Figure 5. Qualitative IR image of a main circuit actual temperature of the
breaker enclosure illustrating indirect imaging. component being measured.
The copper bus within the enclosure is extremely
Often, the camera is seeing the
hot. The temperature recorded at SP01 is
128 degrees Fahrenheit (°F). The actual bus
indirect or transmitted
temperature would be in the magnitude of three temperature on the surface of a
or more times this temperature. Repairs were panel or enclosure (figure 5)
extensive, including re-insulation of the bus. rather than the heat-generating
component enclosed within.
Thermograms may be “qualitative” in that they represent the thermal energy without
correction for variables—thus, giving an approximate surface temperature. Qualitative
12
IR Thermography — Level I Curriculum, EPRI.
13
Adapted from Guideline for Developing and Managing an Infrared Thermography Program, EPRI
(1004019).
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Thermal Analysis
thermograms are highly beneficial and can provide a wealth of information, even without
knowing the actual temperature values. Thermograms also may be “quantitative” in that
they correct for all variables, providing a nearly true surface temperature using numerical
values in addition to thermal imaging. In short, a qualitative inspection does not produce
numerical data; however, these inspections can yield highly valuable information.
Qualitative thermograms take less time and, in most cases, require simpler equipment.
Qualitative thermograms may provide sufficient information for comparison purposes
(e.g., comparing phases) and often can find the root cause of a problem.
Interpretation is somewhat subjective and may not provide sufficient detail to really
understand a complex problem; however, the purpose of qualitative analysis is to alert
employees of a problem that will require further investigation.
For many PM purposes, qualitative thermograms are sufficient, since comparison to

similar equipment is all that is needed to detect an anomaly. Equipment and training for
qualitative inspections will be reasonably priced and can provide valuable information
pertaining to the condition of the equipment being surveyed.
Quantitative thermograms provide more accurate temperature data and are needed for
identifying trends or determining the severity of the problem. However, they require
more sophisticated equipment, increased thermographer training and experience, take
more time, and may confuse the thermographer with too much information. A hand-held
radiation thermometer is not to be used to obtain high-accuracy quantitative temperature
measurements because they cannot account for the necessary parameters to adjust for
background radiation and other variables necessary to determine an accurate temperature
value.
Depending on the equipment used, the actual temperature of the component may be two,
three, or even more times higher than the temperature being recorded by the noncontact
IR measuring equipment. 14 This depends on the physical construction and material of the
object being surveyed.
Apparent temperatures seen in the thermogram include all temperatures—both the direct
temperature of the target and temperatures from ambient air and reflected radiation. To
obtain accurate temperature values, it is recommended that the thermographer obtain
Level II thermography training. Level II training provides the information and guidance
needed to correctly use the thermal imaging device, accounting for all variables, to obtain
accurate temperature measurements.
14
Electrical Applications, InfraMation 2004 IR Clinic, Las Vegas, Nevada.
17
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis
The following strategy is recommended for thermograms at Reclamation facilities:
Activity Strategy
Annual PM IR inspections Use qualitative thermal analysis to

compare to similar equipment, to compare
phases of three-phase systems, and to
detect simple anomalies.
Troubleshooting suspected or known Use qualitative thermal analysis to identify

problems a problem or quantitative thermograms to
determine the severity of the problem.
Evaluate repair work and proof test

new installations Use qualitative thermal analysis to
determine if a problem exists and
quantitative thermograms to define the
Evaluate condition for condition- problem
based maintenance program
6.2.1 Targets and Target Signatures

A target is an object that is to be detected, located, recognized, or identified. Target
signatures are the spatial (size), spectral (wave band), and intensity (temperature) features
that distinguish the target from the background. 15 Thermographic systems exploit the
intensity differences, and the signatures are the characteristic patterns that the
thermographer must learn to identify. Signatures are created by the apparent differential
between the target and its background. The radiation that appears to emanate from the
target depends upon its emissivity.
6.2.2 Detecting Thermal Anomalies 16

Thermal analysis does not measure temperature directly. Instead, it measures the
radiation that appears to emanate from the target. This measured radiation includes the
target’s self-emission, path radiance, transmitted radiation, and reflections. Reflectivity
and emissivity both depend on the surface quality and surface shape (geometric
properties).
Detecting the difference between normal and abnormal temperatures may be

accomplished by either comparison to an object of known emissivity and operating
characteristics or by symmetry when using a thermal imaging camera.
Comparison of the temperature or thermal pattern of one object to a similar object that is
known to be operating properly is one way of detecting irregularities. The similar object
must be subjected to the same conditions as the target object—for example, same
manufacturer, same load, same emissivity, and same environmental conditions.
15
Common Sense Approach to Thermal Imaging, Holst, chapter 11.
16
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Thermal Analysis
Symmetry or asymmetry patterns are another way of detecting irregularities. Many

objects operating under normal conditions will exhibit a symmetrical pattern. An
asymmetrical pattern indicates a problem. For example, unequal heating of phases of a
three-phase circuit demonstrates possible problems with the system and load unbalance.
6.2.3 Radiation
Thermal analysis equipment detects radiated heat energy of the types shown in figure 6:
• Emitted
• Reflected
• Transmitted
Each of these radiated energy types plays a role in thermal analysis and should be
understood. The IR equipment receives all three types of energy, but not all indicate the
true temperature of the target. These energy types generate three of the four apparent
sources of temperature difference (emittance, reflectivity, geometric, and transmittance
differences). Geometric difference refers to the variations in shape of the target, the
surface texture of the target, and if there are natural cavities created due to the shape of
the target. All four temperature differences must be recognized and factored into the
inspection so that accurate measurement and comparison of emitted radiation is
determined.
TARG
E
SURFA T
CE
on
adiati
cted R iation
Refle te d Rad iation
Em it d Rad
r a n s mitte
T
Thermal Analysis
Instrumentation
Figure 6. Radiation sources.
6.2.4 Path Radiance and Atmospheric Transmittance

Path radiance refers to radiant energy that emanates from the medium (air) that the target
energy passes through to get to the IR measuring device. This generally can be
considered small where the distance to the target is short and the atmosphere is
transparent to the wavelength of the IR measuring device.
The atmosphere is composed of many different gasses, particles, etc., which can absorb,
reflect, or otherwise redirect the radiation from the target to the measuring equipment,
imager, or radiometer. The resulting reduction in the target radiation reaching the
IR measuring device is attributed to atmospheric transmittance.
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FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis
If viewing a target from a long distance, the atmospheric transmittance must be included
in the target temperature calculation.17 However, for most IR inspections performed in
the relatively close distances of powerplants and switchyards, atmospheric conditions
(weather) can be ignored unless the weather is really bad— in which case, the inspection
should be postponed.
6.2.5 Atmospheric Absorption

Atmospheric absorption of IR energy is possible over long distances and typically is
caused by attenuation of the infrared signal. The greater the distance between the thermal
imaging instrumentation from the target surface, the more likely the signal can be
attenuated. The level of attenuation or atmospheric absorption is dependent on weather
conditions. Increased humidity, snow, rain, dust, and other airborne contaminates can
increase the attenuation. It is important to record atmospheric conditions when
performing thermal analysis outdoors; typically, indoor measurements or relatively short-
distance inspections in switchyards are not affected.
6.2.6 Blackbody
A blackbody is an ideal body that completely absorbs all radiant energy striking it and,
therefore, appears perfectly “black” at all wavelengths. The radiation “emitted” by a
blackbody is “blackbody radiation.” A perfect blackbody has an emissivity of unity
(i.e., 1.0) and a reflectivity of zero at all wavelengths. Blackbodies are used to calibrate
IR measurement devices.
6.2.7 Emissivity
Emissivity is a property of a material that describes its ability to radiate energy compared
to a blackbody at the same temperature. High emissivity indicates an increased
efficiency of the object to act as a heat radiator. See appendix E for methods to
determine or enhance emissivity of a target and appendix F for a table of material
emissivity. Most experienced thermographers will not rely on emissivity tables when
conducting quantitative temperature measurements; instead, the thermographer will
perform various checks to determine the emissivity for each target. The tables are
approximate and can lead to errors if not used correctly.
Emissivity values range from zero to one and are affected by surface characteristics such
as age, paint, dust, dirt, dew, frost, chips, scratches, and weathering effects. Generally,
smooth surfaces produce low emissivity while rough surfaces produce high emissivity.
For accurate IR readings, ideally, the emissivity of the target should be as high as
possible so that most of the energy measured is emitted from the target itself rather than
being reflected.
Emissivity also is affected by viewing angle and temperature. Care should be taken to
point the IR measuring device as close to perpendicular to the target surface as possible.
When taking temperature measurements of objects with low emissivity, it is important to
ensure that the recorded temperature is the temperature of the object and is not affected
by the reflection of the thermographer or other equipment in the area.
17
20
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Thermal Analysis
The emissivity of the target and surrounding environment are impossible to know exactly
and can be time consuming and difficult to determine. Therefore, it is very difficult to
determine accurate temperatures, and inspections tend to be mostly qualitative. 18 If
quantitative values are required, the thermographer should determine the emissivity of the
target object experimentally by comparing an object of known emissivity to the target
object and adjusting the emissivity accordingly.
6.2.8 Reflectivity
Reflectivity is a property of a material that describes its ability to reflect energy from a
source other than the target but on the same side of the target as the IR measuring device
(see figure 6). Reflected energy usually is added to the radiated energy from the target.
Therefore, reflected energy will be detected by the IR measuring device, and the
temperature displayed by the device will not indicate the true temperature of the target.
Reflectivity typically is a problem when attempting to perform IR thermal analysis on
objects with a smooth surface and a low emissivity. Materials that have a low emissivity
are reflective to IR radiation.
6.2.9 Transmissivity
Transmissivity is a property of a material that describes its ability to transmit energy from
a source other than the target but on the opposite side of the target from the IR measuring
device (see figure 6). Transmitted energy will be detected by the IR measuring device.
Transmitted energy results in a false or inaccurate target temperature. This is important
where targets are transparent to IR energy but is rarely a problem in powerplant
applications. Opaque objects do not transmit IR energy. It must be pointed out that,
although glass and many plastics are transmissive to visible light, they are opaque to IR
and will appear black in an IR camera viewfinder.
Transmissivity characteristics are important when discussing IR windows in electrical

cabinets or housings. IR windows will act as filters and attenuate the IR energy.
The thermographer must be aware of the effects of these apparent differences and make
provisions to eliminate their effects to arrive at true temperatures. Techniques for
accomplishing this include:
Apparent Difference Remedial Action
Emittance difference Use testing techniques to determine the

emissivity for each target or change the
emittance with paint, tape, or other coating
with a known emissivity value.
Reflective difference Avoid highly reflective scenes. In many

cases, moving around the target, while
trying to maintain a nearly perpendicular
angle with the target, can reduce or
eliminate the reflections radiated from the
target.
18
21
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis
Apparent Difference Remedial Action
Transmittal difference Compensate for the transmittance of

thermal radiation when using IR windows.
Many good windows used for viewing the
internals of electrical cabinets or
equipment( i.e., motor controllers) have a
transmittance of only 0.5. This will reduce
the overall temperature of the target and,
therefore, must be accounted for in the
camera software settings.
Geometric difference Make every effort to view the target

perpendicularly. Additionally, geometric
shapes can contribute to reflections.
Finding cavities or plane intersection to
focus on will provide better temperature
measurements results.
6.3 Plant Equipment Selection and Modification

Electrical and mechanical equipment radiate thermal energy as a byproduct of normal
operation. IR inspections are very useful in identifying abnormal temperatures that
indicate potential problems. Inspections also can find problems in structural systems.
6.3.1 Electrical Equipment

Electrical equipment generates heat through the current squared multiplied by the
resistance of the system (I2R) heating effects of electrical losses. 19 Some heating is
normal, but excessive heating may indicate a problem. Quantitative temperature
measurements may help identify where temperature ratings are being exceeded, and
qualitative temperature measurements will indicate where individual components or
phases of similar devices in electrical circuits may be heating abnormally. All
observations should be documented and trended over the life of the equipment.
For PM purposes, it is recommended that a thermal analysis survey be performed

annually. More frequent inspections should be performed where warranted by loss
experience, installation of new equipment, or changes in environmental, operational, or
load conditions. When developing the test procedures for each facility, the following
electrical equipment should be surveyed:
• Arresters
• Batteries and connections and battery chargers
• Buswork, ducts, enclosures, insulators
• Bushings
• Cables, potheads, and stress cones
19
Note that temperature is not proportional to I2R; the relationship between current and temperature is
more complex.
22
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis
• Circuit breakers
• Coupling capacitors
• Current transformers
• Distribution panels
• Electrical connections
• Exciters and voltage regulators
• Fuses
• Generator components, as needed
• Lighting
• Motors and lead boxes
• Potential transformers
• Switches (disconnect)
• Switchgear
• Power transformers
• Transmission lines
It is recognized that some of the equipment listed above may not be accessible while the
equipment is energized to perform an IR thermal analysis survey. In these cases, other
technology, including labels and paints that change color based on operating temperature,
should be used to monitor operating temperatures. The paint or label should be applied
while the equipment is under clearance and then periodically monitored, typically during
annual maintenance, from a safe distance. When using labels or paints, it is critical that
those individuals tracking the temperatures of this equipment understand what the
maximum temperature is or how the paint or label appears when the maximum
temperature is reached. If paints or labels are used to document the operating
temperatures of the equipment, it is essential that the paints or tapes be irreversible.
Irreversible temperature recording labels and paints are available from numerous
manufacturers and can be found easily online.
6.3.1.1 Conditions Detected 20

If abnormal conditions are discovered, these conditions should be noted and further
investigated. Some examples of abnormal conditions that typically are found are listed in
the following tabulation.
Component Conditions Detected

Bus duct surfaces Unbalanced loads and high resistance in joints,
bus plug-ins, and connections
Batteries, chargers, emergency power Poor connections, defective contacts, or
system standby (transfer) switches
20
Adapted from Academy of Infrared Thermography.
23
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis

Motors/generators Unbalanced loads, shorted or open windings,
blocked cooling passages, and overheating of
brushes, slip rings, and commutators
Switches, load centers, motor control Loose or corroded connections, poor contacts,
centers, power factor capacitors, bus unbalanced loads, or overloading
bar connections, fuses, circuit
breakers
Power transformers (critical to the Loose/deteriorated connections, bushings,
operation of the facility) blocked/restricted cooling fins or tubes, low fluid
level, and bad pothead connections
Transmission lines, lightning Loose/corroded/improper connections and
arrestors, circuit breakers, splices, inoperative capacitors, failed lightning
conductors, splices, disconnects, arrestors, overloading, and broken conductor
compression clamps, cables, strands
potheads, stress cones
6.3.1.2 Equipment Modifications

Current-carrying components of electrical equipment generally are shielded from direct
view by panels that protect personnel from risks of the energized components. This
indirect viewing of the actual current-carrying components makes it difficult to conduct a
meaningful IR inspection. Although removing the panels is possible, this raises safety
concerns and may upset the thermal equilibrium, resulting in a measurement that may not
accurately represent normal operating conditions. Other means of thermal analysis may
be more appropriate in these conditions, such as using heat tape or heat paint. 21
A better alternative is to install viewing ports or IR windows 22 so that IR inspections and

visual inspections can take place without removing the panels. Ports can be installed in
existing equipment, and consideration should be given to specifying new equipment with
such ports. Glass covers and some plastics are not transparent to IR radiation. 23 Thus,
only ports and windows that are Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Listed, UL Certified,
and that meet the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers specifications for
viewing panes should be used.
6.3.2 Mechanical Equipment

Mechanical equipment generates heat, generally through friction. In addition,
mechanical systems such as heat exchangers, piping, and ventilation may be transferring
heat from other sources. Friction losses are costly, and reducing them will improve
efficiency. Mechanical systems such as coolers are good subjects for inspection since hot
spots may indicate heat transfer problems, blocked cooling passages, nonfunctional
pumps, and even inadvertently closed valves. Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and oil storage tank
levels can be assessed by IR inspections. Heat radiation in mechanical systems is normal,
21
22
Ports are openings with covers, and windows are openings with lens materials transparent to
IR energy.
23
24
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis
but excessive heating may be an indication of a problem. For PM purposes, mechanical

equipment that should be inspected annually includes:
• Air compressors
• Bearings and seals
• Brakes
• CO 2 systems
• Cooling system heat exchangers
• Engines, gasoline and diesel
• Gear boxes
• Heat exchangers
• Motor bearing housings
• Piping
• Pivot pins, hinges, and linkages
• Pumps
• Servomotors
• Valves
• Vessels and tanks
6.3.2.1 Conditions Detected 24
Drives and pillow blocks Overloaded bearings or rollers and misalignment of

shafts or pulleys
Heavy-duty equipment: tires, Overheating brakes, tires, bearings, pulleys, gears,

bearings, brakes, pulleys, gears gear or pulley misalignment, and
transmission/gearbox overheating
Hydraulics Defective seals, overheating lines, and unequal flow
Heating, ventilating, and air Air leaks, energy loss, clogged condenser/heat
conditioning (HVAC) systems exchanger tubes, and refrigerator and air conditioner
efficiency
Internal combustion engines Valve or injector malfunction, blocked radiator tubes,

and oil coolers
Mechanical drive turbines and High lube oil temperature, high bearing temperatures,
small turbine generator units drain valve blockage, steam trap blockage, faulty
stop/control valve operation, and leaking shaft seals
24
Academy of Infrared Thermography, with modifications.
25
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis

Pumps, compressors, fans, and Overheated bearings, high compressor discharge
blowers temperature, high oil temperature, broken or effective
valves or rings, and misalignment of drive belts and
gears
Vessels and tanks Liquid or gas levels
6.3.2.2 Modifications
Most mechanical equipment has safety shrouds or enclosures, which can limit the view of
moving parts. Solid shrouds and covers must be removed to conduct an inspection. This
poses a safety problem and may disrupt the thermal equilibrium, giving a measurement
that may not accurately represent normal operating conditions. Inspection ports similar
to those described for electrical equipment can be installed to allow the use of thermal
imaging tools, or using heat sensitive tapes and paints on nonexposed surfaces also will
allow monitoring of equipment temperatures.
6.4 Safety
As with any O&M activity, personnel safety is of utmost importance when conducting
thermal analysis surveys. Since inspections are performed while the equipment is in
operation and under load, risk always exists in the form of electrical and mechanical
energy, as well as physical hazards, when attempting the inspection.
Thermal inspections are intended to be a noncontact routine analysis of easily accessible

equipment or components. It is not intended that panels exposing the thermographer to
hazardous energy would be opened. When analysis of equipment behind protective
panels is needed, other thermal analysis techniques should be employed such as heat tape
or heat paint. While thermal tapes and paints may not yield precise temperature values,
the results of analysis still can provide valuable information and indicate if additional
maintenance should be performed.
If the inspection does include exposing the thermographer to hazardous energy sources, it
must be conducted in accordance with FIST Volume 1-1, Hazardous Energy Control
Program, including the Facility Supplement, Reclamation Safety and Health Standards
(RSHS), and arc-flash protection procedures (NFPA 70E).
Safety concerns include:
• Exposure to arc flash hazards since performing inspections may include

times when protective barriers on electrical equipment are removed.
Thermographers must comply with facility-specific and Reclamation
arc flash protection processes, including wearing all appropriate personal
protective equipment (PPE). Assessing the exposure risk requires an arc flash
energy study, and the JHA must clearly state the need for arc flash protection.
To enhance safety, the thermographer should adopt a Freeze and Leave
practice of capturing the image and immediately leaving the area. This
26
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis
will reduce the amount of time the thermographer is exposed to hazardous

energy. When possible, telephoto lenses should be used to maximize the
distance between the employee and possible hazards.
• Exposure to electric shock hazard in the vicinity of exposed energized electrical

equipment. Care must be taken to observe minimum approach distances as
defined in RSHS, table 12-1 (NFPA 70E, table 130.2(C)). Again, a Freeze and
Leave practice is recommended to enhance safety.
• Heavy and cumbersome cameras and accessories pose risk, and precautions
should be used to ensure safety. Care must be exercised when climbing with
thermographic equipment or maneuvering through tight spaces.
• The thermographer’s attention is very focused on the camera, the image, and
target being inspected, and this may make them oblivious to risks around them.
The thermographer must be protected from a variety of hazards involving loss of
footing, head and body obstructions, energized parts, and mechanical energy. It
is recommended that the thermographer be accompanied by an assistant who
helps protect the thermographer from these hazards and that the thermographer
adopt a Stop and Look practice and not be in motion when making a
measurement.
27
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Thermal Analysis
7.0 Conducting Inspections

The following items are advice and guidance, the “do’s and don’ts”of thermographic
inspections that will yield better results.
7.1 Basics
Thermographers should do several things before conducting inspections. 25
• Read the instruction manuals and understand all the features of the device.
• Make certain the batteries are charged.
• Confirm the device calibration is current.
• Learn the default values for device settings.
• Learn the specifics for the thermal analysis equipment used.
• Learn the device’s functions:
o Estimates of distance and emittance of targets and magnitude of background

sources.
o Pointing, aiming, and ambient reflections.
o Device calibration.
o Field of view settings.
o Gain and level settings.
o Spatial resolution of the device/camera (spot size ratio).
• Practice taking pictures with the camera to ensure that pictures taken are in focus.
o If a picture is not in focus, no useful information can be obtained from the

image.
• Become familiar with the software package used in conjunction with the
IR measuring devices.
o Some software packages will allow the user to adjust range, span, and
emissivity of images from the software.
o While several variables may be changed in the software, the thermographer
should rely on the hardware to take good measurements and not rely on the
software to fix shortcomings in thermal images.
25
IR Thermography – Level I Curriculum, EPRI.
28
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Thermal Analysis
7.2 Equipment Selection

Before a thermal inspection can be completed, the way in which the temperatures will be
collected needs to be examined. Thermal analysis at the facility can be performed using a
thermal imaging camera, a hand-held radiation thermometer, heat sensitive stickers and
paints, or any combination of the above.
Of the listed technologies, the thermal imaging camera provides the best information and
greatest accuracy. Using thermal imaging, one image contains information of thousands
of points allowing the thermographer to better monitor equipment. Inexpensive cameras
have a thermal sensitivity of less than 0.2 °C with an accuracy of 2 °C providing quality
information that is easy to trend. Typically, as the price of the camera increases, so does
the quality of the image and accuracy of the readings; but in most maintenance
applications, inexpensive cameras are adequate for capturing data. When a thermal
imaging camera is not available, a hand-held radiation thermometer can be used.
Hand-held radiation thermometers provide an average temperature of an object using

infrared technology. This equipment is very inexpensive to purchase, but with these
devices the user has no way to determine the exact location or location size of the
measurement area. Most hand-held radiation thermometers do not allow the user to
adjust emissivity, introducing additional errors into the measurements. Great care should
be taken anytime a hand-held radiation thermometer is used.
In instances when the thermographer would be exposed to arc flash or other dangerous
conditions while conducting inspections, IR viewing panes, inspection grills, or
inspection ports can be installed on exiting equipment. Typically, IR viewing panes are
used in electrical applications to create a sealed barrier between the thermographer and a
potential arc flash hazard. When thermal analysis on mechanical equipment is to be
performed, without removing shields or barriers that would typically block the view of
the thermographer, inspection grills can be used to allow safe visual access to the
equipment.
The IR windows allow a portion of the thermal radiation to be transmitted to the camera,
but it is important to compensate for the attenuation of the image through the viewing
panes. The view pane characteristics need to be investigated to determine the amount of
attenuation of the infrared signal if performing quantitative measurements. This will
include examining a known target without the IR viewing pane in place and then
comparing the measurement of the target when viewing through the viewing pane. After
the test has been performed, the transmissivity can be calculated and programmed into
the camera.
Thermography should be used whenever possible, however there are instances where it is
not possible to use the thermal imaging camera typically due to the safety of the
employee. For example, there may not be a location that an IR viewing pane can be
installed to allow employees to safely monitor the temperature of electrical equipment
while it is operating. In this case, the use of non-reversible temperature labels can
provide information regarding the operating temperature of the equipment. The labels
can be configured and purchased in several form factors providing 1–10 different
temperature readings. The labels are typically accurate to within 3 °F over a temperature
range of between 105–500 °F.
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The labels should be stored in a cool, dry area until they are installed. The labels use an
adhesive backing to stick to equipment. If the indicated temperature is reached, the
indicator will turn black. Employees can monitor the labels during routine inspections to
determine operating temperature of the equipment. Labels should be ordered based on
the maximum allowable operating temperature of the equipment. If a label has changed
color, the label should be replaced at the time of visual inspection, and additional
maintenance will need to be performed on the equipment based on the operating
temperature. For example, an unmanned IR camera can be set up to monitor the actual
operating temperature of the equipment if necessary. The old label can be placed in a
maintenance log book as a record of the operating temperature. Labels that have not
changed color should be replaced at least every 5 years to ensure that they are in proper
working order.
7.2.1 Camera Settings

The thermographer should ensure that the following settings on the camera are correct
before and/or during inspection:
• Date and time

• Atmospheric temperature (ambient air temperature)
• Relative humidity (use portable hydrometer or use plant’s hydrometer)
• Distance to target
• Emissivity of target
• Temperature of objects that are reflecting radiation off the target (background
temperature)
• Desired temperature range (from camera optional ranges)
• Normal or telephoto lens (e.g., 12- or 24-inch)
• Focus
Although the distance measurement may not be critical for qualitative inspections, a
value will need to be assigned in most cameras. The distance to the target should be
measured or approximated, and the value programmed into the camera. Using a valid
approximation for distance will allow the data to be trended over the life of the
equipment. If quantitative measurements are warranted, then a more accurate value for
distance will need to be measured. The distance to the object is important because the
camera will use this value to approximate the attenuation of the IR signal based on
environmental conditions.
Camera settings are important to get an accurate inspection because some things cannot
be manipulated in the thermogram after the fact. Typically, focus, temperature range,
and distance to target cannot be manipulated in the software.
Emissivity, relative humidity, ambient temperature, and reflected temperature may be

manipulated after the fact, depending on the thermographic equipment and software. The
thermographer should set the values in the camera prior to performing an IR survey. This
will allow the thermographer to spot problems quickly and to make recommendations
immediately following the survey. Depending on the software package used to analyze
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data and create reports, the above parameters within the thermograms can be modified to
improve the quality of the image. Modifying these parameters allows the user to create
similar images that can be trended over time or compared to similar equipment. Refer to
the software instruction manual for additional information for your specific software
package and version.
7.3 Image Quality

Image quality is affected by many factors, as shown in figure 7.
Scene Content Atmospheric Transmittance

Target Characteristics Haze
Background Characteristics Fog
Motion Rain
Center Dust
Observer Experience Monitor

Training
Fatigue IMAGE Luminance
Contrast
Workload
QUALITY Distance From Observer
Performance Parameters Miscellaneous

Resolution Ambient Illumination
Sensitivity Noise
MRT Vibration
MDT
Figure 7. Image quality contributors.

Source: Holst, Common Sense Approach to Thermal Imaging, figure 7-1.
7.3.1 Spot Size

The thermal analysis equipment will record the temperature of a “spot” in the image and
display this temperature. The size of the spot is critical since the temperature recorded is
the average of the temperatures of the pixels within the spot. If the spot is too large, the
average may “water down” a hot spot pixel, giving the false impression that the
temperature is lower (or higher) than the pixel centered on the hot spot. Ideally, the spot
size will be as small as possible, but there are practical limits. The spot size is partially
determined by how close the device is to the target; and, in some cases, the approach
distance must be relatively large for safety or physical obstructions or because the target
is in the air. Using a telephoto lens on IR cameras will reduce the spot size of distant
targets. Even though these can be expensive, they should be used where quantitative
measurement is needed.
When using hand-held radiation thermometers, it is critical to understand and take into
account the spot size for your specific equipment. Hand-held radiation thermometers
typically have a spot size ratio ranging from 6:1 to 110:1. For comparison, thermal
imaging cameras have a spot size ratio ranging from 63:1 to 889:1 with the typical spot
size being approximately 250:1. The spot size of a thermal imaging camera can be
changed depending on work to be performed by using different lenses. Figure 8 is an
example of how the actual spot size changes based on spot size ratio and the distance
from the target. Assuming the employee is 6 feet from the equipment under test, the
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Thermal Analysis
actual spot size can vary from 0.65 inch to 12 inches. If the actual target size is 0.5 inch,
then with a spot size ratio of 110:1, the employee would need to be within 55 inches of
the target to only measure the temperature of the target. If the spot size ratio was 12:1,
then the employee would need to be within 6 inches of the target to only measure the
temperature of the target.
Figure 8. Spot size of hand-held radiation thermometer.
It is important to understand the device’s spot size ratio, sometimes called the distance-
to-spot ratio or instantaneous measurement field of view (IMFOV), which determines the
maximum distance the thermographer can be from the target and still get a good reading.
For example, a spot size ratio of 250 to 1 means that, at 250 inches (about 21 feet), the
spot size to be measured must be a minimum of 1 inch. If the thermographer cannot get
within 21 feet, a telephoto lens should be used. If the spot size or target is less than
1 inch (for example, ½ inch), the device would need to be closer than approximately
10½ feet for accurate temperature readings, or a telephoto lens would be required. For
¼ inch, the device would need to be closer still. The target should be larger than the spot
size to ensure accurate data.
7.3.2 Distance
The physical distance of the IR thermal equipment to the target is one parameter that
cannot be corrected after the image is taken and saved. The distance to the target is an
important variable in determining apparent temperatures. The distance should be
measured or estimated and entered into the camera. Using a laser distance device is
an easy way to measure the distances between the thermographer and equipment. Never
use a metal tape measure to determine the distance between the thermographer and
equipment when working near energized equipment. The discussion above on spot size
shows that the correct distance is very important to obtain quality IR images and proper
analysis. The distance from the IR thermal equipment to the target needs to be reported
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Thermal Analysis
on the PM forms. To simplify the process, it is possible to mark the floor in front of the
equipment so the thermographer always maintains the same distance from the target,
allowing for repeatable measurements.
7.3.3 Field of View and Instantaneous Field of View

The definition of field of view depends on the type of instrument used. For a hand-held
radiation thermometer, the field of view (or instantaneous field of view [IFOV]) is the
target spot size. In a scanner, imager, or radiometer, the field of view is the scan angle,
picture size, or total field of view. 26 This can be related to a regular 35-millimeter (mm)
camera; a 50-mm lens will provide a certain picture size. If the lens size is doubled to
100 mm (a basic telephoto lens), at the same distance, the overall field of view is
reduced, but the items in the picture appear closer and clearer in detail. In IR
thermography, the lenses are designated using angular notations. As the lens angle
increases, so does the field of view. A “standard” 24-degree lens will have a larger field
of view than a 12-degree telephoto lens.
IFOV relates directly to spatial resolution of the instrument used. IFOV is the smallest
area that can be accurately seen at a given instance.
Figure 9 illustrates the field of view and the relation to the instantaneous field of view
when using a thermal imaging camera.
Field of view
Center box represents IFOV

(instantaneous field of view)
Figure 9. Field of view of an IR camera.
7.3.4 Estimating Emissivity

Before inspection of any component, it is essential that the emissivity of that component
be estimated and set in the IR thermal inspection equipment. Otherwise, inaccurate
temperatures will be recorded. For qualitative inspections, the starting emissivity may be
estimated at 0.9–0.95. It is a good practice for a facility to establish a uniform starting
emissivity for consistent results. Hand-held radiation thermometers may or may not
allow the user to change the emissivity of the instrument. If the instrument does not
26
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition, ASNT.
33
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Thermal Analysis
allow the user to change the emissivity, then it will only provide accurate results for
objects with the preprogrammed emissivity. Coatings may be added to equipment
included in the thermal analysis program that will change the emissivity of the object.
Some cameras and the associated analyzing software programs can adjust emissivity after
the image is saved. However, if the emissivity is set prior to imaging, quicker analysis
may be made in the field as to the severity of any anomalies found. Emissivity tables are
provided in many publications and also can be found in appendix F. These tables should
be used sparingly and with caution. The best emissivity value for a given target is
established in the field using accepted practices for determining the target’s emissivity.
See appendix E.
7.3.5 Background Sources

Heat energy from sources of radiation other than the target must be estimated and entered
into the camera for a more accurate temperature measurement. There are specific
procedures for using the camera to determine the background temperature. Once
obtained, these values should be inputted into the camera.
7.3.6 Pointing, Aiming, and Ambient Reflections

Viewing angles can affect the amount of IR radiation gathered by the thermal analysis
instrumentation. The optimum angle of the instrument to the target is 90° (perpendicular)
to the plane of the target. Effort should be made to ensure the best possible viewing of
the target. The optimum angle cannot always be achieved or maintained. Therefore, the
temperature recorded from a target on an angle other than 90° may not be as accurate.
Generally, shiny surfaces do not emit radiation energy efficiently and can be hot while
appearing cool in an IR thermographic image or on the readout of the hand-held radiation
thermometer. Likewise, direct reflections of sun rays from shiny surfaces into the camera
can be misread as hot spots. One method of determining if the spot observed in a camera
is an anomaly or is the result of a reflection is to move around the target when possible.
Usually, when conducting outdoor inspections, if the “hot” spot goes away or diminishes
significantly, then the “hot” spot was probably a reflection. If the hot spot remains,
measure it.
Do not rely on this technique for all targets. Targets may be large or shaped so that hot
spots on the front side may be completely obscured when viewed from the back side.
The technique of moving around then will not accurately locate all anomalies. The
thermographer must be aware of unusual conditions that may influence the IR radiation
measured by the test instrument. This points out the need for training and experience. It
also emphasizes the need to have the thermographer familiar with the workings of the
equipment being inspected.
7.3.7 Calibration
Have the thermal analysis instrumentation calibrated periodically, according to the
manufacturer’s recommendations. This will help ensure the instruments are working
properly and recording accurate thermograms and/or temperatures.
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7.3.8 Reference Photos

It is very helpful when analyzing thermograms to have a visual reference photo taken
with a standard camera of the equipment at the same time and point of view as the
thermogram. The reference photo will make it easier to identify components that might
not be obvious in the thermogram. When using hand-held radiation thermometers,
reference photos are critical to identify locations of hot spots. Since hand-held radiation
thermometers do not capture data, extensive notes and reference photos are the only way
to document the location of temperature data for future reference.
7.4 Environmental
7.4.1 Weather
Weather significantly affects timing and techniques of IR inspections. 27 Measures must
be taken to reduce the effects of weather, particularly where quantitative temperatures are
desired.
Wind in particular must be considered. Wind is equivalent to forced convective cooling

and dramatically affects building, roof, electrical, and mechanical thermographic
inspections. Even indoors, wind effects from air conditioning and ventilation will rapidly
cool a hot spot.
Currently, there are no recognized standard wind correction factors. For qualitative
measurements, wind speed of less than 15 miles per hour (mph) is probably adequate for
inspection. For quantitative measurements, wind speed must be even lower—less than
10 mph and preferably less than 5 mph. 28
The following is an example of the cooling effect of wind: 29
With a sustained 3–5 mph wind:

Measured spot temperature = 70 °C
Ambient air temperature = 20 °C
Delta (temperature over ambient) = 50 °C
With no wind:
Measured spot temperature = 120 °C
Ambient air temperature = 20 °C
Delta (temperature over ambient) = 100 °C
Even though wind effects generally are found outdoors, IR inspections inside buildings
also may be affected by air movement. Ventilation fans, air conditioning, and even
natural ventilation can reduce the apparent temperature. As many of these factors as
possible should be removed, especially when conducting quantitative inspections.
Commercial devices (anemometers) are available for measuring wind, and they should be
used for outdoor inspection to determine if it is possible to quantitatively determine
temperature. Wind speed may be estimated using the following scale:
27
28
Common Sense Approach to Thermal Imaging, Holst.
29
Electrical Applications, InfraMation 2004 IR Clinic.
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Thermal Analysis
1
Beaufort Wind Scale
Wind Speed
Beaufort
Number Name mph kph m/s Description
0 Calm <1 <1.6 <0.4 Smoke rises vertically.
1 Light air 1–3 1.6–4.8 0.4–1.3 Direction of wind shown by

smoke but not wind vanes.
2 Light 4–7 6.4–11 1.8–3.1 Wind felt on face. Leaves rustle;

breeze wind vane moves.
3 Gentle 8–12 13–19 3.6–5.4 Leaves and small twigs in

breeze constant motion, and wind
extends a small flag.
4 Moderate 13–18 21–29 5.8–8.0 Wind raises dust, loose paper,

breeze and small branches move
5 Fresh 19–24 31–39 8.5–10.7 Small-leafed trees begin to

breeze sway; crested wavelets form on
inland waters.
1
kph = kilometers per hour; m/s = meters per second.
Since there is no reliable way to correct for wind quantitatively (i.e., using correction
factors), the following guidance is given for wind conditions: 30
• Use an anemometer to determine wind speed.
• Always be aware of the wind and know that the wind will affect the temperature
rise, often significantly.
• Perform quantitative inspections in as close to no-wind conditions as possible.
• Perform inspections on indoor equipment as soon as possible after removing

covers and doors to minimize the effects of natural convection and forced cooling
in the building.
• Turn off the ventilation system, if possible.
• If possible, measure the component temperature on the leeward (downwind) side

of the hot spot. Measuring out of the wind will produce a result closer to the no-
wind condition.
Qualitative inspections are not affected in the same way by wind. As long as all
components being surveyed are affected equally by the wind—for example, three phases
of buswork—then the thermal signatures will be comparable. It is critical that electrical
30
Wind Effects on Electrical Hot Spots—Some Experimental IR Data, Madding, 2002.
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Thermal Analysis
equipment be examined at full load. Partial loads may have a noted anomaly with no
wind; but in the presence of a wind, the anomaly may be completely obscured.
High humidity and smoke reduce transmittance of IR energy—thus, reducing the

effectiveness of the inspection. IR inspection in high humidity or smoky conditions is
not recommended.
Solar loading will affect the apparent temperature, and transient solar loading (for
example, passing clouds) is even more difficult to address. Early morning, evening, or
nighttime inspections will provide more accurate IR results. However, many systems
often are not loaded as heavily at night or during off-peak hours. Extra care should be
exercised in analyzing the results because light loads may not adequately heat a problem
area.
Due to difference in wavelengths detected, MWIR instruments are more susceptible to

solar reflection than are LWIR instruments. However, this does not mean that solar
reflection is not a problem if using LWIR cameras. Thermographers must recognize that
reflective targets provide challenges no matter which IR system is used. When
conducting outdoor inspections, care must be exercised to avoid incorrectly analyzing
reflections or reflective targets.
7.4.2 Current Loading

When possible, IR inspections should be conducted with equipment operating at or near
full load, both mechanically and electrically. Current loading of electrical equipment
must be considered when determining temperatures quantitatively. Temperature rises
vary considerably with different loads. Therefore, it is difficult to correct the temperature
rise from partial load to full load.
Studies have shown that there are no simple load correction factors. However, if used
cautiously, published factors can provide some reasonable correction.
1
Load Correction
Percent Load Multiplication Factor
100 1
80 1.4
70 1.8
60 2.2
50 3
40 4.3
30 7
1
Adapted from figure 6, Important Measurements
That Support IR Surveys in Substations, Madding
et al., 2002, InfraMation.
Thermographic surveys should not be performed at low load, in windy conditions.

Correct diagnosis requires knowing wind conditions and the electrical load at the time of
the inspection. Both affect temperature readings and interact with each other. For
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Thermal Analysis
example, a temperature rise of 45 °F under a 50-percent load is a more severe problem

than the same temperature rise under a 90-percent load. This same temperature rise
measured in a 10-mph wind is much more severe than in no wind. 31
It is important to record the loading as part of the IR inspection, but care should be taken
that it is the steady state load. At least 45 minutes should expire after a load change
before performing an IR inspection.32
Another goal of load correction is to be able to calculate a safe loading level for a given
maximum allowable temperature rise. In other words, the allowable temperature rise
determines the maximum safe load.
31
Important Measurements That Support IR Surveys in Substations, Madding et al., 2002, InfraMetrics.
32
The Relationship Between Current Load and Temperature for Quasi-Steady State and Transient
Conditions, Lyon et al., 2002.
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Thermal Analysis
8.0 Evaluating Results

8.1 Analyzing Results
The most important part of a thermal analysis process is evaluating the result. For
qualitative analysis using comparison with like operating elements, it is best to evaluate
the image once the picture has been recorded or downloaded. If a color change is noted
between the like operating elements indicating higher thermal activity, the information
should be forwarded to the maintenance manager as soon as possible for followup action.
A correct understanding of the equipment being inspected is essential if one is to make a

proper thermographic diagnosis. 33
In evaluating thermal analysis inspections, there are four possible outcomes:
1. A problem can be found when the problem actually exists.

2. A problem can be missed when there is a problem.
3. A problem will be diagnosed where no problem exists.
4. No problem is located because no problem exists.
Reliable testing processes and evaluations should identify all problems of concern with
no problems overlooked. There should be no errors, as in number 2 above; and no false
callouts relating to outcome, as in number 3. 34 Great care must be used when using a
hand-held radiation thermometer to ensure all problems and nonproblems are correctly
recorded. Using hand-held radiation thermometers requires considerably more time to
perform a quality thermal inspection.
NETA’s Maintenance Testing Specifications 2005 for Electrical Power Distribution

Equipment recommends the following guidelines when measured temperatures differ
from reference temperatures or temperatures of similar equipment:
1
Electrical Equipment Severity Criteria
Temperature Difference
from Reference Implication
1–10 °C O/A Possible deficiency—monitor and repair when possible

1–3 °C O/S
11–20 °C O/A Probable deficiency—investigate further and repair when
4–15 °C O/S possible
21–40 °C O/A Deficiency—repair at next opportunity

> 40 °C O/A Major deficiency—repair immediately
> 15 °C O/S
1
O/A = over ambient/reference; O/S = over similar.
33
Important Measurements That Support IR Surveys in Substations, Madding et al., 2002, InfraMetrics.
34
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition, ASNT.
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Thermal Analysis
Temperature specifications vary depending on the exact type of equipment. Even in the
same class of equipment (i.e., cables), there are various temperature ratings. Heating is
related to the square of the current; therefore, the load current will have a major impact
on the difference in temperature or ∆T. In the absence of consensus standards for ∆T, the
values in the above table will provide reasonable guidelines.35
Bearing Severity Criteria
Temperature Difference
from Ambient Implication
10–24 °C above Normal operating conditions — no action is warranted
25–39 °C above Probable deficiency — investigate further and repair when

possible
40–69 °C above Deficiency — repair at next opportunity

70 °C or more above Major deficiency — repair immediately
Source: Mechanical Applications, InfraMetrics 2004 IR Clinic.
8.2 Recordkeeping and Reporting

Recordkeeping is essential to an effective thermal analysis maintenance process.
Recordkeeping falls into five key areas: 36
• Program documentation (what, where, how, and reporting requirements)

• Inspection documentation
• Report preparation
• Personnel qualifications
• Equipment calibration
8.2.1 Inspection Documentation

Complete and accurate records of inspected equipment are required for an effective
thermal analysis process. To the degree possible, records should be kept in the
computerized maintenance management system (CARMA) or in linked documents. For
PM purposes, CARMA should be used to schedule thermal analysis inspections
according to the required interval and to record results found. Thermograms are not
appropriate to be kept in CARMA but can be linked or referenced. Documentation for
inspections made for purposes other than PM also should be kept in or linked to CARMA
for a complete record.
In CARMA, it should be possible to find what was inspected, when the inspection took
place, under what conditions, who performed the inspection, thermal analysis equipment
35
NETA Maintenance Testing Specifications 2005 for Electrical Power Distribution Equipment.
36
IR Thermography – Level I Curriculum, EPRI.
40
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Thermal Analysis
used, and what was found during the inspection. If equipment scheduled for inspection
was not inspected, an explanation should be recorded. Corrective work orders should be
generated when problems are found.
Records of corrective work, with feedback provided to the thermographer, will improve
the diagnostic process. Followup thermal analysis inspections should be preformed to
verify that the corrective actions or repairs were successful in eliminating the problem.
Thermograms should be retained in the appropriate media (digital images, videotapes,

etc.) and linked to the appropriate CARMA record.
8.2.2 Reports
Reports are often required for management awareness or to document a special problem.
There is no required format for a thermal analysis report, but it should include the
following recommended topics:
• Executive Summary
• Names of Responsible Individuals
• Inspection Date and Time
• Weather Conditions
• Inspection Equipment Used
• Identity of the Equipment or Structures Inspected
• Operating/Loading Conditions of the Equipment or Structure
• Inspection Procedure
• Data Analysis Techniques
• Data
• Thermograms and Associated Visual Photos
• Results
• Conclusions
• Recommendations
• Appendices
Some software packages used to analyze thermograms also provide assistance in report
writing. An example report is shown in appendix D.
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9.0 Personnel Qualifications

If personnel are performing a simple qualitative review of facility equipment, then no
official certification is required. However, it is recommended that some training be given
on the use of IR equipment.
Records should be kept on training and certification if required for personnel performing
IR inspections.
Records of all IR training, including formal and on-the-job, should be kept. These
records should include dates, locations, number of hours of inspection, and source and
qualifications of instruction.
Records also should be kept on thermographer renewal certification. For basic

troubleshooting, it is best if the thermographer is completely familiar with the equipment
and has been instructed on proper procedures and analysis. The ASNT has defined
training requirements. See Section 4.6, “Training and Certification.”
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10.0 Equipment Calibration

Properly calibrated thermal imaging equipment is needed to achieve accurate results.
CARMA should be used to trigger calibration on the interval recommended by the
manufacturer. The date that the calibration was completed and any other pertinent
information should be kept in CARMA. A copy of the calibration schedule also should
be kept with the instrumentation.
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11.0 Complementary Technologies

IR inspection is an important tool for preventive and predictive maintenance, but it has
limitations. Other technologies can be used to confirm or enhance thermal analysis
inspection findings, making it possible to find the source of problems even more
effectively.
Some of these complementary technologies include:
• Ultrasonic: Ultrasonic detection identifies frequencies above the sonic, or

audible, level. Ultrasonic frequencies sometimes accompany problems that may
cause heating. Sometimes, heating is not present when problems emitting a high
frequency are present.
• Vibration Analysis: Vibration analysis can supplement thermal analysis in

finding the source of mechanical problems.
• Motor Current Analysis: Motor current analysis, used in conjunction with

thermal analysis, can provide insight into electrical motor problems.
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Appendix A
Glossary of Thermography Terms
Adapted from Guideline for Developing and Managing and Infrared Thermography (IR)
Program, Appendix A, Electric Power Research Institute, September 2001.
Absolute temperature scale: Temperature scales that are measured from absolute zero.
Rankine and Kelvin scales are both absolute.
Absolute zero: The point on the Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales that indicates
zero. Commonly known as the temperature at which no molecular activity occurs.
Ambient temperature: Temperature of immediate surroundings and environment where

a test or measurement takes place. A parameter used to compensate for radiation
reflected from test object and air in the field of view.
Aperture: The term used by some infrared (IR) manufacturers referring to dynamic
range, as with the Agema 400 series. Also used by pyroelectric vidicon (PEV)
imagers and some other thermal detector-based imagers to refer to the variable
opening size of the lens.
Apparent temperature: The target surface temperature as indicated by an IR point

sensor, line scanner, or imager, generally taking into account the emissivity of the
object.
Area: A software tool that allows for measurement of an area in the radiometric image.
The area can often be defined as a box, circle, or other shape within which the
measured radiometric temperature can be displayed as the average, maximum, or
minimum.
Attenuation: Decrease in signal magnitude during energy transmission from one point
to another. This loss may be caused by absorption, reflection, scattering of energy, or
other material characteristics or may be caused by an electronic or optical device
such as an attenuator or IR windows.
Background: The source of radiation that reflects off of the target that the
thermographic instrument is viewing.
Background temperature: The temperature of the source of radiation that reflects off of
the target that the thermal analysis instrument is viewing. Most quantitative thermal
analysis instruments provide a means for correcting measurements for this reflection.
Blackbody: An object that absorbs 100 percent of the radiant energy striking it. The
absorption and emission of a blackbody are both equal to 1.
Blackbody reference source: A traceable, calibrated high emissivity device with an

adjustable temperature. A blackbody reference source is used to calibrate or check
the calibration of a radiometer.
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British thermal unit (Btu): A unit of energy defined as the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of a pound of air-free water by 1 degree Fahrenheit (°F) at sea
level (standard pressure). A Btu is equal to approximately 1,055.06 joules.
Calibration: The rather complex process, typically performed by the equipment

manufacturer, during which the response of a radiometric system is characterized or
compared to a series of known temperature references.
Calibration check: The simple process used in the field to check the performance of a
radiometric system by comparing it to a known temperature reference, often the tear
duct of a person, an ice water bath, a boiling water bath, or a calibrated blackbody
reference source.
Calorie: Commonly referred to as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of
1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius (°C). The modern definition is the amount energy
equal to about 4.2 joules. Symbol is c or cal.
Cavity radiator: A hole, crack, scratch, or cavity that will have a higher emissivity than
the surrounding surface because reflectivity is reduced. A cavity seven times deeper
than it is wide will have an emissivity approaching 98.
Celsius scale: A temperature scale where water boils at 100 °C and freezes at 0 °C (both
at standard pressure). Celsius scale was formerly called the Centigrade scale.
Characterize: To understand. Specifically, to understand the response of an IR system,

the spectral characteristics of a radiating surface, or the heat flow characteristics of an
object.
Coefficient of thermal conductivity: See “Thermal conductivity.” `
Composition: The way in which the image is composed; that is, what details are
included in the image. Composition is also called framing.
Conduction: Heat transfer from molecule to molecule or atom to atom, not requiring the
movement of the substance. This is the only way heat is transferred in solids. Heat
transfer by conduction also is present in fluids (liquids and gasses) when atoms or
molecules of different energy levels come in contact with each other. Heat always
travels from warmer to cooler.
Conductor: A material or substance that conducts heat well when compared with
materials that don't conduct well (insulators). Most metals are good heat conductors.
Conservation of Energy Law: Another name for the First Law of Thermodynamics.
For radiometry, it refers to the fact that the sum of the reflected, absorbed, and
transmitted radiation striking a surface will equal the total radiation striking the
surface (R+A+T= 1).
Convection: The type of heat transfer that takes place in a moving medium and is almost
always associated with transfer between a solid and a moving fluid, whereby energy
is transferred from higher temperature sites to lower temperature sites.
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Convective heat transfer coefficient: A value that represents the relative efficiency
with which an object transfers heat between a surface and a fluid. This coefficient is
often determined by experimentation, but typical values can be found in charts.
Data: The thermal information gathered by the IR system, stored either in an analog or
digital format. For qualitative thermal analysis, thermograms contain the data; where
as for quantitative thermal analysis, actual temperature values may be recorded.
Data capture rate: The rate at which the thermal data or information can be gathered by
the IR system and stored either in an analog or digital format. Data typically has
been captured at a rate of 30 or 60 frames per second; new high speed systems are
capable of capture rates over 500 Hertz (Hz).
Density: The mass of a substance per unit volume. In United States units, it is weight in
pounds per cubic foot.
Dew point temperature: The temperature at which a gas condenses into its liquid state
at a given temperature and humidity.
Diffuse reflector: Surface that reflects a portion of the incident radiation in such a
manner that the reflected radiation is equal in all directions. A mirror is not a diffuse
reflector.
Distance to object or target: The distance from the thermal radiometric system to the
target; the value may be used by the system software, especially on short wave
sensing systems, to correct for atmospheric attenuation.
Dynamic range: The amount of radiometric data in a single stored image. Data stored
as an 8-bit image has 256 thermal levels and cannot be adjusted after it is stored.
Data stored as either a 12- or 14-bit image can be adjusted after it is stored, although
only 8 bits can be viewed as an image at any one time.
Electromagnetic spectrum: The range of electromagnetic radiation of varying

wavelengths from gamma rays to radio waves.
Emissivity: A property of a material that describes its ability to radiate energy in

comparison to a blackbody at the same temperature. Emissivity values range from
zero to one.
Emittance: The property of a material in situ or in place describing its ability to radiate
energy in comparison to a blackbody at the same temperature. Emittance values
range from zero to one but can change with angle of view, temperature, wavelength,
and other factors.
Energy: A measure of the ability to do work. Energy can take various forms; thermal
energy is most often measured in Btu or calories.
Exponentially: Changing at a rate determined by an exponent; energy radiating from a

surface is proportional to the temperature of the surface to the fourth power (T4).
Fahrenheit scale: A temperature scale where water boils at 212 °F and freezes at 32 °F
(both at standard pressure). Used primarily in the United States.
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Filter: A semitransparent covering that is installed over the lens or detector to provide
for selective transmission of various wavelengths. Filters also can provide protection
of the primary lens.
First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy in a closed system is constant; it can't be

created or destroyed.
Flame filter: A filter used to restrict wavelengths to those transmitted through a flame so
that you can see through it; the exact spectral characteristics of the flame must be
defined.
Focal Plane Array (FPA): An IR imaging system that uses a matrix type detector such
as 240 x 320 pixels; can be either radiometric or qualitative.
Forced convection: Heat movement as a result from an outside force such as wind,
pumps, or fans.
Fourier's Law: The equation that describes conductive heat transfer through a material,
where energy transfer equals the product of thermal conductivity, area, and
temperature difference.
Framing: The way in which the image is composed; that is, what details are included in
the image. Also called composition.
Fusion: See “Latent heat of fusion.”
Graybody: An object that radiates energy proportional to but less than a blackbody at
the same temperature.
Hand-held Radiation Thermometer: A device often known as an IR temperature gun.

This instrument can be used to determine an approximate temperature of an object.
The principles of operation for these instruments are similar to using a thermal
imaging camera and require the user to adjust for field of view and emissivity.
Heat: Also known as thermal energy is energy transferred from regions of higher
temperature to areas of lower temperature when a material changes temperature.
Hertz (Hz): The International System of Units (SI) unit of frequency defined as 1 cycle
per second.
High temperature filter: A filter used to restrict overall radiation so that higher
temperatures can be viewed or measured.
IFOV: Instantaneous field of view or spatial resolution; the specification of a system

detailing the smallest area that can be accurately seen at a given instant.
IFOVmeas: Instantaneous field of view measurement or measurement resolution; the

specification of a system detailing the smallest area that can be accurately measured
at a given instant. This will be part of the camera specifications.
Instantaneous field of view measurement: See “IFOVmeas.”
Instantaneous field of view: See “IFOV.”
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Instantaneous measurement field of view (IMFOV): The smallest detail that you can
get an accurate temperature measurement upon at a set distance. This can be used to
determine the maximum distance from a target.
Insulator, insulation: Loosely defined as a material that restricts the flow of heat,
especially in comparison with materials that conduct heat well (conductors).
Isotherm: A software tool that allows for measurement of all areas of similar apparent
temperature, or radiosity, in the radiometric image. Typically, the isotherm level and
span can be adjusted to display the information in a false color overlaying the thermal
image.
Joules: The SI unit of energy and work.
Kelvin scale: Absolute temperature scale related to the Celsius (or Centigrade) relative
scale. The kelvin unit is equal to 1 °C; 0 kelvin = -273.15 °C. The degree sign and
the word “degrees” are not used when expressing kelvin temperatures.
Kilocalories: One thousand calories. Commonly used for expressing the energy value of
foods. Symbol is Kcal or C.
Kirchhoff’s Law: For an opaque object, radiant energy absorbed equals radiant energy
emitted.
Latent energy: Energy used to make or break the bonds of the state (solid, liquid, gas)
of a material.
Latent heat of fusion: The energy used to create or break the bonds in the solid state of
a material.
Latent heat of vaporization: The energy used to create or break the bonds in the
gaseous state of a material.
Level: The term used to describe the thermal level setting of the IR imager; level
generally can be adjusted higher or lower to improve or highlight a thermal image.
Contrast with the terms span and range.
Linearly: Changing at a rate determined by a simple multiplier; radiant energy changes

at a linear rate determined by the multiplying effect of the emissivity of the surface.
Long wave (LWIR): (Also abbreviated as LW.) Thermal radiation generally accepted
to have wavelengths between 8–15 micrometers (µm). See also “Shortwave.”
Micrometer: See “Micron.”
Micron: A millionth of a meter; also known as micrometer and represented by the

symbol µm.
Midwave (MWIR): (Also abbreviated as MW.) Thermal radiation generally accepted

to have wavelengths between 3–5.5 µm. See also “Shortwave.”
Minimum detectable temperature (MDT): (Also abbreviated as MDTD.) Rarely used

for condition monitoring or predictive maintenance activities.
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Minimum resolvable temperature difference (MRT): (Also abbreviated as MRTD)

The smallest temperature difference that can be distinguished by an operator of an
IR system. Typically, this measurement is used to determine the performance aspect
of a thermal imagining device and is rarely used for condition monitoring or
predictive maintenance activities.
Narcissus: The situation in which an IR system sees its own detector in a reflective
surface, usually dramatically affecting the temperatures being viewed or displayed;
however, this typically only occurs if the camera has a cooled sensor.
Natural convection: Convection occurring only due to changes in fluid density.
Newton's Law of Cooling: The rate of heat transfer for a cooling object is proportional
to the temperature difference between the object and its surroundings.
Palette: The arrangement of colors or gray shades used to display the thermal levels.
See “Saturation palette” and “Stepped palette.”
Phase: The state of a material either liquid, solid, or gas.
Phase change: The process matter goes through when it changes from one state to
another (i.e., a solid to a liquid or a liquid to a gas).
Pixel: Picture element; the smallest detail of a picture.
Planck’s curves: A set of curves that describe the relationships among the temperature
of a blackbody and the amount of energy it radiates as well as the distribution of the
wavelengths of that energy.
Psychometric Chart: A graph showing the relationships among dew point, relative
humidity, and air temperature.
Qualitative: Thermal imaging without radiometric temperature measurement. Thermal

imaging also could use a comparison of observed temperatures or thermographic
heating patterns of like objects. Qualitative analysis also can be performed using a
hand-held radiation thermometer.
Quantitative: Radiometric temperature measurement where all temperatures, ambient,

background, etc., are included in the camera settings along with the correct emissivity
and distance.
Quasi-steady state heat flow: A thermal condition that is assumed to be steady state for
the purpose of analysis.
Radiation: Particles or waves emitted from a material. In IR thermography radiation,

this relates to heat emitted from a surface.
Radiometric: Noncontact temperature measurement based on the thermal radiation

emitted by a surface.
Radiosity: All radiation coming from a surface including that which is emitted,
reflected, or transmitted.
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Range: The term used with many IR thermographic systems that describes the preset
range of temperatures that can be viewed and/or measured; generally, most systems
offer several ranges allowing the user to select the proper temperature range for the
scene being viewed.
Rankine scale: Absolute temperature scale related to the Fahrenheit relative scale. The
Rankine unit is equal to 1 °F; 0 Rankine = -459.67 °F; the degree sign and the word
“degrees” is not used in expressing Rankine temperatures. It is a nonmetric scale,
which is used exclusively in the United States.
RAT Law: See “Conservation of Energy Law.”
Realbody: An object that radiates less energy than a blackbody at the same temperature,
but emitted energy varies with wave length.
Reflectivity: Ratio ρ of the intensity of the total energy reflected from a surface to total
radiation on that surface; (ρ = 1 - ε - τ); for a perfect mirror, this approaches 1.0; for a
blackbody, the reflectivity is 0. Technically, reflectivity is the ratio of the intensity of
the reflected radiation to the total radiation, and reflectance is the ratio of the
reflected flux to the incident flux. In IR thermography, the two terms often are used
interchangeably.
Relative humidity: The amount of water vapor in a volume of air compared to that
which it would contain at the same temperature when saturated. For shortwave
sensing systems, this parameter is important so that atmospheric attenuation can be
accounted for.
Relative scale: A temperature scale that compares temperatures to something other than
absolute zero—typically, the boiling and freezing points of water. Fahrenheit and
Celsius scales are both relative.
R-value: The measure of a material’s thermal resistance. It is defined as the inverse of

thermal conductivity.
Saturated: Thermal data that is outside of the measurement span or range.
Saturation palette: A display palette that clearly shows when data is saturated, or out of
the active measurement span or range, by displaying it as a different color. The
palette, thus, can be easily used to show data that is above or below a certain
threshold.
Second Law of Thermodynamics: Heat cannot flow from a cooler object to a warmer
one unless additional work or energy is added. Also stated as heat cannot be totally
changed into mechanical work.
Secondary lens transmission rate: A factor used to correct for a reduction in

transmission when a filter or other semitransparent covering is added to the primary
lens.
Shortwave: Thermal radiation generally accepted to have wavelengths between 2–6 µm.
See also “Midwave.”
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Slit Response Function (SRF): A test used to determine spatial and measurement
resolution for IR systems.
Solar filter: A filter used to reduce the effects of the shortwave lengths emitted by the
sun, which cause solar glint or reflections.
Span: The term used to describe the adjustable band of temperatures being viewed or
measured. Contrast with the terms “Level” or “Range.”
Spatial resolution: A measure of the ability of an IR system to see detail, usually

specified by its IFOV or instantaneous field of view.
Specific heat: The amount of heat required to raise a unit mass of a given substance by a
unit temperature.
Specular reflector: A surface that reflects radiation at an angle equal to the angle of
incidence; a “mirror” image.
Spot: A software tool that allows measurement of a spot in the radiometric image.
Usually, the temperature of this spot represents the average temperature of a very
small number of pixels.
Stack effect: The phenomenon, related to natural convection, in which air moves in
response to changes in building height.
State change: See “Phase change.”
Steady state heat flow: A hypothetical thermal condition where temperature difference
across a material or system are unchanging.
Stefan-Boltzmann constant: 0.1714 x 10-8 Btu • hr-1 • ft-2 • R-4

(5.670 x 10-8 watt • meter-2 • kelvin -4).
Stefan-Boltzmann Law: Total energy radiated by a blackbody surface is proportional to

its absolute temperature to the fourth power.
Stepped palette: A display palette with clear delineations between colors or shades of
gray as opposed to a continuous palette. When using a stepped palette, each separate
color or shade of gray represents a discrete temperature band.
System parameters: Corrections that can be made in the system software, such as
distance to object and relative humidity that improve the accuracy of the radiometric
measurement.
Temperature: The relative measure of hotness or coldness of a material or substance.
Thermal background: See “Background.”
Thermal capacitance: The ability of a material to store thermal energy. It is defined as

the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 cubic foot of material 1 °F.
It is arrived at by multiplying a materials specific heat times its density.
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Thermal conductivity: The symbol for thermal conductivity is ‘k.’ It is the measured
ability of a material to conduct thermal energy. It is defined as the rate at which heat
flows through a material of unit area and thickness, with a temperature gradient over
a unit of time. In United States units, it is the amount of heat that flows through
1 square foot of material that is 1 inch thick, induced by a 1 °F temperature difference
in 1 hour.
Thermal diffusivity: The rate at which heat energy moves throughout the volume of an
object. It is the ratio of the thermal conductivity to the thermal capacitance of the
material.
Thermal resistance: The inverse of thermal conductivity. It is the measure of a

material’s ability to resist the flow of thermal energy. See “R-value.”
Thermodynamics: The study of energy; how it changes, and how it relates to the states
of matter.
Transient heat flow: A thermal condition where the heat flow through a material or
system is changing over time.
Transmissivity: The proportion of IR radiant energy impinging on an object’s surface,

for a given spectral interval, which is transmitted through the object. (τ = 1 - ε - ρ).
For a blackbody, transmissivity = 0. Transmissivity is the internal transmittance per
unit thickness of a nondiffusing material.
Transparent filter: A highly transparent filter used to protect the primary lens from
damage.
Vaporization: See “Latent heat of vaporization.”
Wien’s Displacement Constant: The value, 5,215.6 μm • R (2,897 μm • K), determined

by Wien to quantify the relationship between the temperature of a blackbody and the
peak wavelength of radiation it gives off.
Wien’s Displacement Law: The law that describes the relationship between the
temperature of a blackbody and the peak wavelength of radiation it gives off. At
higher temperatures, there is a displacement to shorter wave lengths. The law is
stated as b/T = µm where b is Wien’s Constant (5,215.6 μm • R), T is the blackbody
absolute temperature (R), and µm is the peak wavelength. SI value is 2,897 μm • K.
8-bit system: An IR system capable of storing data that can be divided into 256 thermal
levels.
12-bit system: An IR system capable of storing data that can be divided into
4,096 thermal levels.
14-bit system: An IR system capable of storing data that can be divided into
16,384 thermal levels.
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Appendix B
Helpful Operations Hints
Below is a list of helpful hints that will be useful to perform a quality thermal imaging
survey.
1. Circuit loading must be taken into account when inspecting electrical equipment.
Comparative inspections should be done when the load is similar to the last
inspection to make a fair comparison. See Section 8, “Evaluating Results,” for
more information.
2. Inspections should take place during periods of maximum possible loading but
not less than 40 percent of rated load of the equipment being inspected.37 A
10-percent temperature rise may be negligible near full load but may be
significant on lightly loaded circuits.
3. Temperatures take time to stabilize after load changes, so inspection should be

delayed for 45 minutes following changes in loading. This is particularly true
when temperatures are being read indirectly.
4. A front-surface mirror (i.e., one that has the reflective surface on the front surface
of the glass) can be used to inspect the backside of a component. An everyday
mirror with the reflective surface on the back of the glass cannot be used for IR
inspection because it has internal reflections. 38
5. It is useful to compare one phase of a circuit to the other phases because: 1) the
emissivities are similar, 2) heat generation and dissipation effects should be
similar, 3) all phases are the same distance from the IR temperature device, and
4) all phases are (hopefully) equally loaded.
6. Unbalanced loads may account for some temperature differences between

conductors. In some cases, unbalance may be a normal operating condition.
7. Surge arresters and bushings are best inspected at night because reflections
associated with daylight will be reduced.
8. Load tap changers (LTC) on transformers always should have a lower

temperature than the transformer itself due to separation of the LTC from the
warmer transformer tank and the effects of convection cooling.
9. Large vertical motors usually show several vertical hot “stripes” on the side of
the casing, while horizontal motors show hot spots on the middle of the casing in
an even pattern.
10. Heat on an enclosure surface might be the result of a resistor, heater, or

transformer mounted on the other side rather than a critical component.
37
National Fire Protection Association 70B, section 21.17.5.2.
38
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Remember, heating patterns on an enclosure are most likely the result of indirect
heating because the heat source is much hotter than the temperatures recorded on
the enclosure surface.
11. Most mechanical components are painted, and this affects the emissivity. Flat
paint emissivity values are typically in the 0.90 range. Glossy paint emissivity is
usually high, but it may produce different results between midwave infrared
(MWIR) and long-wave infrared (LWIR) equipment. Metallic paints have
emissivities as low as 0.3 or less. 39
12. The simple act of opening an enclosure door or removing a protective covering
can quickly change the temperature of a component, thus giving a reading not
typical of normal operating conditions.
Keep a copy of this checklist with the camera to ensure that the necessary steps have been
completed and that all hardware is with the camera.
• Perform a job hazard analysis for each inspection.

• Assemble and check thermal analysis equipment.
• Inspect personal protective equipment.
• Check camera and accessories (batteries, lenses, and storage media) and make
sure everything is located with the thermal analysis equipment.
• Have a digital camera, if not available on the thermal analysis equipment.
• Compile previous survey results.
• Compile drawings and other reference material.
• Wear appropriate personal protective equipment.
• Follow all appropriate safety procedures.
• Check that the thermal analysis instrumentation calibration is current.
• Check battery charge.
• Make adjustments to the thermal analysis instrumentation settings as needed.
• Set or check the correct distance to the target.
• Set or use the correct emittance value.
• Set or check the correct background energy levels.
• Ensure the camera is properly focused.
• Set the correct temperature range in the camera.
• Record wind speed, relative humidity, and other environmental factors.
• Make sure the target is larger than the instantaneous field of view measurement
(IFOVmeas) of the instrument or spot size on hand-held radiation thermometer.
39
Mechanical Applications, InfraMation 2004 IR Clinic.
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• Aim the instrument as close as possible to perpendicular with the target surface.
(Angles of incidence exceeding 45 degrees can cause errors.)
• Check for thermal reflections from other point sources off the target surface.
• Keep instrument as far away as possible from very hot objects and energized
equipment.
• Keep accurate records and trend data.
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Appendix C
Hardware and Software Features
When selecting, specifying, and procuring an infrared (IR) imaging system, many factors
must be considered to arrive at the hardware and software that is appropriate for use. The
following has been adapted from criteria identified by IRINFO.ORG
(http://www.irinfo.org) and is based on the Bureau of Reclamation’s experience to date.
It may be used to compare imaging systems.
Comparison of Specifications
Imager 1 Imager 2
OBJECTIVE SPECIFICATIONS
Environment
Operating Temperature Limits
Imaging
Spectral Response
Visual Field of View
Detector Type
Detector Size (Resolution)
Cooling Type
Focus
Minimum Focus Distance
Imager Frame Rate
Visual Camera Resolution
Image Display
Display Type
Color Palettes
Measurement
Measurement Range
Thermal Sensitivity
Emissivity Correction
Spot Measurement Size
Temperature Measure Tools
Reflected Temperature Comparison
Accuracy
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Comparison of Specifications (continued)

Imager 1 Imager 2
OBJECTIVE SPECIFICATIONS (continued)
Data Storage
Storage Media (Internal/External/Both)
Storage Media Type (SD, SDHC, CF, etc.)
File Format
Number of Images Stored
Voice Recording
Text Recording
Data Transfer
IEEE 1394 (FireWire)
USB
S-Video
RCA Jack
Others
Power Source
External Power
Battery Type/Run Time
Other Accessories
BlueTooth®
Laser Pointer
Lens Options
Filter Options
Data Interface
Video Format
Video Output
Physical
Dimensions
Weight with Battery
Shock Withstand
Encapsulation
Vibration
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SUBJECTIVE SPECIFICATIONS
Are imager controls easy to use and

understand?
Is equipment designed to be rugged and
durable?
Is imager ergonomically comfortable?
Will imager size or weight present

problems for long-term use?
Is the imager display clear and free of
noise and distortion?
Is imager display adequate and
compatible with operator’s safety
glasses or other personal protective
equipment (PPE) such as hard hats,
face shields, hoods, respirators, etc.?
Is the imager display viewable in direct
sunlight?
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Length of time imager has been in

production
Experience in building and servicing
infrared (IR) equipment and capability to
provide future service
Recommended service or calibration

frequency and costs
Expected delivery time for repairs
Length of warranty and covered parts
Location of equipment service center
Loaner/rental available during repair

periods
Training available from vendor
Quality of documentation
Equipment Cost
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Appendix D
Sample IR Report
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Appendix E
Methods of Determining or Enhancing the
Emittance of a Target
Thermographers calculate or determine the emissivity of different targets in a number of
ways. Accurate emissivity values are needed if quantitative temperature measurements
are required. If possible, emissivity enhancement coatings can be applied to target areas.
Coatings, usually in the form of paint, have known emissivities. These coatings are
usually applied to shiny or reflective surfaces to provide a higher known emissivity and
to provide accurate temperature measurements. Most of the coatings today have
emissivities at or near 0.95.
Black electrical tape (3M Scotch 33™) can be used to determine the emissivity of targets.
This tape has been measured and is used as a reference by many thermographers.
Emissivity of the tape is 0.95. This technique requires the tape to be placed on the target
material prior to energizing, loading, or heating the equipment to be monitored.
For the following technique to work properly, the measured target or component
temperature must be raised 20 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) or higher above ambient
temperature. This technique will not work if the target is at ambient temperature.
Place a ½- to 1-inch square of the electrical tape on the target. Measure the background
temperature by setting the emissivity to 1.0 in the infrared (IR) camera and pointing the
camera away from the target. In most cases, defusing the focus will give an average
background temperature. The background temperature also can be measured by using a
piece of cardboard with an aluminum foil cover set next to the target. Again, set the
camera emissivity to 1.0 and the camera slightly out of focus. Measure the temperature
at the center of the cardboard/aluminum foil.
The background temperature should be entered into the camera if the camera being used
allows this. The correct distance to the target should be added to the camera settings.
The thermographer needs to recognize the spot size and ensure that the target size is
adequate and is in focus. Set the camera to an emissivity of 0.95. Once the target is at
temperature, measure the temperature of the taped (or emissivity enhanced) area. Note
the temperature. Move the measuring spot just off of the tape and on to the surface for
which emissivity is to be determined. Adjust the emissivity in the camera, until the
temperature of this spot matches the temperature measured on the tape. Once the
temperatures match, read and record the emissivity. This emissivity now can be used in
the future for this particular equipment and perhaps similar equipment.
Other techniques for increasing emissivity of targets include using the geometry of the
components. For instance, the intersection where a lug or nut meets the connection
surface will form a small cavity that, when viewed in the IR camera, will have an
increased emissivity. All types of cavities will tend to have higher emissivities and
should be used whenever possible.
Other techniques or formulas for calculating emissivity can be found in numerous

publications and are usually included in most training classes.
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Appendix F
Material Emissivity Table
Material Detail Temp °F (°C) Emissivity
Metals
Alloys
20-Ni, 24-CR, 55-FE, Oxidized 392 (200) 0.90
20-Ni, 24-CR, 55-FE, Oxidized 932 (500) 0.97
60-Ni, 12-CR, 28-FE, Oxidized 518 (270) 0.89
60-Ni, 12-CR, 28-FE, Oxidized 1,040 (560) 0.82
80-Ni, 20-CR, Oxidized 212 (100) 0.87
80-Ni, 20-CR, Oxidized 1,112 (600) 0.87
80-Ni, 20-CR, Oxidized 2,372 (1,300) 0.89
Aluminum
Unoxidized 77 (25) 0.02
Oxidized 390 (199) 0.11
Oxidized 1,110 (599) 0.19
Oxidized at 599 °C (1,110 °F) 390 (199) 0.11
Oxidized at 599 °C (1,110 °F) 1,110 (599) 0.19
Heavily Oxidized 200 (93) 0.20
Heavily Oxidized 940 (504) 0.31
Highly Polished 212 (100) 0.09
Roughly Polished 212 (100) 0.18
Commercial Sheet 212 (100) 0.09
Highly Polished Plate 440 (227) 0.04
Highly Polished Plate 1,070 (577) 0.06
Bright Rolled Plate 338 (170) 0.04
Bright Rolled Plate 932 (500) 0.05
Alloy A3003, Oxidized 600 (316) 0.40
Alloy A3003, Oxidized 900 (482) 0.40
Alloy 1100-0 200–800 (93–427) 0.05
Alloy 24ST 75 (24) 0.09
Alloy 24ST, Polished 75 (24) 0.09
Alloy 75ST 75 (24) 0.11
Alloy 75ST, Polished 75 (24) 0.08
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Bismuth
Bright 176 (80) 0.34
Unoxidised 77 (25) 0.05
Unoxidised 212 (100) 0.06
Brass
73% Cu, 27% Zn, Polished 476 (247) 0.03
73% Cu, 27% Zn, Polished 674 (357) 0.03
62% Cu, 37% Zn, Polished 494 (257) 0.03
62% Cu, 37% Zn, Polished 710 (377) 0.04
83% Cu, 17% Zn, Polished 530 (277) 0.03
Matte 68 (20) 0.07
Burnished to Brown Color 68 (20) 0.40
Cu-Zn, Brass Oxidized 392 (200) 0.61
Cu-Zn, Brass Oxidized 752 (400) 0.6
Cu-Zn, Brass Oxidized 1,112 (600) 0.61
Cadmium
77 (25) 0.02
Carbon
Lampblack 77 (25) 0.95
Candle Soot 250 (121) 0.95
Filament 500 (260) 0.95
Graphitized 212 (100) 0.76
Chromium
100 (38) 0.08
1,000 (538) 0.26
Polished 302 (150) 0.06
Cobalt, Unoxidised
Unoxidized 1,832 (1,000) 0.23
72
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis

Columbium, Unoxidised
Unoxidized 1,500 (816) 0.19
Unoxidized 2,000 (1093) 0.24
Copper
Cuprous Oxide 100 (38) 0.87
Cuprous Oxide 500 (260) 0.83
Cuprous Oxide 1,000 (538) 0.77
Black, Oxidized 100 (38) 0.78
Etched 100 (38) 0.09
Matte 100 (38) 0.22
Roughly Polished 100 (38) 0.07
Polished 100 (38) 0.03
Highly Polished 100 (38) 0.02
Rolled 100 (38) 0.64
Rough 100 (38) 0.74
Molten 1,000 (538) 0.15
Molten 1,970 (1,077) 0.16
Molten 2,230 (1,221) 0.13
Nickel Plated 100–500 (38–260) 0.37
Dow Metal
0.4–600 (-18)–316) 0.15
Gold
Enamel 212 (100) 0.37
Plate (.0001) on 0.0005 Silver 200–750 (93–399) .11–.14
Plate (.0001) on 0.0005 Nickel 200–750 (93–399) .07–.09
Polished 100–500 (38–260) 0.02
Polished 1,000–2,000 (538–1,093) 0.03
Haynes Alloy C,
Oxidized 600–2,000 (3,16–1093) .90–.96
Haynes Alloy 25,
Oxidized 600–2,000 (316–1093) .86–.89
Haynes Alloy X,
Oxidized 600–2000 (316–1,093) .85–.88
Inconel Sheet
1,000 (538) 0.28
1,200 (649) 0.42
1,400 (760) 0.58
73
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis

Inconel X, Polished
75 (24) 0.19
Inconel B, Polished
75 (24) 0.21
Iron
Oxidized 212 (100) 0.74
Oxidized 930 (499) 0.84
Oxidized 2,190 (1,199) 0.89
Red Rust 77 (25) 0.7
Rusted 77 (25) 0.65
Liquid 2,760–3,220 (1,516–1,771) .42–.45
Cast Iron
Oxidized 390 (199) 0.64
Oxidized 1,110 (599) 0.78
Strong Oxidation 40 (104) 0.95
Strong Oxidation 482 (250) 0.95
Liquid 2,795 (1,535) 0.29
Wrought Iron
Dull 77 (25) 0.94
Dull 660 (349) 0.94
Smooth 100 (38) 0.35
Polished 100 (38) 0.28
Lead
Polished 100–500 (38–260) .06–.08
Rough 0.43
Oxidized 100 (38) 0.43
Oxidized at 1,100 °F 100 (38) 0.63
Gray Oxidized 100 (38) 0.28
Magnesium
100–500 (38–260) .07–.13
Magnesium Oxide
1,880–3,140 (1,027–1,727) .16–.20
74
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis

Mercury
32 (0) 0.09
77 (25) 0.1
100 (38) 0.1
212 (100) 0.12
Molybdenum
100 (38) 0.06
500 (260) 0.08
1,000 (538) 0.11
2,000 (1093) 0.18
Oxidized at 1,000 °F 600 (316) 0.8
Oxidized at 1,000 °F 700 (371) 0.84
Oxidized at 1,000 °F 800 (427) 0.84
Oxidized at 1,000 °F 900 (482) 0.83
Oxidized at 1,000 °F 1,000 (538) 0.82
Monel, Ni-Cu
392 (200) 0.41
752 (400) 0.44
1,112 (600) 0.46
Oxidized 68 (20) 0.43
Oxidized at 1,110 °F 1,110 (599) 0.46
Nickel
Polished 100 (38) 0.05
Oxidized 100–500 (38–260) 0.31–0.46
Unoxidized 1,832 (1,000) 0.19
Electrolytic 100 (38) 0.04
Electrolytic 500 (260) 0.06
Electrolytic 1,000 (538) 0.1
Electrolytic 2,000 (1,093) 0.16
Nickel Oxide
1,000-2,000 (538–1,093) 0.56–0.86
Palladium Plate
0.00005” on 0.0005” silver 200–750 (93–399) 0.16
75
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis

Platinum
100 (38) 0.05
500 (260) 0.05
1,000 (538) 0.1
Black 100 (38) 0.93
Black 500 (260) 0.96
Black 2,000 (1093) 0.97
Oxidized at 1,100 °F 500 (260) 0.07
Oxidized at 1,100 °F 1,000 (538) 0.11
Rhodium Flash
0.002 on 0.0005Ni 200–700 (93–371) 0.10–0.18
Silver
Plate (0.0005 on Ni) 200–700 (93–371) 0.06–0.07
Polished 100 (38) 0.01
Polished 500 (260) 0.02
Polished 1,000 (538) 0.03
Polished 2,000 (1093) 0.03
Steel
Cold Rolled 200 (93) 0.75–0.81
Ground Sheet 1,720–2,010 (938–1,099) 0.55–0.61
Polished Sheet 100 (38) 0.07
Polished Sheet 500 (260) 0.1
Polished Sheet 1,000 (538) 0.14
Mild Steel, Polished 75 (24) 0.1
Mild Steel, Smooth 75 (24) 0.12
Mild Steel, liquid 2,910–3,270 (1,599–1,793) 0.28
Steel, Unoxidized 212 (100) 0.08
Steel, Oxidized 77 (25) 0.8
Steel Alloys
Type 301, Polished 75 (24) 0.27
Type 301, Polished 450 (232) 0.57
Type 301, Polished 1,740 (949) 0.55
Type 303, Oxidized 600–2,000 (316–1,093) .74–.87
Type 310, Rolled 1,500–2,100 (816-1,149) .56–.81
Type 316, Polished 75 (24) 0.28
Type 316, Polished 450 (232) 0.57
Type 316, Polished 1,740 (949) 0.66
Type 321 200–800 (93–427) .27–.32
76
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis

Type 321 Polished 300–1,500 (149–815) .18–.49
Type 321 w/BK Oxide 200–800 (93–427) .66–.76
Type 347, Oxidized 600–2,000 (316–1,093) .87–.91
Type 350 200–800 (93–427) .18–.27
Type 350 Polished 300–1,800 (149–982) .11–.35
Type 446, Polished 300–1,500 (149–815) .15–.37
Type 17-7 PH 200–600 (93–316) .44–.51
Type 17-7 PH, polished 300–1,500 (149–815) .09–.16
Type C1020, Oxidized 600–2,000 (316–1,093) .87–.91
Type PH-15-7 MO 300–1,200 (149–649) .07–.19
Stellite
Polished 68 (20) 0.18
Tantalum
Unoxidized 1,340 (727) 0.14
Unoxidized 2,000 (1,093) 0.19
Unoxidized 3,600 (1,982) 0.26
Unoxidized 5,306 (2,930) 0.3
Tin
Tinned Iron, Bright

76 (24) 0.05
212 (100) 0.08
Titanium
Alloy C110M, Polished 300–1,200 (149–649)
Oxidized at 1,000 °F 200–800 (93–427) .51–.61
Alloy Ti-95A, Oxidized at 1,000 °F 200–800 (93–427) .35–.48
Anodized onto SS 200–600 (93–316) .96–.82
Tungsten
Unoxidized 1,832 (1,000) 0.15
Unoxidized 2,732 (1,500) 0.23
Unoxidized 3,632 (2,000) 0.28
Filament (Aged) 100 (38) 0.03
Filament (Aged) 1,000 (538) 0.11
Filament (Aged) 5,000 (2,760) 0.35
77
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis

Uranium Oxide
1,880 (1,027) 0.79
Zinc
Bright, Galvanized 100 (38) 0.23
Commercial 99.1% 500 (260) 0.05
Galvanized 100 (38) 0.28
Oxidized 500–1,000 (260–538) 0.11
Polished 100 (38) 0.02
Polished 500 (260) 0.03
Polished 1,000 (538) 0.04
Polished 2,000 (1,093) 0.06
Nonmetals
Adobe
68 (20) 0.9
Asbestos
Board 100 (38) 0.96
Cement 32–392 (0–200) 0.96
Cement, Red 2,500 (1,371) 0.67
Cement, White 2,500 (1,371) 0.65
Cloth 199 (93) 0.9
Paper 100–700 (38–371) 0.93
Slate 68 (20) 0.97
Asphalt, pavement 100 (38) 0.93
Asphalt, tar paper 68 (20) 0.93
Basalt
68 (20) 0.72
Brick
Red, rough 70 (21) 0.93
Gault Cream 2,500–5,000 (1,371–2,760) .26–.30
Fire Clay 2,500 (1,371) 0.75
Light Buff 1,000 (538) 0.8
Lime Clay 2,500 (1,371) 0.43
Fire Brick 1,832 (1,000) .75–.80
Magnesite, Refractory 1,832 (1,000) 0.38
Grey Brick 2,012 (1,100) 0.75
Silica, Glazed 2,000 (1,093) 0.88
Silica, Unglazed 2,000 (1,093) 0.8
Sand lime 2,500–5,000 (1,371–2,760) .59–.63
78
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis

Carborundum
1,850 (1,010) 0.92
Ceramic
Alumina on Inconel 800–2,000 (427–1,093) .69–.45
Earthenware, Glazed 70 (21) 0.9
Earthenware, Matte 70 (21) 0.93
Greens No. 5210–2C 200–750 (93–399) .89–.82
Coating No. C20A 200–750 (93–399) .73–.67
Porcelain 72 (22) 0.92
White Al2O3 200 (93) 0.9
Zirconia on Inconel 800–2,000 (427–1,093) .62–.45
Clay
68 (20) 0.39
Fired 158 (70)
Shale 68 (20)
Tiles, Light Red 2,500–5,000 (1,371–2,760)
Tiles, Red 2,500–5,000 (1,371–2,760)
Tiles, Dark Purple 2,500–5,000 (1,371–2,760)
Concrete
Rough 32–2,000 (0–1,093)
Tiles, Natural 2,500–5,000 (1,371–2,760)
Tiles, Brown 2,500–5,000 (1,371–2,760)
Tiles, Black 2,500–5,000 (1,371–2,760)
Cotton Cloth
68 (20) 0.77
Dolomite Lime
68 (20) 0.41
Emery Corundum
176 (80) 0.86
Glass
Convex D 212 (100) 0.8
Convex D 600 (316) 0.8
Convex D 932 (500) 0.76
Nonex 212 (100) 0.82
Nonex 600 (316) 0.82
Nonex 932 (500) 0.78
Smooth 32–200 (0–93) .92–.94
79
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis

Granite
70 (21) 0.45
Gravel
100 (38) 0.28
Gypsum
68 (20) .80–.90
Ice
Smooth 32 (0) 0.97
Rough 32 (0) 0.98
Lacquer
Black 200 (93) 0.96
Blue, on Al Foil 100 (38) 0.78
Clear, on Al Foil (2 coats) 200 (93) .08 (.09)
Clear, on Bright Cu 200 (93) 0.66
Clear, on Tarnished Cu 200 (93) 0.64
Red, on Al Foil (2 coats) 100 (38) .61 (.74)
White 200 (93) 0.95
White, on Al Foil (2 coats) 100 (38) .69 (.88)
Yellow, on Al Foil (2 coats) 100 (38) .57 (.79)
Lime Mortar
100–500 (38–260) .90–.92
Limestone
100 (38) 0.95
Marble
White 100 (38) 0.95
Smooth, White 100 (38) 0.56
Polished, Grey 100 (38) 0.75
Mica
100 (38) 0.75
Oil on Nickel
0.001 Film 72 (22) 0.27
0.002 Film 72 (22) 0.46
0.005 Film 72 (22) 0.72
Thick Film 72 (22) 0.82
Oil, Linseed
On Al Foil, uncoated 250 (121) 0.09
On Al Foil, 1 coat 250 (121) 0.56
80
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis

Oil, Linseed (continued)
On Al Foil, 2 coats 250 (121) 0.51
On Polished Iron, .001 Film 100 (38) 0.22
On Polished Iron, Thick Film 100 (38) 0.83
Paints
Blue, Cu2O3 75 (24) 0.94
Black, CuO 75 (24) 0.96
Green, Cu2O3 75 (24) 0.92
Red, Fe2O3 75 (24) 0.91
White, Al2O3 75 (24) 0.94
White, Y2O3 75 (24) 0.9
White, ZnO 75 (24) 0.95
White, MgCO3 75 (24) 0.91
White, ZrO2 75 (24) 0.95
White, ThO2 75 (24) 0.9
White, MgO 75 (24) 0.91
White, PbCO3 75 (24) 0.93
Yellow, PbO 75 (24) 0.9
Yellow, PbCrO4 75 (24) 0.93
Paints, Aluminum
100 (38) 0.27–0.67
10% Al 100 (38) 0.52
26% Al 100 (38) 0.3
Dow XP–310 200 (93) 0.22
Paints, Bronze
Low 0.34–0.80
Gum Varnish (2 coats) 70 (21) 0.53
Gum Varnish (3 coats) 70 (21) 0.5
Cellulose Binder (2 coats) 70 (21) 0.34
Paints, Oil
All colors 200 (93) 0.92–0.96
Black 200 (93) 0.92
Black Gloss 70 (21) 0.9
Camouflage Green 125 (52) 0.85
Flat Black 80 (27) 0.88
Flat White 80 (27) 0.91
81
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis

Paints, Oil (continued)
Grey–Green 70 (21) 0.95
Green 200 (93) 0.95
Lamp Black 209 (98) 0.96
Red 200 (93) 0.95
White 200 (93) 0.94
Quartz, Rough, Fused
70 (21) 0.93
Glass, 1.98 mm 540 (282) 0.9
Glass, 1.98 mm 1,540 (838) 0.41
Glass, 6.88 mm 540 (282) 0.93
Glass, 6.88 mm 1,540 (838) 0.47
Opaque 570 (299) 0.92
Opaque 1,540 (838) 0.68
Red Lead
212 (100) 0.93
Rubber, Hard
74 (23) 0.94
Rubber, Soft, Grey
76 (24) 0.86
Sand
68 (20) 0.76
Sandstone
100 (38) 0.67
Sandstone, Red
100 (38) 0.60–0.83
Sawdust
68 (20) 0.75
Shale
68 (20) 0.69
Silica, Glazed
1,832 (1,000) 0.85
Silica, Unglazed
2,012 (1,100) 0.75
Silicon Carbide
300–1,200 (149–649) 0.83–0.96
82
FIST 4-13
Thermal Analysis

Silk Cloth
68 (20) 0.78
Slate
100 (38) 0.67–0.80
Snow, Fine Particles
20 (–7) 0.82
Snow, Granular
18 (-8) 0.89
Soil
Surface 100 (38) 0.38
Black Loam 68 (20) 0.66
Plowed Field 68 (20) 0.38
Soot
Acetylene 75 (24) 0.97
Camphor 75 (24) 0.94
Candle 250 (121) 0.95
Coal 68 (20) 0.95
Stonework
100 (38) 0.93
Water
100 (38) 0.67
Waterglass
68 (20) 0.96
Wood
Low 0.80–0.90
Beech, Planed 158 (70) 0.94
Oak, Planed 100 (38) 0.91
Spruce, Sanded 100 (38) 0.89
83

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Facilities Instructions, Standards, and Techniques

U.S. Department of the Interior

5c. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER

6. AUTHOR(S) 5d. PROJECT NUMBER

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT

Hydroelectric Research and Technical Services Group

U.S. Department of the Interior

This written material consists of general information for internal

Acronyms and Abbreviations

> greater than

Acronyms and Abbreviations .......................................................................... iii

1.0 Introduction .......................................................................................... 1

2.0 Scope .................................................................................................... 3

3.0 Standards and Resources...................................................................... 4

4.0 Initiating a Thermal Analysis Process ................................................. 6

5.0 Selection and Maintenance of Hardware and Software ...................... 13

6.0 IR Thermography Concepts and Principles ......................................... 16

7.0 Conducting Inspections ........................................................................ 28

Table of Contents (continued)

8.0 Evaluating Results ............................................................................... 39

9.0 Personnel Qualifications ...................................................................... 42

10.0 Equipment Calibration ......................................................................... 43

11.0 Complementary Technologies ............................................................. 44

Appendix B – Helpful Operations Hints .......................................................... 55

Appendix C – Hardware and Software Features.............................................. 59

Appendix D – Sample IR Report ..................................................................... 63

Appendix E– Methods of Determining or Enhancing the Emittance

Appendix F – Material Emissivity Table ......................................................... 71

1.2 How Reclamation Benefits

A thermal inspection (often called “scanning” or “surveying”) takes place with

Throughout Reclamation, thermal inspections have proven the effectiveness of this

• Avoiding forced outages, resulting in loss of revenue

• Reducing costly, time-based preventive maintenance by predictive analysis of

Figure 1. Transformer bushing with Figure 2. High-side connection from

• Tapes and paints that change color based on operating temperature

• Suggested use of thermography and other technologies used for typical

• Experience and lessons learned from ongoing thermal analysis, focusing on

• Relationship of thermal analysis maintenance to the Capital Asset and Resource

• Analysis, recordkeeping, and reporting specific to Reclamation’s needs

• Advice on specific thermal analysis issues needed to define a local process

3.0 Standards and Resources

“Routine infrared inspections of energized electrical systems

NOTE: Other technologies used to perform thermal inspections

Mechanical equipment also should be inspected periodically. These recommended

Additional features may be desirable or necessary.

See appendix A for a glossary of thermal analysis terms.

3.2 Books, Manuals, Reports, and Papers

“Emissivity Measurement and Temperature Correction Accuracy Considerations,” 2001,

3.3 Magazines and Web Sites

Infrared Training Center, http://www.infraredtraining.com/

IR Cameras, Infrared Imaging Systems, http://www.IRcameras.com

IR Information for the Real World, http://www.irinfo.org

Infraspection Institute, http://www.infraspection.com

Maintenance Technology magazine, http://www.mt-online.com

Reliabilityweb.com Network, http://www.reliabilityweb.com/

4.0 Initiating a Thermal Analysis Process

An effective thermal analysis process can use equipment including state-of-the-art

• Conduct a qualitative inspection to determine if any problems exist.

• Apply the appropriate severity criteria to determine what corrective action to

The economics and effectiveness of contracting or in-house expertise should be carefully

Contracting might include:

• Qualified private sector contractors

4.3 Consultation and Resources